The role of perceived organisational
support, diversity, engagement and
burnout in the retention of employees
T Serfontein
21825610
Mini-dissertation submitted in partial fulfillment of the
requirements for the degree Magister Artium in Industrial
Psychology at the Potchefstroom Campus of the North-West
University
Supervisor:
Prof J Pienaar
The role of perceived organisational support, diversity, engagement and
burnout in the retention of employees
Talita Serfontein, MA
Mini-dissertation submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree Magister Artium in Industrial Psychology at the North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus
Study leader: Prof. J. Pienaar
Potchefstroom May 2014
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FOR THE READER’S ATTENTION
The reader is reminded of the following:
• The referencing style as prescribed by the Publication Manual (6th edition) of the
American Psychological Association (APA) was followed in this mini-dissertation. This practice is in line with the policy of the Programme in Industrial Psychology of the North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus to use APA style in all scientific documents.
• This mini-dissertation is submitted in the form of a research article. The editorial style specified by the South African Journal of Industrial Psychology (which agrees largely with the APA style) is used, but the APA guidelines were followed in constructing tables.
• The first chapter in this dissertation presents the research proposal. Therefore, the first chapter is written in a different style than subsequent chapters.
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Father God, You were with me every step of the way and You provided wisdom, patience, strength and numerous angels along the road to help me with the completion of this research. Thank You for knowing what is best. Soli Deo Gloria!
I would also like to express my sincere thanks and gratitude to the following people who, without your help, it would have been impossible to complete this research. May you be blessed!
• Dr Jaco Pienaar, for your continued support, patience, excellent guidance, motivation and encouraging words. Your input lifted this product to new heights.
• Dr Jaco Pienaar for the statistical analysis of the empirical data.
• Afriforté for making available and also granting permission to make use of the different data sets.
• Cecilia van der Walt for the language editing. Your excellent ability with words makes me look so much better.
• Hester Lombard who did not spare any effort to provide required information and support. Your knowledge and research ability made it so much easier for me.
• My mother Hester and my brother Johannes, for your continued support and patience and for never giving up on me.
• My office personnel for your continued support during this research – you remain the greatest!
• All my friends: Thank you for enduring me and my research and still being able to love me upon completion hereof. May you be blessed!
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DECLARATION
I, Talita Serfontein, hereby declare that “The role of perceived organisational support, diversity, engagement and burnout in the retention of employees” is my own original work and that the opinions and views expressed in this work are those of the authors and relevant literature references shown in the references.
I further declare that the content of this research will not be handed in for any other qualification at any other tertiary institution.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
List of Tables vii
List of Figures viii
Summary ix
Opsomming xi
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION AND PROBLEM STATEMENT
1 Introduction 1
1.1 Problem statement 1
1.1.1 Overview of the problem 1
1.1.2 Literature review 6 1.1.2.1 Burnout 6 1.1.2.2 Work engagement 7 1.1.2.3 Diversity 9 1.1.2.4 Organisational support 11 1.1.2.5 Organisational commitment 13 1.1.2.6 Turnover intention 14
1.1.2.7 Conservation of resources theory 16 1.1.2.8 The Job Demands-Resources model (JD-R) 16
1.2 Research questions 18
1.2.1 Expected contribution of the study 19
1.2.1.1 Individual contribution 19
1.2.1.2 Contribution to the broader economy 19 1.2.1.3 Contribution to the literature 20
1.3 Research objectives 20
1.3.1 General objective 20
1.3.2 Specific objectives 20
vi 1.4.1 Research approach 21 1.4.2 Research method 21 1.4.3 Literature review 22 1.4.4 Research participants 22 1.4.5 Measuring instrument(s) 23 1.4.6 Research procedure 24 1.4.7 Statistical analysis 24 1.4.8 Ethical considerations 25 1.5 Chapter division 25 1.6 Chapter summary 25 CHAPTER 2: ARTICLE 38
CHAPTER 3: CONCLUSIONS, LIMITATIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 87
3.1 Conclusions 88
3.2 Limitations 96
3.3 Recommendations 98
3.3.1 Recommendations for organisations 98 3.3.3 Recommendations for future research 101
vii LIST OF TABLES Chapter 2 Table 1 57 Characteristics of Participants Table 2 61
Descriptive Statistics and Alpha Coefficients of the Variables
Table 3 62
Pearson Correlations between the Variables
Table 4 63
Regression Analysis investigating the Moderating effect of Diversity and Organisational Support, with Organisational Commitment as dependent variable.
Table 5 67
Regression Analysis investigating the Moderating effect of Diversity and Organisational Support, with Turnover Intention as dependent variable
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LIST OF FIGURES
Chapter 1
Figure 1 18
Job Demands-Resources (JD-R) model
Chapter 2
Figure 1 54
Job Demands-Resources (JD-R) model
Figure 2 65
The moderating effect of Organisational support with Organisational commitment as the dependent variable and Burnout as independent variable.
Figure 3 66
The moderating effect of Organisational Support with Organisational commitment as dependent variable and Engagement as independent variable.
Figure 4 68
The moderating effect of Organisational Support with Turnover intention as the dependent variable and Burnout as independent variable.
Figure 5 69
The moderating effect of Organisational Support with Turnover intention as the dependent variable and Engagement as independent variable.
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SUMMARY
Title: The role of perceived organisational support, diversity, engagement and burnout in the retention of employees
Key words: Diversity, burnout, talent retention, work engagement, organisational commitment, organisational support, turnover intention, workforce
The aim of this study was to identify how organisational support, diversity, burnout and work engagement influence organisational commitment and turnover intention, and if perceived organisational support and diversity act as moderators to influence the outcomes of these relationships. A cross-sectional survey design was used. Data (N = 4,658) was gathered from a survey data archive that contains responses to survey questions as well as the demographical data regarding the respondents that was completed during wellness audits. The South African Employee Health and Wellness Survey (SAEHWS©) was used during the gathering of the data (Rothmann & Rothmann, 2006).
