What mobilizes individuals to engage in volunteering?
Master Thesis
MSc Business Administration - Entrepreneurship and Innovation
Student: Anita Ruttkies
Student-ID: 11422408
Supervisor: Alexander Alexiev
Date: 23
rdof June 2017
Statement of Originality
This document is written by Student Anita Ruttkies who declares to take full responsibility for the contents of this document.
I declare that the text and the work presented in this document is original and that no sources other than those mentioned in the text and its references have been used in creating it. The Faculty of Economics and Business is responsible solely for the supervision of completion of the work, not for the contents.
Abstract
Volunteering, particularly employee volunteering is a topic of growing concern in organisations around the world. In recent years, researchers have emphasized the importance of volunteering, especially in the areas of management. Despite the rising interest in the topic, questions regarding the characteristics that motivate individuals to volunteer have yet not been properly answered and research is currently based on incomplete results.
Therefore, this thesis examines how to advance management approaches on volunteering. Furthermore, the relation between self-concerned motivations for volunteering and volunteering intensity is tested. Moreover, this thesis examines what role gender plays in the relationship between self-concerned motivations for volunteering and volunteering intensity. This result carries important implications for organizations that would become highly attractive.
Theoretical and practical implications, particularly for the management and mobilization of employees, are also discussed in the course of the research.
Table of content
Abstract ... 2 Table of content ... 3 1. Introduction ... 5 2. Literature Review ... 8 2.1 Determinants of Volunteering ... 8 2.1.1 Definition of Volunteering ... 8 2.1.2 Employee Volunteering ... 102.2 The Role of Job Satisfaction towards Volunteering ... 10
2.3 The Role of Gender towards Volunteering ... 11
2.4 Determinants of Motivation ... 13
2.4.1 Definition of Motivation ... 13
2.4.2 Work Motivation ... 13
2.4.3 Volunteer Motivation ... 16
2.5 Literature Gap and Research Question ... 18
2.5.1 Conceptual Model ... 19 3. Methodology ... 20 3.1 Research Method ... 20 3.1.1 Measures ... 20 3.2 Data Collection ... 22 3.3.1 Participants ... 22 3.3.2 Procedures ... 22 3.4 Analytical strategy ... 22 4. Results ... 24 4.2 Computing Reliability ... 24 4.3 Correlations ... 25 4.4 Regression ... 26 4.6 Process ... 27 6. Discussion ... 29 6.1 Theoretical Implications ... 30 6.2 Practical Implications ... 31
6.3 Limitations and Direction for further Research ... 33
7. Conclusion ... 34
List of tables
Table 1: Correlation ... 25 Table 2: Regression ... 26 Table 3: Process ... 27List of figures
Figure 1: Conceptual Model ... 19 Figure 2: Interaction effect of the moderating effect of gender and self-concerned motivations on volunteering intensity ... 281. Introduction
Companies in general depend on the quality and ambiguity of their employees. Between the 1990s and 2001, companies felt pressure to employ large numbers of promising candidates in response to economic boom times. Because of the competitive job market and the prospect of being out of business soon, companies started to pursue alternative recruiting approaches to employ the most appropriate representatives (Beechler and Woodward, 2009; Cappelli, 2005; Michaels et al., 2001). Noting the economic situation in the United States, Cappelli (2005) calls attention to the challenges some employers face with respect to their recruiting processes. Reasons for these challenges, Cappelli argues, include fundamental changes in the relation between employers and employees.
Research shows that companies today attach even greater importance to their hiring processes, as they aim to employ highly skilled and motivated individuals (Beechler and Woodward, 2009; Rae-Dupree, 2008). Hence, there is a definite upward trend in the interest organizations show toward social engagement and corporate social citizenship in their strategies for CSR (corporate social responsibility) (Basil et al., 2009).
Due to a remarkable change in peoples’ motivation with respect to social engagement in the past decades, the act of volunteering has transitioned from a private matter to a public one (Wilson, 2000). In addition, many individuals have started to engage in voluntary work in addition to their everyday jobs. Each year men and women continue to devote time, either personal or as part of a corporate action, to voluntary activities (Rodell et al., 2016). Furthermore, trends indicate that employees ascribe more and more value to volunteering opportunities and possibilities to take social action when they evaluate prospective companies (Rodell et al., 2016). Research on volunteering has increased in the field of management during the last decade (Gupta et al., 2008). In summary, it can be said that volunteering has become a topic of growing importance for companies to improve their recruiting strategies.
