I sea weed in the future: An interdisciplinary ELSIA approach to sustainable seaweed cultivation for food production

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I sea weed in the future

An interdisciplinary ELSIA approach to sustainable

seaweed cultivation for food production

University of Amsterdam

Maarten Mol (earth sciences) 10558284 Suzanne Kooistra (earth sciences) 10497072 Jasper Tonn (business studies) 10324968

(Grier, 2014)

Tutor: Jaap van Rothuizen Expert supervisor: Alison Gilbert

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Abstract

Due to increasing strains on food production, sustainable alternatives for feeding the growing world population need to be considered. Seaweed cultivation in the North Sea might be one of these sustainable alternatives. This research provides a qualitative analysis of the opportunities to achieve a better integration of seaweed as a product in the daily food consumption. It investigates the possibility of a product that is financially and socially attractive, while simultaneously allowing for the attainment of a more environmentally responsible food system. The research takes an interdisciplinary approach using the ELSIA categorization system to organize disciplinary assumptions and concepts. Although there is still much research to be done that falls beyond the scope of this report, this research concludes that there are multiple possibilities which could lead to seaweed becoming a part of our daily food system.

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1. Introduction

As a combined result of overpopulation, growing luxury consumption and soil degradation, our global food system is experiencing more and more pressure to supply the population with enough food. In the meantime, to mitigate climate change and to avoid further major irreversible damage to the global environment, the footprint of this pressure needs to be halved while food production needs to be doubled (W. Brandenburg, personal communication, October 21, 2015). Meat consumption, originating in our need for proteins or its use as a status symbol, is still rising, even though it puts a significant drain on the available food stocks (Cassidy, 2013). Meanwhile, fresh water reserves are also being depleted at an increasing rate, leading to future problems both in the agricultural sector and our individual water supply. These problems occur because every person requires ‘space’ in order to maintain their livelihood. It is stated that between 1961 and 2008 the overall Ecological Footprint of humanity has increased by a factor of 2.5 (Galli et al., 2013).

Currently, an increasing number of academic scholars (Fei, 2004; Lenstra et al., 2011; W. Brandenburg, personal communication, October 21, 2015; W. Sodderland, personal communication, November 2, 2015) advocate that seaweed could provide a solution to these problems. As seaweed often has a high protein concentration and is able to grow in water, more specifically, in saltwater, seaweed could serve as a solution to the previously described problems. At the very least, it could mitigate these problems or transfer them to an area where their impacts are less severe. It is possible to at least strongly reduce these problems or decrease their impact on the terrestrial environment, by ‘simply’ transitioning to seaweed as our main protein source (W. Brandenburg, personal communication, October 21, 2015). However, sustainable large-scale seaweed cultivation is still in its infancy, especially in western countries (W. Brandenburg, personal communication, October 21, 2015; W. Sodderland, personal communication, November 2, 2015). This presents a new challenge, but little research has been done and much

knowledge remains to be acquired. Therefore, this report will investigate the opportunities of

sustainably integrating seaweed into our food system from an interdisciplinary viewpoint through the combination of technical, environmental and business perspectives and their interrelations. This research will assess the current status of North Sea-based seaweed exploitation and the actions that need to be taken to achieve further sustainable integration in our food system. The main research question is:

● What are the opportunities to achieve a better integration of seaweed as a product in our daily food consumption, with a focus on financial and social attraction, while simultaneously

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In order to answer this question, it is first required to examine the technical viability of seaweed cultivation in the North Sea as this is the first requirement for any seaweed cultivation. To consider its possibilities for a more environmentally responsible food system it is required to analyse the main relevant environmental influences of seaweed cultivation in the North Sea. Additionally, it is necessary to obtain a sufficient extent of social acceptance and to maximize financial attractiveness for large scale cultivation, production and sales. This is because without a demand for seaweed from society, there is no use for seaweed cultivation (W. Sodderland, personal communication, November 2, 2015). Taking all this into account, this research has been divided using the following subquestions

● What steps need to be taken by means of cultivation techniques, division of space and nutrient availability, so that seaweed can be sustainably cultivated on a large scale?

● What are the main relevant environmental influences pertaining to sustainable, large-scale seaweed cultivation in the North Sea?

● How can we make seaweed, financially and socially, as attractive as possible to accomplish full integration in our daily food consumption?

This report is structured as follows. First the methodology is explained. This consists of an explanation of the integrative approach of the research, the general research outline and the limitations of the

research. The next section provides the results found using this methodology. After this follows an integration of those results and a conclusion. The final part elaborates on recommendations for further research and provides a reflection on the interdisciplinarity of the research. The appendices contain all the information regarding the interviews that have been conducted.

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2. Methodology

As mentioned in the introduction an interdisciplinary approach is required as the research addresses complex problems that entail multiple disciplines. This section elaborates on the integrative approach and presents the research outline. Additionally, it will define the limitations of the research.

2.1 Integrative approach

Repko (2012) proposes five different integration techniques to find common ground between multiple disciplines: expansion, redefinition, extension, organization and transformation. The integrative technique on which our research relied to find common ground is organization. Repko (2012) defined this technique as comprising of first finding an underlying commonality in the definitions of the concepts or assumptions from different disciplines and secondly those concepts are organized in order to attain a visual overview of how they are related. In this research, that commonality entails the sustainability of seaweed as a food source.

For the organization of the concepts and assumptions a specific method has been used; the ELSIA categorization system. This is a method which has been developed by the company Except which focuses on integrated sustainability, which corresponds well with the framework of seaweed as a sustainable food source. A visual representation of the ELSIA system is shown in figure 1 The abbreviation ELSIA means ‘Energy and materials’(matter), ‘Life’ (species and ecosystems)), ‘Society’ (culture and economy), ‘Individual’ (health and happiness) and ‘Actions’ (Utility and Purpose) (Except, 2009). These object indicators are all related, influencing each other whereby the bottom-up influences are stronger than the other way around. The approach visualizes that all these object indicators are equally influenced by the time, space and context in which they occur. This visualization is relevant for our research as space, time and context define the scope of this research. The ELSIA approach offers a precise and clearly organized way of organizing the disciplinary concepts and assumptions of this particular research due to its pyramidal focus.