Statistical analysis was done by means of descriptive statistics and relationships were determined by means of the Pearson product-moment correlation coefficients (Clark & Watson, 1995). Regressions were used to predict the outcome variables of turnover intention and organisational commitment and the interaction effects were plotted, using organisational support and diversity as moderators on burnout as well as engagement. Burnout shows a strong inverse relationship with both organisational support and commitment. A strong direct relationship exists between burnout and turnover intention. On the other hand, a strong inverse relationship was found between turnover intention and organisational commitment. It was found that engagement relates positively to enhanced commitment and support, as well as decreased turnover intention. Diversity is a statistically significant predictor but does not moderate any relationship. It thus directly influences turnover intention as well as organisational commitment. However, diversity problems were also found to be positively linked with symptoms of burnout as well as an increased turnover intention A strong inverse relationship exists between diversity problems and
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work engagement. Organisational support was found to moderate the effect of burnout and engagement on both turnover intention and organisational commitment and seems to negate diversity problems.
xi
OPSOMMING
Titel: Die rol van waargenome organisatoriese ondersteuning, diversiteit, werksbetrokkenheid en uitbranding in die retensie van werknemers
Sleutelwoorde: Diversiteit, uitbranding, talentbehouding, werksbetrokkenheid, organisatoriese betrokkenheid, organisatoriese ondersteuning, omsetoogmerk, werksmag
Die doel van die studie was om te identifiseer hoe waargenome organisatoriese ondersteuning, diversiteit, uitbranding en werksbetrokkenheid organisatoriese betrokkenheid en omsetoogmerk beïnvloed en of organisatoriese ondersteuning en diversiteit as modereerders optree, ten einde die resultate te beïnvloed. ‘n Dwarsdeursnee opname ontwerp is gebruik. Data (N = 4,658) is vanaf ‘n data argief verkry waar die antwoorde vanaf vraelysopnames, asook demografiese data van die kandidate wat aan gesondheidsouditte deelgeneem het, gestoor word. Die “South African Employee Health and Wellness Survey (SAEHWS©) is gedurende die insameling van die data gebruik (Rothmann & Rothmann, 2006).
Statistiese analise is deur middel van beskrywende statistiek gedoen en die Pearon produk moment korrelasie koëffisiënt is gebruik ten einde verhoudingbepaling te doen (Clark & Watson, 1995). Regressies is aangewend ten einde die uitkomste veranderlikes van werksomsetoogmerk en orgnisatoriese betrokkenheid te voorspel en die interaksie-effek is geplot met organisatoriese ondersteuning en diversiteit as moderatore op uitbranding asook omsetoogmerk. ‘n Sterk direkte verhouding is tussen uitbranding en omsetoogmerk gevind. Aan die ander kant bestaan ‘n sterk negatiewe verhouding tussen omsetoogmerk en organisatoriese ondersteuning. Dit is gevind dat werksbetrokkenheid ‘n positiewe verhouding met organisatoriese betrokkenheid en ondersteuning het en dat ‘n afname in omsetoogmerk te bespeur is. Diversitiet is ‘n statistiese voorspeller, maar modereer nie enige verhoudings nie. Dit beïnvloed omsetoogmerk asook organisatoriese betrokkenheid direk. Aan die ander kant is diversiteit ook direk met simptome van uitbranding asook hoër omsetoogmerk verbind. ‘n Sterk negatiewe verhouding bestaan
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tussen diversiteit en organisatoriese betrokkenheid. Organisasie ondersteuning modereer beide die effek van uitbranding asook werksbetrokkenheid op beide omsetoogmerk en organisasie betrokkenheid en blyk diversiteitsprobleme te neutraliseer.
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CHAPTER 1
1. INTRODUCTION
This mini-dissertation focuses on the role of burnout, engagement, diversity and perceived organisational support in the retention of employees. For purposes of this study, retention is conceptualised as those factors that will influence employees to remain committed to, or as a negative alternative, to consider leaving, the organisation. Chapter 1 provides the problem statement, which states the motivation for the current research. It also provides a literature review, which will outline what previous research has found regarding the topic. Specific models applicable to the study will also be discussed, as will be the research objectives of the study. Information regarding the research methods used, the participants, measuring tool and statistical analysis is provided. The research article will be available in Chapter 2, whereas Chapter 3 will consist of conclusions based on the findings, as well as specific limitations and recommendations for future research.
1.1 PROBLEM STATEMENT
1.1.1 Overview of the problem
It is almost two decades since the official end of Apartheid. Gone is the euphoria of the 1994 political changes that swept through South Africa like a refreshing breeze, purifying the putrid and filth of apartheid and its ravages. Almost two decades later, and post-apartheid South Africa has to face critical employee issues. What happened to the many promises made during 1994? Why does this country experience “brain drain” to the current extent? And how does the latter phenomenon influence the economy of South Africa? Perhaps even more so than the rest of the world, South Africa needs to critically assess issues of skills, talent retention and diversity as well as to ensure organisational support for its workforce.
The year 1994 saw the scrapping of formal Apartheid and discriminatory laws in South Africa and this was followed by the publication of the White Paper on Affirmative Action (AA).
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According to this document “affirmative action in the employment environment is a specific program designed to halt the continuation of discriminatory policies and practices in the workplace and to overturn the imbalances that they created” (White Paper on Affirmative Action, 1998, p. 9). The focus of AA has been primarily race and gender-based in South Africa.
The introduction of AA as described above, however, did not bring about the change and prosperity hoped for. In an arena where the bottom line is often the only measure of success, organisations could ill-afford to be less competitive due to the implementation of AA, and thus strategies such as head-hunting and window-dressing were used to satisfy legislative requirements. This, in turn, led to frustrated expectations as well as the widespread job distress still experienced by people (Horwitz, 1996). The arrival of the most recent worldwide recession further impacted negatively on the South African economy and thus also skills development. A major challenge still exists in the manner in which skills development of previously disadvantaged people takes place, while ensuring that organisations remain competitive in the national and global economy in the aftermath of the recession.
The changed status of the South African work and economic landscape also led to the migration of highly skilled and qualified people to greener pastures (Mbanjwa, 2009). This affected the broad economy of South Africa negatively, since it led to severe skill shortages, especially in specialist areas such as health and technical fields. The situation sketched above has led the government and key economic groups to implement specific initiatives to entice South African emigrants to return to the country. Initiatives include the Accelerated and Shared Growth Initiative - South Africa (ASGISA, 2006), (which aims to halve poverty and unemployment by 2014), as well as the Joint Initiative on Priority Skills Acquisition (JIPSA, 2006), (which aims at addressing the scarce and critical skills needed to meet ASGISA's objectives).
South African organisations in general also had to transform to reflect the diverse general population (White Paper on Affirmative Action, 1998). To achieve the required figures as stipulated in the White Paper on Affirmative Action, recruitment, selection, placement, training as well as advancement of employees from designated groups, in particular, remain some of the focus areas. In this context, white individuals may feel they do not have a positive future in
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South African organisations, due to the perceived lack of organisational support, in favour of their black and coloured counterparts. This perception becomes visible in the high rate of resignations and emigration figures from this population group (Hartley, 2009; Hartley, 2010a), as well as the subsequent loss of scarce skills organisations are experiencing.