However, despite the often-theorised motives for volunteering and corporate volunteering, research continues to yield inconsistent findings. The impact of organizational context on volunteering has hardly been explored (Wilson and Musick, 1997). As mentioned previously, it has been argued that volunteer programs have become an essential way for companies to convert employees to work for them (Basil et al., 2009; Wilson, 2000). Therefore, employers need to restructure their employment procedures to attract suitable people for relationship-driven work (Beechler and Woodward, 2009; Rodell et al., 2016). Consequently, it is crucial for companies to have clear instructions on how to entice and interest individuals in volunteering programs. The higher the number of motivated and socially inspired employees a company hires is, the more successful its CSR program will be (Beechler and Woodward, 2009). Therefore, this development gives rise to the question of how companies plan to motivate current and future employees to engage in volunteering. To answer this inquiry, possible factors and outcomes of volunteering, which motivate individuals to pursue volunteering programs, need to be examined.
Little has been written that identifies any perceived benefits for or intentions behind individuals who are performing voluntary actions (Geroy et al., 2000). However, in terms of specific aspects of volunteering, the examination of volunteering intensity and/or longevity and corporate volunteering programs has become relevant (Wilson, 2000). In addition, the study of volunteering has mainly been limited to the elderly population. Therefore, more studies are needed for younger age groups, especially in conjunction with temporal factors such as working hours (Wilson, 2000). Markham’s and Bonjean’s (1996) role overload theory, on the other hand, anticipates a negative relationship between working and volunteering hours. However, although employee volunteer programs can vary in terms of intensity and persistency, research cannot determine whether one of these two time designations have an effect on volunteering motivation (Geroy et al., 2000; Romano, 1994).
gender-based motivations towards volunteering. This suggests that variables that influence the relationship between volunteering and motivation towards it should be further tested. Nonetheless, this relationship has not yet been empirically proven.
Therefore, the current study examines what mobilizes (future) employees to engage in voluntary work so that companies can gain insight into how to motivate future employees. I propose that individuals with a high voluntary work-intensity are more prone to engage in further voluntary activities than individuals with a low level of voluntary work-intensity. Moreover, this study examines how this relationship is influenced in turn by the moderating role of gender. I propose that male gender has a negative effect on the relationship between self-concerned motivations for volunteering and volunteering intensity.
Hence, this study examines the volunteering experiences of individuals. To gain more knowledge about the possible drivers of motivation, demographic data of the examined individuals is collected. This makes it possible to gain relevant information about the side impacts of motivation towards volunteering. Therefore the following question is studied:
What mobilizes individuals to engage into voluntary activities?
The goal of this study is not only to answer the question of what mobilizes individuals to pursue voluntary work, but also to clarify what sort of voluntary activities those individuals have already experienced in terms of intensity. This study therefore adds to existing knowledge about voluntary work and volunteering individuals. However, possible explanations for the inconsistent findings concerning voluntary-work motivation and volunteering individuals, is clarified.
The study is organized in the following way. First, important determinants of volunteering are described. Second, the roles of job satisfaction and gender towards volunteering are outlined. Third, relevant determinants of motivation are defined. In addition, a theoretical and conceptual framework is presented following presentation of appropriate hypotheses. Finally, the research design is elucidated.
2. Literature Review
This chapter summarizes earlier research on volunteering, job satisfaction, gender and motivation. First, important determining elements of volunteering are discussed, including employee volunteering. Second, an overview of theories of job satisfaction and gender is presented. Third, relevant determinants of motivations are described. Different aspects that relate to the topic of this thesis are reviewed to create a basis for the theoretical framework. Moreover, an individual’s level of motivation and satisfaction when pursuing voluntary work beyond his or her permanent employment is analysed. Following this, an individual’s motivation to engage in voluntary work is examined.
2.1 Determinants of Volunteering
This section discusses the determining elements of volunteering, examined in this research. After defining the term volunteering, employee volunteering is reviewed.
2.1.1 Definition of Volunteering
Volunteering, as an activity exerted by an individual, can take many forms, each
inspired by a different set of values. Wilson, (2000, p. 215) defines volunteering “as any activity in which time is given freely to benefit another person, group or organization”. Penner, on the other hand, defines volunteering as “long-term, planned, pro-social behaviours that benefit strangers and occur within an organizational setting” (2002, p. 448). However, it is rather difficult to make clear distinctions between the various forms of volunteering. “Research on volunteering is multidisciplinary and fragmented” (Rodell et al., 2016, p.56). It is currently spread across several areas—for instance, studies of organizational behaviour, marketing, non-profit management psychology or corporate governance (Diefendorff and Chandler, 2011). Volunteering is also rather seen to be formalized and public rather than as having components of caring. With respect to specific aspects of volunteering, scholars focus
on examinations of intensity versus longevity of volunteering efforts (Caligiuri et al., 2013), corporate volunteering programs (Henning and Jones, 2013) or nonworking populations (Wilson, 2000). Rodell et al. (2016) emphasize three core elements that describe the structure of volunteering:
First, an individual spends a certain amount of time on a voluntary activity regardless of whether that time involves the application of particular skills (Wilson, 2000). The execution of a voluntary activity could, for instance, involve the application of knowledge or expertise in order to help a volunteer group: e.g., a lawyer voluntarily gives legal advice to a volunteer group). However, to give monetary donations is not part of the volunteering process. Though donating takes a certain amount of time, it does not represent an active engagement by the volunteer but is a more a passive form of aid (Omoto and Snyder, 1995).