This approach is an alternative to the People, Planet, Profit system, an analysis already applied to seaweed feasibility (Burg et al., 2013). ELSIA aims to offer a more structured way to look into the sustainability of product (Except, 2009). It has been considered suitable because our research is also directed towards the sustainability of a product. Additionally, it is a way to prevent systems from developing in such a way that only specific domains are improved but other important aspects are aggravated (Except, 2009). The added value of this model compared to the People, Planet, Profit approach is that it provides more information on which factors are more fundamental than others in a system aiming at sustainability. For example, it would be impossible to have an economy without the necessary energy; it would be pointless to evaluate the financial feasibility of seaweed without the required materials for seaweed cultivation.

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2.2 Research Outline

The ELSIA approach provides the framework for this research and it will be elaborated on using a qualitative methodology to provide an overview of seaweed’s current possibilities. It is required to first look at the general possibilities of all the facets of seaweed before quantitative research would be able to make relevant. The qualitative research data has been acquired using two main methods; an extensive literature study and interviewing experts.

For the literature study, a data management table (Repko, 2012) was constructed for each discipline. This table consists of the reference to a relevant scientific article; the sub-discipline addressed; the theories covered; the insights it gives to the research problem; the key concepts and the underlying assumptions. The results from the data management table have then been integrated into the ELSIA outline.

Interviewing select experts was chosen as a method to gain an understanding of seaweed’s current status both in scientific and corporate environments. We conducted a total of three semi-structured interviews which were scheduled in advance. The interviews were organized around a set of

predetermined questions, although there was room for questions arising from the dialogue as well.

The interviewees were selected based on their profession and the relevancy of it to our research questions. Table 1 depicts the details of the selected interviewees. The Dutch transcripts of the interviews and a short English summary can be found in the appendices. The basic structures of the interviews can be found in the appendix.

Interview information table

Interviewee Profession interviewee Why is the selected expert relevant? Date interview Willem Brandenburg Scientist (Researcher at

Wageningen University)

Brandenburg is currently researching seaweed cultivation in the

Oosterschelde

October 21st 2015

Mark Kulsdom Entrepreneur (Founder

Dutch Weedburger)

Dutch Weedburger is expanding rapidly in the Netherlands and uses seaweed as an ingredient for their products

October 26st 2015

Willem Sodderland Entrepreneur(Founder

Seamore)

Seamore is a globally expanding company that sells seaweed in the form of pasta

November 2nd 2015

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2.3 Research limitations

The literature study which has been done is extensive, yet it is limited by the fact that there is not a lot literature available on seaweed cultivation specifically in the North Sea. This is because the research on this topic is still in its infancy. The amount of experts on this topic is also limited, making it difficult to gain a holistic view on seaweeds current status. Interviewing itself is a somewhat subjective method as well; although it has been attempted to use the information provided by the interviewees in an objective manner there are still external factors at play which can determine the answers given by the experts. However, this research has, where possible, used other scientific sources through data triangulation to verify this information.

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3. Results

This chapter will cover the results that have been found according to the segments of the previously described ELSIA approach. The individual aspect is not covered separately as this is entirely based on the other more fundamental object indicators.

3.1 Energy and materials

This part of the results will focus on the technical aspects of seaweed cultivation, including space allocation, nutrient availability and cultivation techniques, this chapter examines all prerequisites for effective sustainable exploitation of seaweed cultivation in the North Sea basin.

3.1.1 Space

The North Sea is an incredibly active region, filled with shipping routes, Natura 2000 areas, wind farms and several other activities (Waterplan, 2014). This presents a challenge for space allocation for seaweed cultivation in the North Sea. However, seaweed system integration could provide a key factor in the opportunities for its cultivation. It would be advisable to investigate the possibilities for wind farm and mariculture integration (Reith et al., 2005; Michler-Cieluch & Krause, 2008), as these allow for space to be shared. Currently, there are still some problems, mainly because of legislation and the lack of an ecologically applicable and efficient cultivation system.

However, legislators are working on possibilities to allow seaweed farming as a co-activity in the Dutch part of the North Sea basin. The policy document on the North Sea 2016-2021 (Waterplan, 2014) and the North Sea spatial agenda 2050 already state intentions to create opportunities for innovation in aquaculture. Meanwhile, the North Sea spatial agenda even suggests the possibility of combining seaweed farm anchoring systems with tidal energy generation systems. Also, the company Zeewaar is currently cultivating seaweed in the Oosterschelde area and the Noordzeeboerderij is currently

performing trials towards seaweed cultivation on the North Sea. Although this type of space allocation is a very complex issue, these could be the first steps in making large-scale cultivation possible.

3.1.2 Nutrient availability

Seaweed, like all plants, needs nutrients to grow. Therefore, nutrient availability is a prerequisite for its cultivation. Main macronutrient requirements are often described in a C:N:P-ratio, with the Redfield ratio, first described in Redfield (1934), of 106:16:1. This ratio is used as the standard for phytoplankton and general biomass in the deep oceans. However, seaweed strongly differs from this Redfield ratio with a median C:N:P-ratio of 550:30:1 (Lobban & Harrison, 1994). This ratio is higher for seaweeds native to tropical waters and decreases with latitude. These ratios have been visualised in figure 2.

Given Liebig’s law of the minimum, which states that growth is always dependent on the least available resource relative to its own optimum (Liebig, 1840. As described in Gorban et al., 2011), it is vital to examine limiting nutrients prior to large-scale seaweed cultivation in order to establish feasibility.

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However, studies in the past (Ryther & Dunstan, 1971; Björnsater & Wheeler, 1990) have also shown that the available nutrients have a strong influence on the eventual composition found in seaweed,

suggesting seaweed has the capability to adapt its growth composition in response to its environment. This type of adaptation is sometimes seen as a flaw in Liebig’s theory, as natural adaptation, artificial selection, or genetic modification are not fully incorporated into this theory. Algae and phytoplankton have been shown to have a really big variation depending on available concentrations (30:1 - 3:1) (Ryther & Dunstan (1971), making it difficult to make any clear predictions.

figure 2: A visualisation of all the different C:N:P ratios discussed

Therefore, not only would it be necessary to look at the already dynamic availability of different types of nutrients for seaweed cultivation in the North Sea, one would also need to look at seaweed’s adaptation in this dynamic system to determine viability. Unfortunately, this incredibly complex interaction falls well beyond the scope of this research, and will need to be studied in-depth before seaweed cultivation can be declared sustainable from a nutrient perspective. However, this report will try to give an indication of how nutrient availability and seaweed will interact if put in a large-scale cultivation scheme.