The situation sketched above, as well as the dynamic challenges South African organisations are facing on a daily basis, has led to the realisation that urgent action regarding the retention, motivation and morale of employees needs to be taken (Martin, 2005; Ployhart, 2006). In this study, retention of employees refers to those actions that must be taken as well as those factors that need to be in place in order to keep workers in the organisation for longer periods of time, while also ensuring their full engagement during their tenure at the organisation (Stamper & Johlke, 2003). Employees are committed to organisations due to the presence of specific conditions (Gable & Haidt, 2005; Warr, 2007). The continuous availability of these conditions leads to higher productivity as well as longer tenure at the organisation. Turnover intention and actual turnover are also the results of either the presence or absence of specific required circumstances. These must be identified in order to influence the retention of employees (Shore & Wayne, 1993; Stamper & Johlke, 2003). Based on this, retention can be conceptualised as consisting of both (low) turnover intention, and (high) organisational commitment.
In order to facilitate the above it is important to ensure that conditions prevail that contribute to work engagement in general, as well as the optimal functioning of employees (Gable & Haidt, 2005; Warr, 2007). The rationale for the above is simple: if highly skilled employees can be retained by the organisation, recruitment, selection and training costs will be reduced and this will lessen the burden on already stressed HR budgets. Experienced employees should also enable effective functioning across the different operational spheres. Engaged employees would furthermore deliver a high standard of work to the organisation and ultimately to the economy and the citizens of South Africa (Shore & Wayne, 1993; Stamper & Johlke, 2003).
To exacerbate the above, aspects such as continued pressure on organisations to perform better with fewer resources are reflected in the changing psychological contracts between employers and employees. Employees are expected to give more in terms of time, effort, skills and
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flexibility, while career security is fast falling by the wayside (Maslach, Schaufeli, & Leiter, 2001). Couple to this the issues of poor salaries (Hartley, 2009, 2010a, 2010b; Kgosana, 2010; SAPA, 2010a, 2010b, 2010c; Quantrill, 2009), continuous political interference (du Toit, 2009; Gibson, 2010a, 2010b, 2010c, 2010d; Heitman, 2009a, 2009b; SAPA, 2010c), poor management and lack of organisational support (Dlamini, 2010; Heitman, 2009a; Sisulu, 2010), and reasons for low morale and subsequent disengagement from work become easily understandable. The above has a direct influence on perceived organisational support (POS); thus influencing aspects such as absenteeism (Eisenberger, Huntington, Hutchison, & Sowa, 1986), organisational commitment and turnover intention, as well as actual turnover (Shore & Wayne, 1993; Stamper & Johlke, 2003). Mostert and Rothman (2006) indicate that as soon as stressors get out of hand, burnout becomes an issue and the employee will implement action to alleviate the effects of the stress. These actions can be either active, such as resignation, or passive, such as prolonged absenteeism (Campbell & Rothmann, 2005; Rothmann, 2003; Rothmann, van der Colff, & Rothmann, 2006).
Trained and skilled workers are in short supply. Organisations need to do all in their power to prevent the turnover of skilled workers. If the causes of turnover intention and eventual turnover can be identified at an early stage, preventative action can be implemented in order to curb the outflow of knowledgeable personnel. Incidentally, it was found that employees that are given the opportunity to take part in training and development initiatives are more committed to their work and less likely to leave the organisation (Pajo, Coetzer, & Guenole, 2010). From available research it is clear that workers that have positive work experiences are more inclined to be committed to their work, whereas those that experience negative work environments will be less likely to remain in the organisation (Hui, Wong, & Tjosvold, 2007). POS has been found to be a predictor of turnover intention, or, on the other hand, organisational commitment (Dawley, Houghton, & Bucklew, 2010). Linked to the latter, Vandenberghe and Bentein (2009) found that affective commitment to supervisors also led to reduced turnover. Antón (2009) found that job satisfaction was the strongest predictor of turnover intention. Conflict, as well as role ambiguity, as the building blocks of job dissatisfaction, led to an ultimate decrease in workers’ performance and this, in turn, led to the withdrawal of energy and ultimately, turnover.
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With all of the above taken into consideration, it is proposed that an in-depth study be done among members of the South African workforce regarding how burnout and work engagement are associated with their organisational commitment and turnover intention, as well as the extent to which diversity and organisational support may moderate or influence these outcomes.
The aim of this study would thus be the following:
• To understand the current situation in South Africa regarding how employees are experiencing burnout, engagement, diversity, organisational support, organisational commitment and turnover intention.
• To understand how burnout, engagement, diversity and organisational support influence organisational commitment and turnover intention.
• To understand how diversity and organisational support moderates the relationship between burnout and engagement on the one hand, and turnover intention and organisational commitment on the other.
The secondary aim would be to recommend actions that may be implemented to retain talent and skills by fostering organisational commitment and preventing employee turnover, while still ensuring that diversity in the organisation is managed in accordance with legislative guidelines and political expectations.
The study, as described above, will be done within the theoretical framework of the Conservation of Resources model (COR, Hobfoll, 1998) as well as the Job Demands – Resources model (JD-R) (Demerouti, Bakker, Nachreiner, & Schaufeli, 2001). The variables of burnout, engagement, diversity, organisational support, organisational commitment and turnover intention will be conceptualised from the literature below. The relationship among these variables will be conceptualised within the mentioned theoretical framework and models.
6 1.1.2 Literature review
1.1.2.1 Burnout
Burnout refers to ‘‘prolonged responses to chronic interpersonal stressors on the job’’ (Maslach, 1998, p. 68). To some extent, “burnout erodes engagement: energy turns into exhaustion, involvement turns into cynicism and efficacy turns into ineffectiveness” (Maslach & Leiter, 1997, p. 34). Studies completed by Maslach (1998) brought to light that burnout consists of three sub-constructs: emotional exhaustion, depersonalisation and diminished personal accomplishment. Excessive psychological demands lead to emotional exhaustion – a lack of energy and a feeling that one’s emotional resources are depleted. Depersonalisation is characterised by a high level of cynicism and uncaring attitudes and behaviours towards others and work (Leiter & Maslach, 2001). Constant devaluation of oneself and one’s accomplishments and feelings of incompetence are some of the signs of diminished personal accomplishment (Halbesleben, 2006; Maslach, Jackson, & Leiter, 1996; Maslach & Leiter, 1997). In contrast to the study findings cited above, Korunka, Kubicek, Schaufeli, and Hoonakker (2009), and Kristensen, Borritz, Villadsen and Christensen (2005), consider fatigue as the core dimension of burnout and question the tripartite syndrome consisting of exhaustion, cynicism and ineffectiveness.