Second, volunteering is not just a simple act of spontaneous helping, as in when a person helps another person carry luggage up the stairs of a train station. It can instead be seen as an arranged voluntary action: e.g., an individual sets up a date to plant greenery in a local city park (Penner, 2002; Wilson, 2000).
The third element builds on the previous two elements: For volunteering to be active and planned, it is nearly essential that it occurs in a more formal setting. Volunteering takes place in the context of some volunteering team or organization such as charitable or non-profit groups (Musick and Wilson, 2008; Penner, 2002). Volunteer groups or organizations are the objects or recipients of the volunteer behaviours.
A combining element of most volunteering definitions is that “[…] it is a formalized and public activity (Rodell et al., 2016, p.58). Volunteers do not typically know the recipient personally ahead of time (Omoto and Snyder, 1995; Wilson, 2000).
Hence, within this study, the term volunteering is used to express all forms of voluntary activities exerted by individuals whether or not they are employed.
2.1.2 Employee Volunteering
Despite attempts to provide a universal definition and framework for employee volunteering, there is no unified perspective about the issue yet (Rodell, 2013). Some scholars define this kind of volunteering as something that takes place exclusively in workplace initiatives (DeVoe and Pfeffer, 2007), whereas Grant claims that employee volunteering is the “extent to which employees initiate and sustain involvement in volunteering activities” (2012, p.593). Rodell (2013) describes it as an operation that takes place after work hours and therefore defines it as, “giving time or skills during a planned activity for a volunteer group” (2013, p.1274). Recapitulating the above-stated determinants, the definition of employee volunteering still awaits consensus. Yet, it can therefore be concluded that motivation for employee volunteering requires an employed individual, who gives time during an appointed action for an “external non-profit or charitable group or organization” (Rodell et al., 2016, p.57). However, in this study, the term employee volunteering not only includes activities exhibited by employed individuals as part of a company initiative, it also incorporates the term personal volunteering, (employee volunteering conducted on one’s own personal time). 2.2 The Role of Job Satisfaction towards Volunteering
In connection with employee volunteering, it is necessary to mention job satisfaction as well. According to Locke (1969, p.316), job satisfaction is “the pleasurable emotional state resulting from the appraisal of one's job as achieving or facilitating the achievement of one's job values”. It can cohere with “the attainment of values which are compatible with one’s needs” (Locke, 1983, p. 1328). Similarly, Williamson (1996, p.15) states that job satisfaction can be defined as “a pleasurable affective state associated with one’s job”. Job satisfaction can be seen as an affiliation between what an individual wants from his or her job and whether he or she perceives it as beneficial or necessary. Consequences that correspond to what a person values produce satisfaction with the job.
A rewarding performance, for instance, is an important condition that leads to job satisfaction, which in turn can facilitate social commitment (Smith and Shields, 2013). In addition, Organ (1988) states that employed individuals are more likely to take on citizenship habits—for instance, doing extra work—when they are satisfied with their jobs. Likewise, Fruend (2005) shares the opinion that job satisfaction is positively related to organizational citizenship behaviour, which can be defined as behaviour that is not included in an individual’s regular job description or for which he or she is not officially rewarded (Jex, 2002). In addition, job satisfaction is positively related to organizational commitment (Mannheim and Papo, 1999).
In this way, it can be concluded that an employee’s commitment to volunteering depends on his or her satisfaction with a job and/or voluntary activity (Locke and Latham, 1990b). Regarding employee volunteering in combination with job satisfaction, there is a correlation between an individual’s level of job satisfaction and his or her willingness to engage in volunteering activities.
2.3 The Role of Gender towards Volunteering
Among other demographic antecedents of employee volunteering, gender is most commonly studied (DeVoe and Pfeffer, 2007; Rodell, 2013). However, evidence of volunteering intensity by gender is diverse.
By comparing working hours of men and women, Marshall and Taniguchi (2012) show that males who perform supervisory jobs volunteer relatively fewer hours than their female colleagues in similar positions (Rodell et al., 2016).