Seaweed’s median C:N:P-ratio of 550:30:1 is a lot higher than the common Redfield ratio. Given then, the relatively high availability of C in the form of CO2 in earth’s atmosphere, this is unlikely to present a problem. Therefore, it is necessary to look at the N:P ratio of 30:1, almost twice as high as the 16:1 Redfield ratio. The North Sea is a very nutrient-rich environment, even dealing with eutrophication as a result of this (Lenstra et al., 2011). The latter makes it unlikely for nutrient availability to present a problem early on.

However, seaweed might cause an eventual shift in nutrient balance. Ryther & Dunstan (1971) described the usual amount of phosphate in coastal marine environments to be around twice the amount that can

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be used by algae, concluding nitrogen to be the common limiting factor in algae growth. However, with seaweed’s nearly doubled N:P ratio, this could mean that phosphorus, rather than nitrogen, will become the limiting factor in seaweed growth. Current predictions already mention a P-limited coastal ecosystem as a future possibility (Troost et al., 2014). Yet, once again, an in-depth analysis of the nutrient

interactions will be necessary in order to determine the exact influence large-scale seaweed cultivation might have.

3.1.3 Seaweed exploitation techniques

There are several possible ways of seaweed farming. The company Seamore, for example gathers its seaweed (Himanthalia elongata) from the shores of Ireland (W. Sodderland, personal communication, November 2, 2015). However, for large-scale seaweed production this is likely to prove insufficient (M. Kulsdom, personal communication, October 26, 2015), rendering it unsustainable for large-scale production. Therefore, one needs to look at the cultivation possibilities. Green, brown and red weeds usually grow at different depths in the water. Their colors are a result of this depth and the wavelength of sunlight still present at that level. However, Willem Brandenburg (Personal communication, October 21, 2015) is currently experimenting with keeping them at or close to the surface height to gain optimal production values.

After the growing of seaweed, dehumidifiers are used in order to be able to transport it more effectively (W. Sodderland, personal communication, November 2, 2015). This is a very energy-intensive process, which might be an obstacle in sustainable seaweed cultivation. Willem Brandenburg (Personal

communication, October 21, 2015) even suggested the possibility of extracting freshwater from seaweed because seaweed retains most salts. This might even lead to the dehumidifying of seaweed as

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3.2 Life

The cultivation, production and consumption of seaweed could have multiple influences on the ecosystems and species on this earth in general. The impact on the North Sea environment might especially be significant if the seaweed is cultivated in that area. This part of the results will focus on the possibilities in which seaweed can contribute to a more environmentally responsible and more

sustainable food system. These possibilities can be derived by examining both the possible positive and negative environmental consequences of seaweed cultivation.

3.2.1 Good Environmental Status

A part of a more environmentally responsible food system could be a food system which contributes to a Good Environmental Status for the North Sea (GES). A GES is defined by the Marine Strategy Framework Directive (MSFD) as “The environmental status of marine waters where these provide ecologically diverse and dynamic oceans and seas which are clean, healthy and productive” (European Commission, 2015).

This should be reached for European marine waters by 2020 (Borja et al., 2012). This GES consists of eleven descriptors which together summarize how the entire marine system works (Borja et al. 2011). One of these indicators is eutrophication (O’Higgins & Gilbert, 2014). Eutrophication is a phenomenon which typically happens along the coast due to river discharges. The exact definition of coastal

eutrophication used in this research is: an enrichment process that occurs along the coast and which seen as a negative process from the point of water quality management.

Eutrophication is one of the most essential GES indicators as it also influences the other indicators substantially. This is due to the direct and indirect ecosystem responses it evokes as depicted in figure 3 on the contemporary conceptual model of eutrophication.

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eutrophication problem (Cloern, 2001, p.239)

The coastal zone of the Netherlands is assessed as a potential eutrophication problem area by Skogen et al. (2014). Additionally, figure 4 demonstrates that eutrophication is significantly occurring along the Dutch coast (Lenstra, Reith & Hal, 2011). As the European commission wants to have achieved a GES for the North Sea by 2020 and the definition of eutrophication already implies that it is a negative process it should be clear that it should be limited substantially. There is a high possibility that the cultivation of seaweed can reduce eutrophication. Lüning and Pang (2003) state that seaweed cultivations for

commercial purposes could likely help to alleviate the eutrophication problems which are caused by fed aquaculture. Brandenburg (Personal communication, October 21, 2015) also confirms that seaweed cultivation might be able to contribute significantly to the reduction of the negative consequences of eutrophication. Fei (2004) even explicitly states that seaweed could be a good solution against eutrophication as he states: “The author believes that seaweed cultivation in large scale should be a good solution to the eutrophication problem in coastal waters.”(p.145) The four preconditions Fei (2004) mentions for this claim are exactly the issues which are also taken into consideration in this research; is it possible to conduct large-scale cultivation within the region experiencing eutrophication, is it

scientifically and technically possible, does the cultivation not impose any harmful ecological effects and is the cultivation economically feasible and profitable.

Another indicator for a GES is that: “Concentrations of contaminants are at levels not giving rise to pollution effects” (Law et., 2010). The North Sea is often seen as very polluted due to the significant use of its economic services. Cultivating seaweed is a natural way to make the sea cleaner (Waterplan, 2014). However, it is important to consider that it if seaweed is to be used as a contaminant filter, that it might become less suitable for human consumption. Thus, the cleaning effect of seaweed which is beneficial to the marine environment might have negative counter-effects considering human health. This implies that water monitoring it essential if the seaweed is gathered (W. Brandenburg, personal communication, October 21, 2015). to prevent consumption of contaminated seaweed. Willem Sodderland (personal communication, November 2, 2015) also confirmed that his seaweed is constantly monitored.

Figure 4: Eutrophication occurring in the North Sea around the Netherlands indicated by chlorophyll (Lenstra, Reith & Hal, 2011, slide 11).

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3.2.2 Coastal Eutrophication

Seaweed also offers a possibility for a more environmentally responsible food system in an indirect way. For this it is important to consider that according to Cloern (2001) coastal eutrophication is a direct result partly due to the excessive use of fertilizers in agriculture.

This implies that there is a positive influence of seaweed cultivation because the leaching of phosphorous and nitrogen into the ocean, which would otherwise occur due to the fertilization of terrestrial cultivation, is prevented. This is because the seaweed is grown in a marine environment instead of on terrestrial land and does not require fertilizers. Thus, indirectly the cultivation of seaweed in the North Sea could lead to a deduction of eutrophication rates.