Rothmann (2005) advances that excessive job demands, specifically work overload, and a shortage or absence of resources, predict burnout. It also correlates positively with health problems and turnover intention. A lack of support from supervisors and colleagues as well as a lack of autonomy also leads to burnout. On the other hand, it was found that the availability of organisational support correlates negatively with exhaustion (Rothmann & Joubert, 2007). Adequate organisational support can thus prevent burnout in employees. Lee and Ashforth (1996) indicate a strong correlation between exhaustion and work overload. The consequences of burnout include physical or psychological resignation (the person remains employed but does the bare minimum) (Seiler & Pearson, 1984). It furthermore leads to physical illness, staff turnover and prolonged absenteeism (Dobie et al., 2004; Leiter, Harvie, & Frizell, 1998; Maslach et al., 1996), as well as mental and physical health problems (Lee & Ashforth, 1990).
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Scanty evidence currently exists with regard to the direct relationship between diversity and burnout. Poorly managed diversity in an organisation leads to an increase in conflict, misunderstanding (Zenger & Lawrence, 1989), lower levels of personal contribution to the organisation (Kirchmeyer, 1993) and these, in turn, may lead to higher levels of turnover intention and actual turnover (Jackson, et al., 1991). It is thus hypothesized that burnout amongst organisational employees may be associated with increased diversity issues in the organisation. On the other hand, research has also shown that properly managed diversity issues lead to higher levels of improved decision-making, more flexibility, as well as an increase in innovation (de Dreu & West, 2001). In such instances, diversity would correlate negatively with burnout. Given that the position of diversity in the JD-R model is ambiguous, an important aim of this study is to investigate and clarify that position.
1.1.2.2 Work engagement
Work engagement is characterised by a high level of energy and strong identification with the work being done (Schaufeli & Bakker, 2004). Engaged people can personally identify with the work role and are thus able to express themselves through the tasks they do. During disengagement, on the other hand, people become distanced from the work role and are thus physically and emotionally uninvolved with the tasks expected of them.
The operational definition of work engagement was developed by Maslach and Leiter (1997), who expanded on Kahn’s (1990) conceptual work. Their original argument postulated that job engagement and burnout were two opposite ends of a continuum. Schaufeli, Salanova, Gonzalez-Roma, and Bakker, (2002) argued, however, that engagement is an independent state of mind and should be seen as totally separate from burnout. They suggest that the presence of one concept (low burnout) does not necessarily include the other factor (high engagement).
Schaufeli and Bakker (2004, p. 295) continued by defining job engagement as ‘‘a positive, fulfilling, work-related state of mind’’ and specified three unique dimensions of engagement: vigour, dedication, and absorption. They also chose to measure the different constructs in a
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unique manner. High levels of energy and mental resilience, the willingness to invest in one’s work and continued persistence, even in the face of difficulty, construe vigour. The latter is seen as the opposite of exhaustion (Schaufeli et al., 2002). Dedication, as Schaufeli et al. (2002) attest, refers to a sense of significance, inspiration, pride, challenge as well as enthusiasm. It is also the opposite of cynicism. Csikszentmihalyi (1990) identified absorption as a state of complete immersion in one’s work, accompanied by focussed and complete attention, loss of the self in the task, and the individual furthermore experiences inner joy, absolute control and complete immersion in the task. A person who is absorbed in his work fully concentrates on the task at hand and the person has trouble detaching himself from his task. Time also tends to pass quickly. Although vigour and dedication have opposites on the continuum that describe burnout, absorption stands alone and is not coupled to reduced efficacy (Schaufeli et al., 2002). Recent studies, however, suggest that vigour and dedication constitute the core dimensions of engagement (Gonzalez-Roma, Schaufeli, Bakker, & Lloret, 2006; Kim, Shin, & Swanger, 2009). Harter, Schmidt, and Hayes (2002) identified four required elements for engagement to take place in the work environment. These are (a) the availability of resources and clear goals, (b) feelings of worth and contribution to the organisation, (c) a sense of belonging and (d) the opportunity for growth and development.
If high engagement is characterised by a high level of energy and a strong identification with the work (Kahn, 1990), it is a logical next step to assume that high engagement will lead to higher organisational commitment. Studies done by Schaufeli and Bakker (2004) indicated that work engagement is negatively related to the intention to quit. Schaufeli and Salanova (2007) found that engaged employees are committed and satisfied with their work. Koyuncu, Burke, and Fiksenbaum (2006) showed that age, marital and parental status, number of children, level of education, hours worked or part-time work, are not predictive of work engagement. The above confirms that it is rather the amount of job resources that relates to the level of work engagement (Bakker, Hakanen, Demerouti, & Xanthopoulou, 2007; Hakanen, Bakker, & Demerouti, 2005; Mauno, Kinnunen, & Ruokolainen, 2007). Schaufeli and Bakker (2004) found a positive relationship between social support at work, performance feedback, supervisory coaching and work engagement.
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The relationship between engagement and diversity, on the other hand, is not as clear since conflicting results have been forthcoming from various studies (Roberge & Dick, 2010). Results obtained by de Dreu and West (2001) indicate that diversity can lead to better decision-making as well as higher levels of creativity and innovation. This, however, does not automatically lead to higher levels of engagement. Lower group commitment (Tsui, Egan, & o’Reilly, 1992), less communication (Zenger & Lawrence, 1989), and more conflict and misunderstanding (Chatman & Flynn, 2001) has also been found to detract from work engagement, and these are the building blocks of turnover intention as well as actual turnover (Jackson et al., 1991). De Lange, De Witte, and Notelaers (2008) and Saks (2006) confirmed that low work engagement, poor job autonomy and poor resources are active predictors of actual turnover.
1.1.2.3 Diversity
Workforces across the world are becoming more diverse (Carvel, 2001; Morris, 2002), in order to remain competitive in the continuous globalisation that is taking place (McShane, 2006). Diversity refers to attributes that differ between individuals and that may lead to the perception that one person is different from another (van Knippenberg, de Dreu, & Homan, 2004; Williams & O’Reilly, 1998). These differences may refer to surface-level or deep-level differences between people (Harrison, Price, & Bell, 1998). Surface-level differences refer to overtly visible characteristics such as gender, race and handicap. Deep-level differences are those covert characteristics such as beliefs, personality, as well as values. Pelled, Ledford and Mohrman (1999) emphasise that the context needs to be taken into consideration in order to categorise these characteristics.