By examining country-specific differences in volunteering, Hodgkinson and Weitzman (1988) observed that, in North America, men are slightly less likely to volunteer than women. In Europe, on the other hand, no overall gender difference is observed at all. Men volunteer more than women in some countries and less than women in others, despite
contributing the same number of hours.
Moreover, research shows that gender makes a difference not only to how much individuals volunteer but also to what kind of work they do. Female volunteers, for instance, are more prone to pursue caring, person-to-person tasks than their male counterparts (Menchik and Weisbrod, 1987; Wilson, 2000).
In addition, gender differences are also observed in the relation between social resources and volunteering. Women who see volunteering as an activity that enhances their social lives, are more likely to volunteer in the company of friends, (Wuthnow, 1995), whereas men volunteer in order to make friends (Gallagher, 1994; Wilson, 2000).
Furthermore, the effect of gender can also vary by life-cycle stage. Whereas some research finds that, among younger people, women tend to volunteer more hours than men (Wuthnow 1995:152), others find the reverse pattern among older people (Gallagher, 1994).
Despite the fact that males are less likely to volunteer than females, findings regarding gender and volunteering remain inconsistent (DeVoe and Pfeffer 2007; Lee and Brudney, 2012). This inconsistency is often associated with the motivations and beliefs of the genders exerting volunteering. Given that females score higher than men in measures of altruism and empathy, it can be concluded that women attach more value to helping others. However, there is no evidence that men value voluntary work less than women (Wilson and Musick 1997). Moreover, research has found that job autonomy promotes men’s volunteering but not women’s (Rodell et al., 2016). Therefore, the moderating effect of gender in interaction with volunteering will be examined in this study.
2.4 Determinants of Motivation
This section defines theories of motivation and analyses the corresponding components work motivation and volunteering motivation. My aim is to focus on why individuals pursue different voluntary activities.
2.4.1 Definition of Motivation
Motivation can be defined as an eagerness to pursue high levels of effort towards some
individual aims (Robbins, 1993). Related to this, an internal state that makes actual outcomes appear beneficial is necessary (Ramlall, 2004). Shye (2010) claims that motivation describes
the strength and direction of behaviour, whereas Diefendorff and Seaton (2015) go further by arguing that motivation can be observed in the choices individuals make regarding which goal to seek, the intensity of effort they invest in achieving a specific goal and their level of persistency in terms of chasing after a goal. To understand why individuals choose to engage in any sort of voluntary work, it is necessary first to understand what drives their personal motivations. In examining what drives an individual’s motivation who decides to pursue voluntary activities, it is important to take a deeper look at expectations.
An effective way to measure behavioural decision making is to use Vroom’s (1964) expectancy theory, more precisely the valence-instrumentality-expectancy (VIE) model. The VIE model can be related to concepts of voluntary work and is examined in the next sub-section (Sheridan and Slocum, 1975).
2.4.2 Work Motivation
For decades, there has been no consensus about how to build up a generally valid conceptual framework for explaining work motivation, especially in combination with the term satisfaction. However, from the 1970s onward, sufficient progress has been made in theory and research to create a relevant framework that embraces motivation and satisfaction (Locke and Latham, 1990b). Thus, the study of work motivation has experienced substantial
developments in recent years in terms of motivational progress and outcomes (Diefendorff and Seaton, 2015). While determining the boundaries of work motivation and satisfaction, Locke and Latham (1990a), pay regard to established motivation theories by mentioning that the motivation to work (produce) is best described in terms of goal-setting theory among other theories (Locke and Latham, 1994). Goal-setting theory is one of the most significant theories in the study of work motivation (Diefendorff and Seaton, 2015). In goal-setting studies, personal values consist of the performance goals assigned by others, or the goals one sets for oneself (Locke and Latham, 1994). These self-setting goals form the basis of what can be understand as work motivation. The concept of work motivation has to do with why people engage in particular activities at work and with the amount of effort exerted and the persistence in pursuing activities over time (Diefendorff and Seaton, 2015).
Another relevant theory that examines the basic module of work motivation, is Vroom’s (1964) expectancy theory (Sheridan and Slocum, 1975). Expectancy theory or the VIE model includes three components that motivate an individual if met: expectancy, instrumentality and valence. The goal with the highest motivational force is then adopted for pursuit (Diefendorff and Seaton, 2015; Lee, 2007).