3.2.3 Pest control

It is often assumed that when a food product is grown in its natural environment it needs to be protected from possible pests or unwanted predators. With seaweed this cannot be done with

conventional pesticides as this would just cause pollution because the pesticides would drift away along with the ocean currents. Thus, it is required to determine other solutions which have no negative environmental consequences. Willem Brandenburg (Personal communication, October 21, 2015) offered a few suggestions to tackle this problem. As the simplest solution he would offer to regularize the cultivation in such a way as to ensure that the seaweed is not cultivated during the time that intruders are present. Another solution suggested by Willem Brandenburg (Personal communication, October 21, 2015) could be to use certain fragrances of the predators of the possible invaders. This way the threat by the invaders might be reduced as they will perceive the seaweed cultivation area as a possible dangerous area. Pleading for this solution is that using pheromones as an insect pest control technique seems to work in terrestrial conditions; Silverstein (1981) concluded that it would “seem to be a remarkably safe procedure even under the most misguided management” (p. 1332). However marine conditions are very different and, as Brandenburg had also indicated, there still has to be done more research on these kind of techniques.

3.2.4 Mono-cultures of seaweed

There are environmental threats that might arise if seaweed is implemented as a monoculture. If only a single species is cultivated the production is more vulnerable to diseases (Zhu et al., 2000). A cultivation of mixtures of species can often help to protect against these kinds of stresses (Wolfe, 1985). In the case of seaweed this is an option as Brandenburg (Personal communication, October 21, 2015) indicates it might be possible to think of a yearly rotation system for seaweed. It would also be possible to grow several types of seaweed simultaneously. This type of crop heterogeneity can contribute to a less vulnerable production as well.

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3.3 Society

This part of the results focuses on the social and economic segment with regard to the integration of seaweed in our food system. These results explain the feasibility to make seaweed sufficiently financially attractive for large-scale cultivation. This implies that sufficient returns can be achieved through the cultivation and production of seaweed (on the supply side of the market) and that simultaneously the price of seaweed will be more attractive for consumers (on the demand side). Furthermore, this part of the results will explain what can be done to make seaweed as a food product more socially accepted.

3.3.1 Social acceptance

According to Rogers (2010), there are 5 stages in which 5 different groups of people are distinguished to accept a new idea or product. The first three stages are relevant for the scope of this research and therefore, only these stages will be discussed briefly. In the first stage, the first group of people that accept the new product is formed. These are the innovators (always looking for the latest products), the first to want the product. This is the smallest group, namely 2,5% of the target group. In the second stage, the early adopters arise as a group. They occupy 13,5% of the target group. These are the

pioneers, also people who are out on new things. This phase is characterized by a strong growth in sales. The group of early majority is the first large group of people (‘mass consumers’) who will buy the

product. The product is then taken up by the mass and reaches its maturity stage, in which growth in sales stagnates and the product is known as conventional. Figure 5 illustrates the different groups and stages within the product life cycle (Rogers, 2010; Grant, 2013). Like Rogers’ model suggests, it is

important to first get the attention of the innovators. Then the pioneers need to be reached and this will result in acceptance of the new product within the third and largest group.

In our research we found a number of ways in which the innovators, pioneers and mass consumers can be reached and ‘convinced’ of seaweed as a food product, in order to accomplish a better integration in our food system. First of all, a shift is needed in the association of seaweed with ‘poverty’, ‘culinary’ or ‘distasteful food’ to ‘trendy’, conventional and tasteful food. This is a weakness that needs to be tackled and the opportunity primarily lies in making seaweed a trendy food product, in order to address the innovators and pioneers. (W. Sodderland, personal communication, November 2, 2015; The Guardian, 2014; MVO trendrapport 2015). Another possibility to encourage this shift could be to provide a better integration of seaweed in cooking, horeca and horeca education. This will lead to more attention for this new product within the larger groups of pioneers and mass consumers. One more solution would be to use seaweed in processed foods as a substitute for other products so it is introduced into our diets without having to cross the threshold of specifically eating seaweed (W. Sodderland, personal communication, November 2, 2015; The Guardian, 2014). Together with the idea to make seaweed readily available, people will get used to the idea that seaweed can be commonly used as a food product. Furthermore, seaweed can be a very healthy substitute for conventional protein sources that generally contain more calories and sugars and are less nutritious in terms of fibers and vitamins (W. Brandenburg, personal communication, October 21, 2015; W. Sodderland, personal communication, November 2, 2015; M. Kulsdom, personal communication, October 26, 2015). In the future, this will be a reason for consumers who like to consciously choose healthier food products, to buy and consume more

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seaweed products. Besides, seaweed has its strength that it has the possibility to be a sustainable food product, which is good for its image on the food market (MVO trendrapport 2015). Society becomes increasingly involved with sustainability and this provides growing awareness. Therefore, seaweed as a food product will be able to be socially more accepted, because it can serve as a solution to the stress on the world food system.

Figure 5: innovation adoption lifecycle (Rogers, 2010)

3.3.2 Economies of scale

Looking at the financial aspect, we found that an essential strength, which makes seaweed financially and socially more attractive as a food product, will be to apply economies of scale (W. Brandenburg, personal communication, October 21, 2015; W. Sodderland, personal communication, November 2, 2015). Economies of scale exist wherever proportionate increases in the amount of inputs employed in a production process (i.e. increase in scale of business or plant) result in reductions in costs per unit of output (Grant, 2013). There are two types of economies of scale. One is internal, which are cost savings generated from within a business regardless of the industry, market or environment in which it operates. The other is external, which are cost savings generated because of the way in which its industry is organised (Hindle, 2008). Economies of scale are one of the drivers of cost advantage (Grant, 2013). According to Porter (1998), cost advantage is an important key success factor for competitive advantage and/or establishment of a business within a market. Cost advantage in turn can be achieved by means of cost analysis, which is a driver of Porter’s theory of the ‘value chain’1_{(Grant, 2013). Applying economies}

1The value chain is a sequence of vertically related activities undertaken by a single business or by a number of

vertically-related businesses in order to produce a product or service. Because of the value chain theory’s irrelevant scope, including a lot more aspects than we will discuss in our research, this theory will not furthermore be explained.