Group diversity is defined by Nkomo and Cox (1996, p. 339) as “people with different group identities within the same social system”. Harrison and Sin (2005, p.196), on the other hand, define diversity within a group as “the collective amount of differences among members of a social unit”. From the above-mentioned definitions it is clear that group identity forms the basis for relationships within diverse workgroups and will thus influence the output of the group. Group diversity, including gender diversity, is ensured by means of affirmative action (AA) and
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this involves the “remedial consideration of race, ethnicity, or sex as a factor ... in decision making” (Leiter & Leiter, 2002, p. 1).
Urciuoli (2009) points out that it is a well-known fact that diverse groups lead to better problem-solving. Green (2004) cites higher motivation, better problem-solving as well as less racial segregation in the workplace as positive attributes of diversity. De Dreu and West (2001) are in agreement with the latter due to the larger range of work-related knowledge that is available within a diverse group. However, various studies have also identified negative attributes of diverse groups. Lower group commitment (Tsui, Egan, & O’Reilly, 1992), distrust (Chatopadhayay, 1999), less communication (Zenger & Lawrence, 1989), higher perceptions of organisational unfairness (Mor-Barak, Cherin, & Berkman, 1998) and less personal contribution to the task at hand (Kirchmeyer, 1993) were negative aspects that were found on an individual and group level. Reduced cohesiveness (Harrison et al., 1998; Terborg, Castore, & DeNinno, 1976), increased turnover (Jackson et al., 1991), decreased cooperation as well as lower personal satisfaction (Chatman & Flynn, 2001), and more conflicts and misunderstandings are also associated with greater diversity (Chatman & Sparato, 2005).
It is clear from the research that very specific conditions must exist in order to ensure an increase in the performance of diverse groups. Pettigrew (1998) argue that four conditions are required to ensure the positive effects of diversity and intergroup contact, namely justice, common goals, cooperation within the group and equal group status within the situation. Further research has also identified moderating variables that could offer an explanation as to when diversity would lead to positive group performance. These variables include more time (Mohammed & Angell, 2004), openness to diversity (Hobman, Bordia, & Gallois, 2004), collective versus individualistic values (Chatman & Sparato, 2005), task interdependence (Jehn, Northcraft, & Neale, 1999; Pelled et al., 1999), organisational culture (Chatman, Polzer, Barsade, & Neale, 1998), organisational climate (Bacharach, Bamberger, & Bashdi, 2005) as well as task complexity (Jehn et al., 1999). From the above it is thus clear that diversity may be an important moderator between employee wellbeing (such as burnout and engagement), and individual-level organisational outcomes like turnover intention and organisational commitment.
11 1.1.2.4 Organisational support
Rhoades and Eisenberger (2002) contend that employees assign human-like characteristics, such as caring, protective or abusive, to organisations, according to how the organisation treats them. The employee furthermore also develops a set of beliefs with regard to how much his or her input is valued by the organisation, as well as how much the organisation cares for his/her well-being. The latter is known as organisational support. Djurkovic, McCormack and Casimir (2008) explain that organisational support consists of supervisor support, fairness and organisational job conditions. Rothmann and Rothmann (2006) argue that organisational support additionally consists of the sub-dimensions of role clarity, job information, participation in decision-making, colleague support and supervisory relationships. For the purposes of this study, this comprehensive view is the one that will be used in both the conceptualisation and operationalization of organisational support. The discussion now turns to the noted components of organisational support.
Role clarity is a sub-dimension of organisational support (Rothmann & Rothmann, 2006). This refers to the employees’ understanding of the tasks that need to be performed as well as at what level the task performance is required. It furthermore includes aspects such as the relevant policies and procedures that govern the task, lines of communication and reporting, personal requirements including skills, abilities and competencies, as well as where and when the individual is expected to perform (Rothmann & Rothmann, 2006). If the organisation is seen as just and fair, organisational support increases. Bray and Brawley (2002) state that success in interdependent team work is directly dependent on role clarity. High levels of role clarity furthermore leads to higher levels of sustained performance, whereas role ambiguity (the opposite of role clarity) leads to diminished effort, lower levels of persistence as well as ineffective performance (Bray & Brawley, 2002). Hardin, Fuller, and Valacich (2006), and Priyadarshini (2009) are in agreement with the latter, indicating that organisational productivity and success are closely linked to individual success, whereas the latter finds its core in the clear expectations of the task. Rothmann and Joubert (2007), on the other hand, report that role ambiguity is a major demand according to the JD-R and, in conjunction with the COR, indicate that burnout is likely to develop if resources are not adequate to meet the set demands. Taris,
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Schreurs, and Schaufeli (1999) also reported a strong correlation between job stress and burnout. Role ambiguity, as the opposite of role clarity, was identified as a specific demand that could lead to burnout and diminished work involvement.
Closely linked to the above is job information. This refers to aspects such as results obtained, how the job fits in with the rest of the organisation, including subordinate and superior structures, what the reporting structures are as well as what level the job is situated on (Rothmann & Rothmann, 2006). Whereas role clarity refers to what is expected from the individual, job information concentrates on the information pertaining to the post itself. Clear and accurate job information leads to higher levels of perceived organisational support since the individual is aware of how his specific post is influencing the rest of the organisation (Rothmann & Rothmann, 2006).
Participative decision making (PDM) refers to decisions made jointly by superiors and subordinates (Locke & Schweiger, 1979). Behbehan (2012) stresses that participative decision making leads to better and more successful collaborative leadership in the organisation and conveys various potential benefits. Some of these include better quality of decisions being made, the enhancement of employee work life, increases in employee motivation and commitment, as well as higher overall work satisfaction. These factors have also been identified as potential influencers to ensure higher organisational commitment (Bakker & Demerouti, 2007; Demerouti et al., 2001; Rothmann, 2003; Schaufeli & Bakker, 2004). Burke and Richardsen (1993) identified PDM as a job resource that enhanced the job environment. Maslach, Schaufeli and Leiter (2001) found higher levels of burnout amongst employees who do not enjoy PDM.
Colleague support is, as Rothmann and Rothmann (2006) explain, a further sub-dimension of organisational support. Aspects such as mutual trust, reliability during team and small-group work, as well as group cohesion, form part of this sub-dimension. As such, colleague support is identified as a job resource (Rothmann & Joubert, 2007). A strong correlation exists between burnout and the absence of job resources, particularly social support that also includes colleague support (Rothmann & Joubert, 2007).