The concept of expectancy is described as a subjective probability of an effort leading to a certain conclusion or performance (Van Eerde and Thierry, 1996). This indicates that expectancy is an individual’s appraisal of the possibility that effort will lead to rewarding work (Lee, 2007). In general, a person’s effort is highest when he or she thinks that the set goal is attainable and when there are values associated with the attainment of the goal (Locke, Latham, and Erez, 1988).
Based on the above-mentioned research, it can be claimed that expectancy can be observed in an individual’s attempt to pursue voluntary work. To achieve a certain positive outcome, an individual strives to benefit others, or him or herself, by performing voluntary work.
Instrumentality is the perceived likelihood that goal attainment will lead to favoured outcomes (e.g., if an individual performs at a particular level, he or she will receive the corresponding rewards) (Vroom, 1964). The term instrumentality can also be defined as a “person’s perception […] that performance will lead to a specific outcome” (Lee, 2007, p. 790) In addition, it expresses the possibility that an outcome can be reached, which is known as outcome-outcome combination. This combination can be either positive or negative (Van Eerde and Thierry, 1996). Regarding the practice of voluntary engagement, it can be expected that every man or woman, pursuing voluntary work, awaits certain outcomes from it. These outcomes can be self-rewarding just as they can be aimed at the well-being of others.
Valence describes the desirability, attractiveness and importance towards possible
outcomes (Van Eerde and Thierry, 1996). According to Vroom (1964, p. 15), “an outcome is positively valent when the person prefers attaining it to not attaining it [...].”
In summary, the VIE model is a valid indicator of performance, as it claims supremacy in the field of work motivation (Sheridan and Slocum, 1975).
Yet, the VIE model has not specifically been used to describe an individual’s motivation to engage in voluntary work. However, it is an important way to examine the relevant elements of motivation (Ramlall, 2004). Additionally, motivation derives from an individual’s perception that eagerness will lead to a desired performance (Steers, 1983), it can be claimed that willingness to volunteer is based on the expectancy theory’s core statement: that the effort involved in doing voluntary work will lead to a desired outcome. Therefore, the VIE model provides an important foundation for describing the origins of voluntary activities.
2.4.3 Volunteer Motivation
Volunteer motivation is an important determinant to consider when examining the combination of motivation and volunteering. Volunteer motivations are the building blocks on the construct of why people volunteer. During their lifetimes, individuals make certain choices to attain the goals they set for themselves. A better understanding of reasons to volunteer provides relevant knowledge about how to place prospective volunteers into the right job positions (Shye, 2010). Hence, Mitchell (1982, p.81) states that motivation represents a “psychological process that cause the arousal, direction, and persistence of voluntary actions that are goal oriented”.
Subsequently, Clary and Snyder (1999) developed a model that uses a functionalist theory to search for motivations to volunteer. The model outlines six different functional reasons for individuals to volunteer.
The first motive, value, adds to expressing values, which refers to charitable concern for others.
The second motive, understanding, relates to new learning experiences and the opportunity to share and/or obtain new knowledge, skills and abilities.
The third motive, social intent, relates to the desire to have relationships with others. The fourth motive, career, illustrates the aspiration of obtaining career-related benefits. The fifth motive, protection, is about the insurance of the ego. This motive suggests that an individual will have less negative feelings about his or her wealth through volunteering.
The sixth motive, enhancement, creates an opportunity for the ego to grow and evolve. One reason individuals might volunteer is to improve self-esteem and confidence.
Finkelstien (2009) takes up the topic of Clary and Snyder (1999) and distinguishes between internal and external motives. The internal motives of individuals are related to
are related to external, self-concerned objectives. Finkelstien (2009) was able to prove that, of all six functional motives, only the career-related motive is associated with external objectives.
In addition, Peloza, Hudson, and Hassay (2009) find that altruistic motivations for volunteering are experienced as less important than self-concerned intentions. Furthermore, Booth, Park, and Glomb (2009) claim that the more hours individuals volunteer, the more they wish to gain skills and obtain recognition from their employers.
Because they are ubiquitous in many motivation models, goals are expected to be the main targets of motivation analysis. They are considered to be the drivers of nearly all-human activity(Locke and Latham 1990; Diefendorff and Seaton, 2015).
After reviewing earlier research about motivation and volunteering, a clear distinction can be made between altruistic and egoistic motivations for volunteering. Altruistic intentions describe an individual’s concern about others, whereas self-concerned, egoistic intentions refer to an individual’s expectation to gain personal benefits from the voluntary activity (Clary and Miller, 1986).
Altruistic Motivations for Volunteering:
Volunteering motivations of individuals can be caused entirely by personal concern, for instance by doing voluntary works with the aim to aid others (Wilson, 2000). Scholars have shown that motivations for volunteering can emerge from the altruistic intentions of individuals by fulfilling their values (Rodell et al., 2016).