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of scale is mainly important for two reasons. One reason is related to the demand side of the food market. During the introduction stage of a new product on the market, it is important that this product has a price that is attractive to potential customers. According to Willem Sodderland and Willem

Brandenburg (personal communication, November 2, 2015; Personal communication, October 21, 2015), seaweed will become financially more attractive and gets the consumer’s attention inter alia because of its good price by means of economies of scale. This is called the functioning of price elasticity of

demand, lowering the price provides a higher demand for the product (Grant, 2013). This way, seaweed will simultaneously achieve more social acceptance as an alternative to less sustainable protein sources.

The second reason relates to the supply side of the food market. In order to make seaweed a financially attractive food product, it has to have an acceptable price but it also has to be profitable to the seller. The seaweed supply chain therefore needs to further reduce the costs (W. Sodderland, personal

communication, November 2, 2015). This can be done by increasing the scale in cultivation and production, because increases in output generally do not require proportionate increases in input (Grant, 2013). This effect of economies of scale is depicted in figure 6. Willem Brandenburg (Personal communication, October 21, 2015) confirms that this is also the case within the seaweed production process. Figure 7 shows the results of research that is done by the Energy research Centre of the Netherlands (ECN) in cost development for seaweed production on the North Sea. It is clear in these calculations that the cost price indication declines when the production is

being scaled up. According to Lenstra et al. (2011) the scale of a seaweed farm in the North Sea needs to be at least 1.000 ha. to be profitable.

Figure 6: Effect cost economies of scale

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3.3.3 Lean startup theory

As mentioned before, one of the problems that have been encountered before the research and that have been confirmed during this study, is that it will be difficult to achieve a better integration of seaweed in our food system. This is because of its current low acceptance as an ordinary food product and because seaweed products have to be made financially more attractive on both supply and demand side of the market. So the challenge here, is to find a proper strategy for seaweed-based food to gain a foothold within the market of the food industry. As a result in our research, we found the so called ‘lean startup’ strategy as the best approach to cope with this challenge.

The lean startup theory is a methodology for developing businesses and products (Eric Ries, 2011). Although this theory is relatively new, it has quickly taken root in business science and education, also it is already being used globally by (startup) companies. Using this method, startup companies can make the production process more efficient by reducing any sort of waste in the process, allowing to shorten their product development cycles (Mueller & Thoring, 2012; Ries, 2011). Mueller and Thoring (2012) explain that the aim of lean startup is to build a continuous feedback loop with customers during product development cycles. It tries to test the core business assumptions early in the product

development process, sometimes even before any product is built at all. This can be done by adopting a combination of business-hypothesis-driven experimentation, iterative product releases and validated learning. Startups should invest their time into iteratively building products or services to meet the needs of early customers (Ries, 2011). The cycle of this methodology is depicted in figure 8 (Ries, 2011) and boils down to the following. Before a solution is devised, there must first be validated and verified that someone has a problem and that a solution is clearly needed. Subsequently, research is being done within the target group, by means of asking questions without thinking of the solution to the problem yet. Afterwards, the problem and the components that need to be taken into account within the solution are clear. Now there can be thought of a solution, beginning with a “minimum viable product (MVP)”. It then will be tested again whether or not this solution suits the target group of the company. In this phase, perfecting the product will be done by incrementally adapting. This is called “validated learning”. But the experiment is more than just theoretical inquiry. If the product (solution to the defined problem) is successful, the company can start a campaign. This includes enlisting early adopters, adding employees to each further experimentation or iteration, and eventually the production of the product can get started. By the time that the product is ready to be distributed widely, the startup company will already have established customers. As a result of this approach, large amounts of initial project funding and expensive product launches and failures can be avoided and hereby market risk is reduced (Ries, 2011).

The means and the aim of this strategy approach have the right elements and incentives to implement the strategy in the concerning challenge (to gain a foothold within the market of the food industry for seaweed). Mueller & Thoring (2012) state this concept is highly relevant for any strategy or method that aims at creating innovations. Willem Sodderland (personal communication, November 2, 2015) confirms that this is why it should be applied on seaweed within the food industry. A startup is defined as a human institution designed to create new products and services under conditions of extreme

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way that (especially in western societies) seaweed is very unknown yet as a conventional food product for daily consumption. As it has been discussed earlier within the part of social acceptance, people are not familiar with seaweed as a food product and most people likely have preconceptions about it. Thus, seaweed as a food product is a new product that will be created and supplied under extreme uncertainty and the lean startup theory provides a good approach to cope with these conditions. As explained earlier, the lean startup method claims that the most efficient innovation is the one for which there is an actual demand among the users. In other words, the biggest waste is creating a product or service that nobody needs (Ries, 2011; Mueller & Thoring, 2012). In the case of seaweed, there is no urgent need yet for customers to buy it as a food product, so this has to be developed. The need for a product and thus demand has to be created first before a product can be successfully produced and sold, which will on its turn boost the supply side for further development. Willem Sodderland (personal communication, November 2, 2015) therefore states that the solution to the issue of seaweed integration within our food system should not be conceived from the supply side, but the issue needs to be addressed from the demand side. Hence, this is another reason why a lean startup strategy is necessary. These are exactly the elements and incentives that are needed to providea proper integration of seaweed in our food system.

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4. ELSIA integration and conclusion

In order to achieve sustainable large-scale cultivation of seaweed, all the ELSIA indicators need to be combined to provide an integrated ELSIA model and, with it, a clear view of the opportunities to

sustainably help integrate seaweed as a product into our daily food consumption. Approaching seaweed from a perspective of technical possibility, ecological safety and commercial feasibility, this chapter covers the requirements for sustainable large-scale seaweed cultivation.

Firstly, seaweed will need to be able to grow as a requirement for large-scale cultivation. For this, proper space allocation is required in order to allow any seaweed cultivation, sustainable or otherwise, to commence. The energy and materials section shows there are promising leads for space allocation in the North Sea for seaweed farms near wind parks or other energy generation plants.

With enough space available, the next obstacle becomes nutrient availability. Nutrient availability could not be adequately assessed in this research for a conclusive verdict on the possibilities. Therefore, it is necessary to further investigate the North Sea’s nutrient balance and seaweeds possible interactions with it before large-scale seaweed cultivation is viable from a technical possibility perspective. Assuming there is a possibility to cultivate seaweed in the North Sea this could also contribute to the reduction of eutrophication and thus could help improve the North Sea’s GES.