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Supervisory relationships are also one of the sub-dimensions of organisational support, according to Rothmann and Rothmann (2006). Since supervisors are seen as acting on behalf of senior management, the relationships they have with subordinates are very important (Eisenberger, Stinglhamber, Vandenberghe, Sucharski, & Rhoades, 2002; O’Driscoll & Randall, 1999). Current research has indicated that supervisory support correlates positively with organisational commitment and job satisfaction (Shore & Wayne, 1993; Stamper & Johlke, 2003), and correlates negatively with absenteeism as well as turnover intention (Eisenberger et al., 1986).
Research indicates that high organisational support is associated with favourable outcomes for the organisation. Aspects such as job satisfaction and intent to remain at the organisation (Stamper & Johlke, 2003), organisational identification, loyalty and citizenship (Rhoades & Eisenberger, 2002), organisational commitment (Shore & Wayne, 1993) as well as organisational trust (Chen, Aryee, & Lee, 2005), are all positively correlated with organisational support. Eisenberger et al. (1986), on the other hand, also found that high organisational support is correlated negatively with absenteeism while similar results were found for withdrawal (Allen, Shore, & Griffith, 2003). Keashly (in Djurkovic, McCormack, & Casimir, 2008) also found that organisational support attenuates the effects of emotional abuse and bullying. Organisational support furthermore leads to intrinsic and extrinsic motivation (Van den Broeck, Vansteenkiste, De Witte, & Lens, 2008). What is more, research findings also indicate that high organisational support could have a positive effect in preventing employees from developing burnout (Jawahar, Stone, & Kisamore, 2007; Richardson, Burke, & Mikkelsen, 2004). Based on the above, organisational support is conceptualised as a moderator in this study.
1.1.2.5 Organisational commitment
The theory on organisational commitment holds that it remains a reciprocal process – if the organisation supports the individual by providing adequate job resources, the employee will respond by means of committed behaviour (Pazy & Ganzach, 2009; Zimmerman, 2008). The theory is supported by the positive links that are made with organisational support (Eisenberger et al., 1986; Rhoades & Eisenberger, 2002). It is furthermore implied that organisations should provide adequate resources such as fair treatment and safe job conditions, as well as supervisory
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support. This will support social cohesion of the workforce and a positive attitude towards the organisation (Rhoades & Eisenberger, 2002).
Demerouti et al. (2001) reported positive correlations between organisational commitment and engagement. Organisational commitment behaviour contributes positively to reaching organisational goals (Lawler, Thye, & Yoon, 2006). The focus on behaviour distinguishes this concept from commitment as an attitude (Meyer, Becker, & Vandenberghe, 2004; Meyer & Herscovitch, 2001). Diversity does not link to organisational commitment as clearly as it does to organisational support. Conflicting results have been obtained from various studies done in the field of diversity (Roberge & Van Dick, 2010). From the current research available, it is thus not clear whether diversity correlates positively or negatively with organisational commitment. Investigating this relationship presents a contribution from the envisaged study.
1.1.2.6 Turnover intention
Turnover intention refers to an employee’s wish to leave the organisation or his/her present job (Liou & Cheng, 2010). Although turnover intention has not yet resulted in actual turnover, research indicates that it is an immediate predictor of the latter. Turnover itself differs from turnover intention and refers to the act of physically leaving the organisation (Liou & Cheng, 2010). It has been linked to emotional as well as physical withdrawal from the job and may prove to be very expensive for the company or organisation since it influences recruitment as well as placement costs (Nadiri & Tanova, 2010). The loss of skills and expertise are only some of the losses the organisation may incur when an employee resigns from the organisation (Griffeth, Hom, & Gaertner, 2000). Research has found direct links between turnover intention and job performance. Hulin, Roznowski, and Hachiya (1985), in Hui, Wong, and Tjosvold (2007), point out that employees withdraw their energy from the work environment as a result of their intention to leave the organisation. If the employee is expecting the work relationship to come to an end soon, he/she will be more likely to refrain from further investment in the organisation in the form of high work performance. The withdrawal of high performance sabotages actual performance, resulting in lower overall effectiveness.
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Regarding organisational support, Liou and Cheng (2010) found that a positive organisational climate may increase nurses’ work commitment which will in turn prevent them from leaving the organisation. Other studies concur with the latter and it is widely accepted that organisational support correlates negatively with turnover intention as well as actual turnover (Hui et al., 2007; Vandenberghe & Bentein, 2009). Vandenberghe and Bentein (2009) investigated the relationship between turnover and affective commitment to supervisors as well as turnover and the affective commitment to the organisation. Their findings indicate that affective commitment to both the supervisor and the organisation exercises independent influences on turnover intention and actual turnover. From their studies it is clear that affective commitment to the supervisor will be the determining factor regarding turnover intention and actual turnover.
Direct links have also been found between turnover intention and burnout. Burnout precedes physical or psychological resignation (the person remains employed but does the bare minimum) (Seiler & Pearson, 1984), and it furthermore leads to staff turnover and prolonged absenteeism (Dobie et al., 2004; Leiter, Harvie, & Frizell, 1998; Maslach et al., 1996). Whereas burnout leads to higher levels of turnover and turnover intention, work engagement, on the other hand, has the opposite effect. Studies indicate that high levels of work engagement correlate negatively with turnover and turnover intention (Schaufeli & Bakker, 2004; Schaufeli & Salanova, 2007). In opposition to the above, diversity was found to correlate positively with increased turnover (Jackson et al., 1991). This may be due to higher levels of communication breakdown (Zenger & Lawrence, 1989), more conflict and misunderstanding among diverse groups (Chatman & Sparato, 2005), lower group commitment (Tsui et al., 1992), distrust (Chatopadhayay, 1999), higher perception of organisational unfairness (Mor-Barak et al., 1998) and less personal contribution to the task at hand (Kirchmeyer, 1993). The Conservation of Resources Theory (COR, Hobfall, 2002) can be applied to conceptualise these variables within a theoretical framework. This is where the focus will now be shifted to.
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1.1.2.7 Conservation of Resources theory
The Conservation of Resources theory (Hobfoll, 1998, 2002) is a theoretical framework that can be used to create an understanding of employee wellbeing. This model is based on the understanding that employees will protect, keep and accumulate valued resources (Hobfoll, 2002). Resources can include objects and relationships, as well as aspects such as autonomy (Halbesleben, 2006; Hobfoll & Schumm, 2009). The presence of these factors leads to well-being and resilience, whereas psychological distress and burnout result if these assets are lost. If loss of these resources occurs, the stress reaction is put in motion. Ultimately, the latter may result in turnover intention or turnover. On the other side of the continuum, if more of these resources are available, positive development, growth, resilience and work engagement will result.