Self-concerned Motivations for Volunteering:
An often-discussed presumption of volunteering is whether an individual is able to profit from the act of volunteering (Clary and Snyder, 1999). Rodell et al. (2016) consider that, in many areas, individuals derive great gratification from their personal voluntary experiences. Moreover, Wilson (2000) argues that volunteers sacrifice more than they gain. Penner (2002) states that satisfaction with organizational reputation is a major predictor of
volunteerism. Furthermore, motivation can increase based on an individual’s expectation that he or she will receive recognition at work (Booth et al., 2009). Other researchers claim that socializing with others and therefore building up or broadening one’s personal network is an important component of volunteerism (Clary and Snyder, 1999; Rodell et al., 2016). All these assumptions will be tested in the survey; for this reason, self-concerned motivations towards volunteering will be issued:
H1: Self-concerned motivations for volunteering have a negative relationship with volunteering intensity.
2.5 Literature Gap and Research Question
Despite the growing number of corporate-citizenship programs and the growing willingness of people to engage in voluntary activities, there has been little scientific research into who participates in such programs and activities. Especially, research that aims to identify a strong link between individuals’ intentions towards volunteering and the actual readiness to volunteer is limited. The purpose of this thesis is to present a theoretical framework to gain a better understanding of the characteristics of the act of volunteering.
The following part analyses the relation between self-concerned motivations for volunteering and the intensity of volunteering activities. Self-concerned motivation for volunteering represents the independent variable; intensity of the volunteering activities represents the dependent variable. The relation is moderated by gender, which means that gender moderates the strength of this relation.
H1: Self-concerned motivations for volunteering have a negative relationship with volunteering intensity.
H2: The negative relationship between self-concerned motivations for volunteering and volunteering intensity is weaker if the individual is a male.
2.5.1 Conceptual Model
Figure 1: Conceptual Model
3. Methodology
This chapter represents the methodology used in this study. First, the research method is presented, including a description of the independent and dependent variables and moderator. Second, the research design is illustrated and explained. Lastly, the data collection is outlined, including procedure, participants and measures.
3.1 Research Method
This section explains the research method, including independent and dependent variables and moderators.
3.1.1 Measures
For the examination of the hypothesis, the variables self-concerned motivation and volunteering intensity are used. Furthermore, the moderator, gender, is presented. A further explanation of these variables can be found below.
Independent Variable: Self-concerned Motivation for Volunteering
Self-concerned motivation is measured with nine items. The survey respondents were asked to consider their personal reasons and motivations for their voluntary activity and then to state to what extent they agree or disagree with the following volunteering intentions.
The items read, ‘Achieving a good reputation’, ‘Improving future career opportunities’, ‘Getting hired by the company you volunteered for’, ‘Mandatory (e.g., by supervisor, university, workplace, etc.)’, ‘Increasing positive self-esteem’, ‘Acquiring new knowledge and skills’, ‘Expanding professional network’, ‘Feeling of being appreciated and needed by superiors of the company’ and ‘Receiving recognition by others (family and friends)’. A 7-point Likert scale is used (1= strongly disagree to 7= strongly agree).
Altruistic reasons for volunteering were also examined in the survey. The items read, ‘Personal concern (social, environmental, economic, other’ and ‘Increasing the well-being of
that refer to altruistic motivations for volunteering, (1= strongly disagree to 7= strongly
agree). However, items that were not relevant to the overall examination of the survey have
not been taken into consideration.
Dependent Variable: Volunteering Intensity
To measure the intensity of voluntary work, respondents answered the following question: ‘How often or frequently have you been volunteering so far?’ The respondents then had to choose one of the following choices: ‘Once’, ‘More than once, but not more than 5 times’, ‘More than 5 times, but not more than 10 times’ and ‘More than 10 times’.
As mentioned before, a 7-point Likert scale is used to test the hypothesis stated above. The scale ranges from 1 (strongly disagree) to 7 (strongly agree). The average range of the seven dimensions is the total score. The higher the score, the more relevance is placed on the statement illustrated by the item (Clary and Snyder, 1999). This study investigates only how individuals value volunteering.
The various conceptual distinctions made in defining volunteering are manifested in different approaches to measuring the phenomenon (e.g., Davis, Mitchell, Hall, Lothert, Snapp, and Meyer, 1999; Harrison, 1995; Penner, 2002).