When the growing possibilities and conditions have been established, one will need to look at the cultivation techniques. Currently, in Europe, seaweed is mainly exploited through gathering, but research into more efficient seaweed cultivation techniques is under way. However, after gathering or cultivating, seaweed needs to be dried in order to transport it effectively. This drying is currently quite energy-intensive, but using economies of scale, or following research into freshwater extraction from seaweed, can be adapted to become (more) sustainable.

Given the absorption capability of seaweed, before any business is likely to start commercially cultivating seaweed in the North Sea, they are likely to want a risk assessment on possible health hazards and possible pests on seaweed. For this reason, it is important to always monitor the water to prevent harm due to contaminants. To decrease the vulnerability of seaweed to diseases it is also advisable to use polycultures.

Finally, seaweed is required to be marketed and sold in order to have any effect on our daily food system. In addition, there is no use in its cultivation if there is no market for the product because it would not be sustainable. To create a thriving consumer market, the social acceptance of seaweed will need to be raised. The lean startup theory provides startup companies with an excellent way of bringing seaweed on the market, after which economies of scale will allow for an ever larger production at lower costs.

In conclusion, although a lot of research is still necessary before large-scale sustainable cultivation is possible, there are several possibilities for space allocation. Nutrient availability is estimated to be

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sufficient but will need to be studied further. Cultivation, drying and transport techniques are still improving and will become more efficient when seaweed-based startup companies gain more ground on the food market, possibly using the lean startup theory. This will improve the financial attractiveness and consequently the social attractiveness of seaweed as a food product following rogers’ model. This attractiveness is also increased by seaweeds possibilities regarding positive ecological effects, as it can improve certain GES indicators such as eutrophication. As a result, more and more companies are likely to invest in seaweed as a food product, eventually integrating sustainable seaweed consumption into our daily food system.

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5. Recommendations and reflections

In the attempt to answer the main research question of this report, many others have been raised. Therefore, follow-up studies will be necessary in order to get a definitive answer. A recommendation for a follow-up study would be to consider how unwanted fish are going to be kept away from the seaweed crops to prevent harvests from getting lost. This cannot be done without conventional pesticides because this would only lead to pollution.

Additionally, it needs to be taken into account that before determining whether seaweed can be sustainably implemented on a large scale, research needs to be done into the exact nutrient amounts, both in availability, as in uptake from the seaweed. Also, the process of cultivating and drying seaweed has yet to be perfected. Therefore, more research into the most efficient way of cultivating seaweed on a large scale is necessary. Another subject entirely would be to investigate whether the drying of seaweed can be done in such a way that the dehumidifying process yields freshwater. Also, tropical seaweeds appear to have a much higher N:P ratio than temperate seaweeds. This might open up possibilities for seaweed cultivation on locations other than the North Sea.

Apart from seaweed as a product for human consumption it is also important to consider that it has many other significant potential uses. Seaweed could be used a biological mechanism for the production of fresh water. It might have potential as a sustainable biofuel (Lenstra et al., 2011) It could be a filter for fish farms to prevent them from causing harmful nutrient flows into the ocean. It might be possible that rare metals which have disappeared into the sea can be found again and thus re-used by the use of seaweed (W. Brandenburg, personal communication, October 21, 2015). Additionally, seaweed might be of use for the chemical industry. These other potential uses could also contribute to a more efficient and economical use of seaweed.

This report has aimed to provide an interdisciplinary ELSIA approach to seaweeds possibilities. It is the belief of the researchers this has been accomplished at least for the ELSA-indicators. The others will be left to the businesses involved in seaweed and to governments in order to bring the predictions of this report into practice. Although the individual indicators are still rather disciplinary, every discipline has meaningfully contributed to the main conclusion, completing the interdisciplinary integration with all relevant sub-headers.

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Appendix A: Basic Interview Structure Willem

Brandenburg

Waar u bent op dit moment precies mee bezig?

In welk stadium is het zeewier onderzoek op dit moment volgens u?

Welke soorten gebruikt u voor uw experiment?

Waarom juist deze soorten?

Waarom heeft u juist gekozen voor deze locatie?

Welke locaties zouden volgens u mogelijke uitbreidings locaties zijn? Welke limieten en obstakels komen hierbij kijen?

Denkt u dat het haalbaar zou zijn om zeewierboerijen in combinatie met windmolens te doen?

Wat zijn de voor- en nadelen van zeewier als voedsel product?

Wat zouden de mogelijke negatieve ecologische effecten zijn op het milieu? Heeft u een idee van de ecologische costs/benefits?

- En wat zouden de ecologische limitien van de noordzee kunnen zijn?

Hoe zit de zeewierboererij technisch gezien in elkaar?

- Hoeveel tijd zit er tussen het planten en het oogsten van zeewier?

- Wat zijn belangrijke factoren om rekening mee te houden gezien de omstandigheden in de Noordzee?

- Hoe efficiënt is zeewierteelt?

Bij welke bedrijven zou volgens u de meeste kans zijn dat er investeringen vandaan komen?

Wij denken dat, om zeewier binnen de maatschappij financieel aantrekkelijker te maken als

voedselproduct om te kopen en aan te bieden, het toepassen van economies of scale belangrijk zal zijn. Dit om met een grotere input dus ook meer output te krijgen tegen lagere kosten. In welke mate zijn economies of scale volgens u toepasbaar en/of van belang mbt de supply chain (cultivation/production) van zeewier?

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In welke mate kan dit belangrijk zijn om zeewier financieel aantrekkelijk te maken voor zowel de supply side als de demand side van de voedselmarkt?

Wat denkt u dat de eventuele subsiderings mogelijkheden vanuit instanties als de overheid en de EU zouden zijn? In hoeverre zou dit essentieel kunnen zijn om te stimuleren dat zeewier beter te

geïntegreerd zal worden in consumptie en voedselpatroon?

Wat denk u over de novel foods act?

ln hoeverre kan zeewierteelt bijdragen aan klimaatmitigatie door middel van carbon fixatie?

Kan zeewierteelt goed gecombineerd worden met fishfarms?

Hoe ziet u de toekomst? Zal zeewier bijvoorbeeld binnen tien jaar al een goede alternatieve eiwit bron kunnen zijn voor vlees? Of denk u dat dit nog veel langer zal duren? Wat kunnen hierbij stilansen en mogelijke obstakels zijn?

Heeft u een idee van wat de financiële cost/benefits zullen zijn van zeewier als product? (Bijvoorbeeld een overzichtelijke bron)

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Appendix B: Basic Interview Structure Mark

Kulsdom

Hoe groot is jullie bedrijf op dit moment?