COR defines psychological stress as a reaction to the environment in which there is (a) the threat of a net loss of resources, (b) the net loss of resources, or (c) a lack of resource gain, following the investment of resources. Both perceived and actual loss, and lack of gain, is envisaged as sufficient for producing stress (Hobfoll, 1998, p. 516). Hobfoll (1998) identified four kinds of resources of which loss or gain would result in either stress or well-being. These are object resources which are physical in nature (e.g. house), conditions that are valued (e.g. marriage, seniority), and personal characteristics in the sense that these may resist stress reactions, and energies (e.g. time, money). The latter resources are valued due to their ability to aid in gaining other resources.
1.1.2.8 The Job Demands-Resources model (JD-R)
Whereas the COR model creates an understanding of work engagement and also suggests that burnout may develop when valued resources are lost, the Job Demands – Resources (JD-R) model creates an understanding of how working conditions can lead to either turnover or commitment to the organisation (Demerouti et al., 2001). According to this model, all working conditions may be divided into one of two categories, namely job demands or job resources. Job
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demands refer to all aspects of work that require a continuous physical or psychological effort and thus also incur psychological cost for the individual. Burnout may be one such price that may be paid. This category is linked to the energetic process of mental and physical depletion of resources. Job resources, on the other hand, include all aspects that lead to the achievement of work goals, the reduction of job demands as well as those aspects that lead to the development and personal growth of individuals. This category is linked to the motivational process during which individuals are motivated (Schaufeli & Bakker, 2004). Korunka et al. (2009) note that the motivational process assumes that a link exists between job resources and organisational outcomes by means of work engagement. The energetic process links job demands with health impairments by means of the mediating effect of burnout.
From the above it can be clearly deduced that burnout and work engagement have a powerful influence on all aspects of organisational commitment and turnover intention, as well as diversity and organisational support. Using the COR as well as the JD-R as foundational frameworks, the current study proposes that diversity and organisational support will act as moderators between the predictor variables (burnout and engagement) and the outcome variables (organisational commitment and turnover intention). Moderators affect the strength and/or direction of the relation between a predictor and an outcome variable by means of enhancing, reducing, or changing the influence of the predictor (Fairchild & McKinnon, 2009). Moderators and predictors are furthermore always independent variables and also function on the same level with regard to role as causal variables to outcome variables (Baron & Kenny, 1986).
If the predictor variables in the current study (Burnout, engagement, organisational support and diversity) are tested against the above, it becomes clear that they all function as independent variables. All of the above also function on the same level as causal variables of the outcome variables. However, the predictors in this study (burnout and engagement) are not causally antecedent to diversity and organisational support. In other words the latter may also influence levels of organisational commitment and turnover intention, without the added influence of burnout and engagement. The variables in this study will thus be moderators since they can function independently to lead to the expected outcomes, namely turnover intention and
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organisational commitment. The latter is indicated by the model below, depicting that diversity and organisational support will act as moderators in the current study.
1.2 RESEARCH QUESTIONS
The following research questions emerge from the problem statement and literature review:
• How are burnout, work engagement, diversity, organisational support, organisational commitment, and turnover intention conceptualised in the literature?
Burnout
Diversity
Organisational Support Turnover Intention Organisational Commitment Engagement Predictors Moderators OutcomesFigure 1. Job Demands-Resources (JD-R) model. Adapted from Karunka, Kubicek,
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• What is the relationship between burnout, work engagement, diversity, organisational support, organisational commitment and turnover intention in a sample of South African employees?
• Can experiences of burnout, work engagement, diversity, and organisational support be used to predict organisational commitment and turnover intention in a sample of South African employees?
• Does diversity and organisational support moderate the relationship between burnout and engagement as predictors, and organisational commitment and turnover intention as outcomes?
• What recommendations can be made for South African organisations and future studies?
1.2.1 Expected contribution of the study
1.2.1.1 Individual contribution
• Employees can be made aware that they have the power to make a difference in the lives of others, especially in how people perceive their role as supervisor and colleague in the work environment.
• Supervisors can be made aware of the role they play in facilitating aspects such as work engagement, subordinate support and organisational commitment.
• A better understanding of the operation of diversity in organisations should help individual employees manage it better to also enhance organisational commitment and protect against turnover intention.
1.2.1.2 Contribution to the broader economy
• Training shortages can be identified in order to fill gaps.
• Aspects that hamper work commitment and foster turnover intention can be identified and rectified.
• Leaders and HR employees can be made aware of critical training shortages and implement actions to rectify the situation.
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• Leaders can implement actions to ensure talent retention in the organisation.
1.2.1.3 Contribution to the literature
• Information regarding factors that influence organisational commitment and employee turnover in South African organisations would contribute to the existing literature.
• This study will assist in identifying shortcomings and in providing possible solutions to issues such as poor organisational commitment, high turnover intentions and negative perceptions regarding diversity as well as organisational support.
• Guidelines and interventions for managing commitment and turnover intention can be identified and implemented.
• This study will add and provide some guidance regarding the existing inconsistencies regarding the relationship between burnout, work engagement, diversity and organisational support, and the outcomes of organisational commitment and turnover intention.
1.3 RESEARCH OBJECTIVES
1.3.1 General objective
The general objective of the study is to investigate how organisational commitment and turnover intentions are influenced by organisational experiences of burnout and work engagement and whether diversity and organisational support moderate this relationship.
1.3.2 Specific objectives
• To determine how burnout, work engagement, diversity, organisational support, organisational commitment, and turnover intention are conceptualised in the literature.
• To determine the relationships between burnout, work engagement, diversity, organisational support and organisational commitment and turnover intention in a sample of South African employees.
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• To determine whether experiences of burnout, work engagement, diversity, and organisational support may be used to predict organisational commitment and turnover intention in a sample of South African employees.
• To determine whether organisational support and diversity moderate the relationship between burnout and engagement as predictors, and organisational commitment and turnover intention as outcomes.
• To make recommendations for South African organisations and future studies.
1.4 RESEARCH DESIGN
1.4.1 Research approach
Against the above background it is proposed that the study be conducted within the quantitative paradigm. Field (2009, p.792) explains that the quantitative method infers “evidence for a theory through measurement of variables that produce numeric outcomes”. One of the major strengths of such a study is the fact that much information can be gained during a single intervention. The information gained can be manipulated to answer a variety of research questions. Most important is the fact that results can be used to make assumptions and also to plan for future interventions. A cross-sectional survey will be used.