Moderator: Gender
In this thesis, an individual’s gender represents the moderating effect between self-concerned motivations for volunteering and volunteering intensity. This value motive is measured by a seven-point Likert scale concerning how important/accurate each of the nine dimensions of the value motive regarding volunteering is for the respondents. The scale begins at 1 (strongly disagree) and ends at 7 (strongly agree). The average number of responses of male and female participants is the total score. The higher the two scores, the more value is placed on each of the items given above. In this examination, only the way an individual values self-concerned motivations for volunteering is investigated.
3.2 Data Collection
This section examines the characteristics of the participants in the research survey. Furthermore the testing procedure and measures used here are clarified.
3.3.1 Participants
In total, 96 respondents participated in the survey; 94 of them completely finished it. The largest age group (53%) is aged between 25 and 34 years (M = 2.86, SD = .93). Participants consist mostly of females (female 64%, and male 36%), (M = 1.65 SD = .48). 52% of the respondents within the sample have a master’s degree, which is the largest group within the sample. 2.1 percent have only a high-school degree. Additionally, the largest groups of nationalities consist of Germans (27%) and Dutch (22%) (M = 4.63, SD = 0.85. In total, 30 nationalities took part in the survey.
3.3.2 Procedures
The data was gathered by administering an online survey for former and current volunteers. The surveys could only be completed in English. The survey was first distributed via social media tools and e-mail. To increase the response rate, several calls to action were deployed to several online communities.
In total, 100 people participated in the survey.
3.4 Analytical strategy
First of all, a check of intensity was made to determine if there are any errors in the data. The data was checked for outliers by looking at intensity and minimum and maximum values. No outliers were found in the data; therefore, the author continued the analysis by deciding what to do with the missing values. A check of the values revealed that only two were missing; thus, the decision was made to exclude cases list-wise. This means that only data from respondents with no missing values was used. The next step is to see if there are any counter-indicative items. The data shows that no items need to be reverse coded, so the
author was able to move forward to computing the scale reliabilities for self-concerned motivations for volunteering.
4. Results
This chapter presents the results of the data analysis based on the attained sample. The sample, analytical strategy and computing reliability are presented first. Second, the hypothesis is tested via a correlations matrix and regression analysis. A process will be used to further analyse any relationships discovered.
4.2 Computing Reliability
The self-concerned motivation scale consists of nine items. According to the generally accepted level of Cronbach’s Alpha, the scale is reliable (.72); thus, it is a good measure of self-concerned motivation. The corrected item total relations indicate that all the items have a good correlation with the total score of the scale (all above .30). Furthermore, deleting one of the items (‘Mandatory, e.g. by supervisor, university, workplace, etc.’) would increase the scale reliability to (α = .75). However, because it is only a small increase and the scale is already reliable, the author decided not to delete it.
4.3 Correlations
Table 1: Correlation
The mean, standard deviation and correlations of the study variables are provided in the table above. The table shows that self-concerned motivation for volunteering is negatively correlated with gender (r = -.23, p < .01). Furthermore, persistence of voluntary work is positively correlated with volunteering intensity (r = .38, p < .05). In the further analysis of the relationship between self-concerned motivations and volunteering intensity, persistence of voluntary work is used as a control variable in anticipation that it might provide an alternative explanation.
4.4 Regression
Hypothesis 1a) Self-concerned motivations for volunteering have a negative relationship with
volunteering intensity.
Table 2: Regression
Hierarchical multiple regressions were performed to investigate whether self-concerned motivations for volunteering predict volunteering intensity, controlling for persistence of voluntary work. One predictor was entered in the first step of the hierarchical multiple regressions: persistence of voluntary work. This model was statistically significant (F (1, 90) = 15.99; p < .001) and explains 15.1 % of the variance in volunteering intensity. After entry of self-concerned motivations for volunteering at Step 2, the total variance explained by the model as a whole is 15.4% F (2, 89) = 8.12; p < .001. The introduction of self-concerned motivation for volunteering explains an additional 0.3% variance in volunteering intensity, after controlling for time span (R2 Change = .003 F (1, 89) = 0.360; p < .55). In the final model, one out of two predictor variables is statistically significant, with persistence of voluntary work recording a higher Beta value (β = .389, p < .001) than self-concerned
motivation for volunteering (β = - .058, p = .55). Thus, Hypothesis 1, that self-concerned motivations predict volunteering intensity, cannot be confirmed.
4.6 Process
Hypothesis 1b)
Table 3: Process
The regression coefficient for XM is c3=0.56. It is statistically different from zero: t (88) = 2.17, p = 0.03. Thus, the effect of self-concerned motivations for volunteering on volunteering intensity depends on an individual’s gender. Moreover, this model accounts for 25% of variance in volunteering intensity. A closer inspection of the conditional effects indicates that the relationship between self-concerned motivations for volunteering and volunteering intensity is significant only for males (effect= -0.46, SE = 0.22, CI: - .897 to - .019) in contrast to females (effect= 0.11, SE = 0.14, CI: - .165 to .375).