Hoe werkt Dutchweedburgers (financieel/technisch)

Welke soorten zeewier gebruiken jullie? Waarom juist deze soorten?

Waarom hebben jullie voor de Oosterschelde gekozen als locatie voor de teelt van jullie zeewier?

Hoe zit jullie productieproces in elkaar?

Wat zijn de inkoop kosten voor zeewier voor jullie burger en hoe zijn de productiekosten?

Hoe zit jullie logistieke proces in elkaar?

In hoeverre houdt u rekening met het milieu bij uw productieproces? En bij de teelt/het verzamelen van het zeewier? (Dit gebeurt dus met de hand door een bedrijf genaamd Zeewaar).

Welke uitdagingen bent u in het verleden tegenaan gelopen/ loopt u nu tegen aan?

Krijgt u subsidies? (--> of is dit een beetje een ongemakkelijke vraag om te stellen?)

Marketing

Geloven jullie erin dat we over een niet al te lange tijd allemaal zeewier consumeren als conventioneel voedselproduct?

Wat doet DWB om te zorgen dat zeewier als voedsel sociaal meer geaccepteerd (zal) word(en) en wat moet er nog gebeuren?

Welke stimulans heeft zeewier als voedselproduct volgens jullie nodig van bedrijven, overheden, maatschappelijke projecten e.d. om zeewier goed te kunnen integreren in ons dagelijkse eetpatroon?

De toekomst

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Gaat economies of scale een grote rol spelen in de toekomst van jullie bedrijf?

Zou het mogelijk zijn om in de toekomst jullie dutchweedburgers in de supermarkt te verkopen? Waarom wel /waarom niet?

Toekomst en windmolenparken

Op dit moment werkt u met 100% Hollands zeewier, denk u echter dat het wel mogelijk zal zijn qua beschikbare ruimte in de Noordzee om dit te blijven doen wanneer Dutchweedburgers veel groter wordt? Hoe zou u denken over de mogelijkheid dat zeewier in combinatie met windmolenparken geteelt zal worden?

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Appendix C: Basic Interview Structure Willem

Sodderland

Hoe groot is jullie bedrijf op dit moment?

Hoe werkt Seamore (financieel/technisch)

Welke soorten zeewier gebruiken jullie? Waarom juist deze soorten?

Waarom hebben jullie voor Ierland gekozen als locatie om jullie zeewier vandaan te halen?

Hoe zit jullie productie proces in elkaar?

Wat zijn de inkoop kosten voor zeewier voor jullie burger en hoe zijn de productiekosten?

Hoe zit jullie logistieke proces in elkaar?

In hoeverre houdt u rekening met het milieu bij uw productie proces? En bij de teelt/het verzamelen van het zeewier? (dit gebeurt dus met de hand door een bedrijf genaamd Zeewaar).

Welke uitdagingen bent u in het verleden tegenaan gelopen/ loopt u nu tegen aan?

Krijgt u subsidies?

Marketing

Geloven jullie er in dat we over een niet al te lange tijd allemaal zeewier consumeren als conventioneel voedsel product?

Wat doet Sea more om te zorgen dat zeewier als voedsel sociaal meer geaccepteerd (zal) word(en) en wat moet er nog gebeuren?

Welke stimulans heeft zeewier als voedselproduct volgens jullie nodig van bedrijven, overheden, maatschappelijke projecten e.d. om zeewier goed te kunnen integreren in ons dagelijkse eetpatroon?

De toekomst

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Gaat economies of scale een grote rol spelen in de toekomst van jullie bedrijf?

Zou het mogelijk zijn om in de toekomst jullie Sea more Pasta in de reguliere supermarkt te verkopen? Waarom wel /waarom niet?

Toekomst en windmolenparken

Op dit moment werkt u met 100% Hollands zeewier, denk u echter dat het wel mogelijk zal zijn qua beschikbare ruimte in de Noordzee om dit te blijven doen wanneer Dutchweedburgers veel groter wordt ? Hoe zou u denken over de mogelijkheid dat zeewier in combinatie met windmolenparken geteelt zal worden?

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Appendix D: Summary Interview Willem

Brandenburg

Willem Brandenburg is a researcher at Wageningen university. He started his research into seaweed due to the possible problems with food security in the future. It is not possible to cultivate food just

anywhere, as is sometimes assumed, therefore another location (the sea) could be investigated.

Additionally, in forty years’ time, the agricultural production will need to be doubled, while the resource use needs to be cut in half. With a growing world population, and additional problems arising from that, this could become a huge problem.

The main issue for food security will be a sustainable protein source. Currently our main source for this is meat, but this is not very efficient, the alternative is seaweed. Dried seaweed can contain over 25% protein, with an essential aminoacid index of 98%. Additionally, not a drop of freshwater is needed to produce. Now, it is theoretically possible to produce more dried matter at sea per hectare (per latitude) than on land. They achieved 35 tonnes of dried matter per hectare (adjusted for scale), compared to 25 tonnes on land. This is partly due to the different type of photosynthesis, as red and brown weeds evolved deeper in the water, they developed extra photoreceptors to higher frequencies of the

electromagnetic spectrum. This also allows them to grow during winter, as they can still take up enough photons to practice photosynthesis. Additionally, through artificial selection, this yield could even be increased.

Using a complicated calculation, it is possible to create enough proteins for a world population of 10 billion people with only 360.000 km2 (2% of the ocean surface) without the need for soy or meat. This does not mean meat should be abolished from our food system, but it would not be as vital and it would not need to be so large-scale and unsustainable. Another reason is that most of the waste from land flows out to sea, a lot of nutrients being lost there. In this way, seaweed can function as a nutrient-recycling mechanism. It could also reduce the large amounts of carbon in the seas that are currently leading to acidification. Due to the hodrocoloïds in seaweed, the salt in seaweed is retained when it is dried, as a result of this, there are even freshwater-creation possibilities in seaweed cultivation.

Seaweed can be cultivated using several different techniques, combining the different types, or using a yearly rotation. There is currently a lot of research that is being done about this. Another possibility is using a multi-integrated system, but it is vital to ensure this is still sustainable when implemented. Seaweed is very absorptive, along with water monitoring, this is not dangerous, but it could have positive effects due to food applications. Another alternative application of seaweed is to use it to extract carbonfibers which can have many applications in terms of e.g. strength.