1.4.2 Research method
Available data, in the form of a sample of 4,658 individually completed surveys from Afriforté (Pty) Ltd. will be used for the current research. The data will be analysed and the results will be reported in the form of a research article. Afriforté is the commercial arm of the WorkWell Research Unit in the Faculty of Economic and Management Sciences at the North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus. The ultimate aim of Workwell is to support economic development and growth in South Africa. This is done through the creation of productive and safe working environments. In order to accomplish the above, much research is done in the sphere of work wellness. This research is analysed and practical tools that are culturally sensitive
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and unbiased are developed from the data. These tools become very effective instruments in the hands of management to ensure further growth and development of healthy organisations.
1.4.3 Literature review
During the initial stages of the research a literature study will be done regarding burnout, work engagement, diversity, organisational support, as well as organisational commitment and turnover intention. The following sources will be used to ensure a thorough literature study:
• Ebscohost • ProQuest • SACat • Emerald • Google Scholar • SA ePublications • Nexus search 1.4.4 Research participants
Data, regarding the respondents, is available from a survey data archive that contains responses to survey questions as well as demographic data obtained during wellness audits. A total of 6,129 respondents took part in the completion of the wellness audits and the response rate therefore is 76%. Various sectors from the South African work environment took part in these audits. An availability sample (n = 4,658), comprising participants from the nine provinces in South Africa and consisting of members of the eleven official language groups will be used. The different genders and marital statuses, age groups (between the ages of 20 and 60), the different race groups (African, White, Coloured and Indian) and a variety of educational levels (primary, secondary and tertiary education) are represented. All data is kept on computer files and great care is taken to ensure the reliability and validity of all the data, especially because it is collected for research purposes. The data was gathered between 2009 and 2010.
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When data from a survey data base is considered, the reasons for the original study must be known and evaluated against the current reasons for making use of the data set. The validity of the data set, the type of information collected and the age of the data set must also be known since social attitudes and processes may change over time and thus influence the validity of the outcomes of the research (Whitley, 2002). The aims of this research do form part of the general purpose for which the data was originally collected.
1.4.5 Measuring instrument(s)
The South African Employee Health and Wellness Survey (SAEHWS©, Rothmann & Rothmann, 2006) will be used to measure the study variables. As indicated in the name, this instrument measures the health and wellness status of South African employees. The results are related to the organisational climate and then compared with a South African norm (Rothmann & Rothmann, 2006). Although the SAEHWS© defines constructs such as engagement by means of different names than those used in current literature, i.e. vitality whereas Schaufeli and Bakker (2004) make use of the word vigour, and work devotion in the place of dedication, exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses confirm that the constructs in this measurement instrument are equivalent to current academic literature. In this study, the dominant terms in the scientific literature will be used.
The validity of the factor structures of the SAEHWS© is equivalent for the different ethnic groups and organisations. Rothmann and Rothmann (2006) point out that the SAEHWS© is culturally sensitive with no bias against any group. Various organisations from different sectors, including Insurance, Engineering, Correctional Services, Technikons and Universities were compared and show a Tucker’s Phi-coefficient of agreement in excess of 0.90 between factor structures (Rothmann & Rothmann, 2006). The predictive model which supports the SAEHWS© allows for prediction of employees at risk and thus provides data to pro-actively manage risks and to ensure the work-related well-being of employees and teams. Sub-dimensions of organisational support, according to the SAEHWS©, consist of role clarity, job information, participation in decision-making, colleague support and supervisory relationships (Djurkovic et
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al., 2008; Jahawar et al., 2007; Rothmann & Rothmann, 2006). These are measured by a four-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (never) to 4 (always). A seven-four-point rating scale, ranging from 0 (never) to 6 (always) is used to measure work-related well-being and includes the following subscales: Exhaustion (e.g. “I feel tired before I arrive at work”) and Vitality (e.g. “I am full of
energy in my work”). Turnover intention is measured by a six-point scale ranging from 1
(strongly disagree) to 6 (strongly agree). An example of an item would be: “I would be very
happy to spend the rest of my career in this organisation”. The full complement of the
SAEHWS© subscales present with acceptable Cronbach alpha coefficients at both the sub-scale and total score levels.
1.4.6 Research procedure
Since data was collected with the additional purpose of conducting research, the validity and reliability of the data have been proven to be acceptable. Data is available electronically and has been saved in a survey data archive. The data archive includes the respondents’ biographical data, as well as individual responses to the survey questions.
Approval to utilise the data for research purposes was granted by the general managers of the organisations. A description of the study, as well as the purpose thereof was provided to participants prior to administration of the self-administered, self-report questionnaires. Confidentiality of all responses was assured and confirmed prior to completion of the questionnaire. All respondents had to grant informed consent and were then provided with sufficient time to complete the questionnaire.
1.4.7 Statistical analysis
The SPSS programme (SPSS, 2011) will be used to carry out the statistical analysis.
• Descriptive statistics (means, standard deviations, skewness and kurtosis) will be used to explore and analyse the data.
• Cronbach’s alpha will be computed to assess the reliability of the constructs. The cut-off point that will be used for coefficient alpha is 0.70 (Clark & Watson, 1995).
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• Relationships between the different variables will be tested by means of Pearson Product-moment correlations. Statistical significance is set at p ≤ 0.01. The practical significance of correlation coefficients will be set at r ≥ 0.30 (medium effect) and a large effect will be r ≥ 0.50 (Cohen, 1988). These effect sizes will be used to measure the practical significance and impact of the various relationships between the different variables.
• Regressions will be analysed to determine whether the identified variables have an influence on organisational commitment and the turnover intention of employees, and whether the moderating effect of diversity and organisational support is supported.
1.4.8 Ethical considerations
All research must be fair and ethical in order to ensure success. Voluntary participation, confidentiality, privacy, informed consent and the principle of doing no harm have been taken into consideration (Devous, 2002). The research proposal will also be submitted to the Faculty of Economic and Management Science’s ethical committee for review and approval.
1.5 CHAPTER DIVISION
The chapters in this mini-dissertation are presented as follows:
Chapter 1: Research proposal and problem statement Chapter 2: Research article
Chapter 3: Conclusions, limitations and recommendations
1.6 CHAPTER SUMMARY
In this chapter, the reasons for the current research were discussed and a literature review was conducted to establish a firm foundation regarding previous research findings, as well as to finalise the relevant constructs. Research questions were formulated and turned into specific objectives. Thereafter the research method was explained, including the specific research design, the participants and the procedure to be used. The measuring tool that will be used was
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discussed, as well as the statistical techniques that will be used to answer the above-mentioned research questions. An outline of the chapter division was also included.
The following chapter will consist of the research article that will include a detailed literature review, followed by the results obtained during the research. The latter will be discussed in detail in the article.
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