Pests could be a problem, just as they are with any cultivation type. However, sustainable crop protection is possible due to crop rotations, or possibly the use of pheromones.

Policy for space for seaweed could still present an issue, but it is slowly changing, making seaweed ever-more feasible.

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Appendix E: Summary interview Mark Kulsdom

This chapter will elaborate on the most important points made by Kulsom which have been discussed during the interview which was conducted on October 26st.

The type of company that Dutchweedbugers is, is a private limited company. Before this they had thought about becoming a foundation but they made the decision for a private limited company after they had found an investor. They don’t have a clear strategy; they believe they have a great idea and are motivated by this. The core of the company consists of six people of which only mark works full time. The burger they sell consists mainly of

texturized soy protein and seaweed. Other ingredients are herbs and binding compounds. About 10% of the burger is fresh seaweed. Dutchweedburger works together with a company called Zeewaar who is responsible for the cultivation and collection of the seaweed from the farm. Kulsdom believes that cultivation on a farm is a much better way to obtain seaweed as compared to wild harvesting. He think that the former is a lot more controllable. The farm is located in the Oosterschelde. Directly after the harvesting Dutchweedburgers makes sure the seaweed gets frozen and this way they have provisions for the rest of the year. The factory in which the burgers are

processed is located in Deventer. After this the burgers are moved to their distribution centrum in Zoetermeer. Dutchweedburgers pays around 10-13 euros per kilo of seaweed. The started with a margin of profit of around 30% and they are working towards a margin because 60%-80%. This will probably be possible according to Kulsdom as they are going to produce on a bigger scale which lower the costs. He thinks it would be most realistic to start with Europe considering the expansion of his company; The Netherlands, Belgium, England, Ireland, Germany and then Scandinavia. He plans on selling a million burgers within the coming 5 years. Kulsdom is positive about the future of our society concerning the consumption of seaweed. He thinks that a diet based on vegetables is the best way to create direct change concerning solutions to problems as coming fresh water shortages.

Kulsdom does not want to sell the burgers in supermarkets as he argues that they will then be placed next to other meat substitutes and there is very little market growth possible their due to all the competition. They want to keep their product exclusive and focus mainly on the restaurants. Kulsdom thinks that their product is not necessarily an alternative to meat but rather a much better idea. He also stated that his company embodies a new way to look at proteins. He thinks that seaweeds are a perfect way to satisfy the needs of people who think they miss something when they eat other vegetarian products and who think that they need proteins in order to stay healthy.

Kulsdom is very positive about the expansion capabilities of Zeewaar. He stated that he had asked Zeewaar about this. He asked them if they would be able to keep up if Dutchweedburgers sold a million burgers. Zeewaar said this would be possible.

To raise more money Dutchweedburgers is going to be part of an investors programme together with eleven other young companies. They are going to make a plan which is going to be ready for investors. With this it is then going to be possible for them to be connected to a network. However, Kuldson does not really believe in connecting within his own branch. He is more interested in making connections with companies like the Bagels and Beans.

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Appendix F: Summary interview Willem

Sodderland

This chapter will elaborate on the most important points made by Sodderland which have been discussed during the interview that was conducted on november 2nd_2015.

Sodderland has a company in seaweed food products named Seamore. He starts with the question to us, if we are aware of the triple P report from Wageningen University about seaweed. He continues that this report is on the one hand a very useful and well documented report. The conclusion of the report is in short, that seaweed is a possible solution to the problem discussed, but only if the products can be produced with a higher added value. However, the only thing that has not been taken into account within the report, is the subject of human consumption, which is essential for the added value to a product. So on the other hand, the report lacks information, which makes it less valuable. The question here is how to create demand for stimulation of human consumption. Sodderland emphasizes that the focus is needed on the demand side (demand creation) of the market to create added value for seaweed, not the supply side. This is why Seamore also first focusses on harvesting seaweed in nature, instead of cultivating seaweed for harvest. Cultivation of seaweed requires big investments, which are worthless if there is no demand for the cultivated product yet. So cultivation of seaweed on small scale has a very high cost price, which consumers cannot afford. Hence, Seamore harvests seaweed from nature and while developing a proof of concept it tries to create more demand.

The seaweed they harvest is one species, himonthalia, from which they harvested 7.5 to 8 tons dry weight per year. This is converted 75 000 packs (units) of seaweed, which gives Seamore 250 000 to 275 000 Euros in turnover. The production costs per unit are currently approximately 2 Euros. This is around 20 Euros per kilogram, from which the harvester receives 8 Euros and the rest goes to logistics and packaging etcetera. The margin of profit is approximately 1,50 Euros per unit. This is not much, but we deliberately want to keep the selling price low. Of course, it has to be taken into account that stores to which we sell also want a margin of profits on our product. Seamore products have to be products for the general public, it is not meant as a niche product with higher selling prices. Coming years, Seamore plans to grow fast in sales of seaweed that is harvested out of nature. Countries in which this type of seaweed grows are for example Ireland, France and Spain. Seamore wants to reach a production target of 2.5million units within this period. When Seamore reaches the limit for sustainable harvesting (estimated 10-15% of the overall growth in the respective harvest locations) it plans to switch to cultivation. The biggest challenges for Seamore lay within this process. One challenge is finding a partner for the seaweed harvesting process, that has the same ambitions (in scale) and goals as Seamore does. Another difficulty is to reckon with a licensing system (that is definitely coming in the future), which Seamore has to cope with. Sodderland explains that the challenge here is to estimate and predict this licensing system as good as possible.

It is planned to search for more different species of seaweed to harvest in the future, not because of its moments of harvest, but because of marketing reasons. Of course it will be convenient to have multiple harvest moments per year to be more flexible, but it is more important for Seamore that it is possible to create a good and interesting product to sell. This is also part of Seamore’s way of marketing. For instance, they positioned seaweed as pasta, instead of seaweed. Sodderland explains Seamore does not ask the consumer to try seaweed, but instead Seamore shows what dishes can be made using seaweed. It gives consumers the possibility to create familiar food that is probably also healthier using seaweed. Furthermore, Seamore uses the ‘Lean Startup’ theory for development in its proof of concept and as a strategy for demand creation. Sodderland explained this theory concisely. Also Sodderland explains that a powerful marketing strategy Seamore uses, is word of mouth marketing instead of very

I sea weed in the future: An interdisciplinary ELSIA approach to sustainable seaweed cultivation for food production