Therefore, based on the acquired sample, Hypothesis 2 can be confirmed: Gender moderates the relationship between self-concerned motivations for volunteering and volunteering intensity.
Figure 2: Interaction effect of the moderating effect of gender and self-concerned motivations on volunteering intensity
6. Discussion
This study examines the moderating effect of gender on the relationship of self-concerned motivations for volunteering and volunteering intensity. The aim of the study was to provide insight into whether gender and/or personal intentions influence the willingness to engage in forms of volunteering, either corporate or non-corporate. The hypotheses of this thesis are based on nine self-concerned motivations for volunteering, which are ‘Achieving a good reputation’, ‘Improving future career opportunities’, ‘Getting hired by the company you volunteered for’, ‘Mandatory (e.g. by supervisor, university, workplace, etc.)’, ‘Increasing positive self-esteem’, ‘Acquiring new knowledge and skills’, ‘Expanding professional network’, ‘Feeling of being appreciated and needed by superiors of the company’ and ‘Receiving recognition by others (family and friends)’. Subsequently, statistical significance was identified through the results of this examination into the above stated variables. The following paragraphs summarize the results of this examination in accordance with their theoretical implication. In the following, study results are presented that replicate previous research findings. First, the theoretical implications are discussed. Second, the moderator is be reviewed. Third, practical implications are outlined. Fourth, the limitations of this study are stated. Finally, results are considered that give direction for future research.
To begin, the first hypothesis provides support for the presumption that self-concerned motivations for volunteering have a negative relationship with volunteering intensity (H1). The negative relationship between self-concerned motivations for volunteering and intensity of the volunteering activities is weaker if the individual is male (H2).
Based on the results it can be seen that men are more motivated to engage in voluntary activities when their engagement is expected to have an outcome that fulfils their self-concerned intentions. One explanation for this outcome references the fact that men score lower score in measures of altruism and compassion. It can be concluded that men are less
prone to engage in voluntary activities than women when the goal of engagement has only altruistic rather than self-concerned implications (Wilson and Musick 1997). Another reason for this result is that women feel guiltier when they have not been sympathetic enough in their own objection (Flanagan et al., 1998). Women tend to think that society expects them to be more concerned with their social environment in terms of looking after another persons’ well-being (Daniels 1988). In addition, Negrey (1993) argues that many women tend to see a relation between volunteering and their roles as wives and mothers, though this opinion seems to be inappropriate today. Male volunteers prefer to abandon empathetic tasks, and publically seek political activities, as they are more likely to be promoted to management positions (Haslam and Ryan, 2008; Thompson, 1995; Williams, 1992). Furthermore, persistence of voluntary work is positively correlated with volunteering intensity.
Additionally, the results of this study provide evidence for an interaction of the motivations that predict volunteering intensity. Specifically, people who are highly motivated by career, self-improvement and self-development are prone to engage in volunteering activities and feel less motivated when they are engaged only a little in content-related voluntary activities. This finding is discussed in further detail below. Lastly, self-concerned people are found to have greater intentions to engage in volunteering more often and for longer periods of time (H1). Commitment was even found to predict long-term volunteering when the individuals were male (H2).
6.1 Theoretical Implications
Because of the attention given to volunteering in recent years, the main goal of this study is to acquire more knowledge about how to mobilize volunteers. Little research has been conducted into the direct effects of the kinds of motivations that drive individuals to volunteer. Moreover, there is no consensus about what kind of individual responds to what kind of motivation.
The results of this study show that the self-concerned motivations have a significant influence on the willingness to engage in volunteering. Earlier research found that the relationship could be explained through social ties between individuals. Brady et al. (1999) claim that the probability of being asked to volunteer increases with the social cohesion rate of an individual. This explains why people with a lot of human capital are more likely to volunteer. Furthermore, this finding explains why males have higher volunteer rates than females; men have more human capital and more free time than women (Gallagher 1994; Wilson, 2000).
Furthermore it can be claimed that certain traits of individuals influence their social behaviours. Such individuals are known to be altruistic, empathic and caring. All of these traits appear to have a positive relationship with volunteering behaviour (Musick et al., 2008). Moreover, Clary et al. (1998) present motives that contribute to volunteering engagement and are related to altruistic concerns for others. These motives can be related to volunteering as well, as many volunteers derive immense gratification and growth from volunteering (Clary and Snyder, 1999; Wilson, 2000).
In summary, it can be concluded that gender does influence self-concerned motivations towards volunteering.
6.2 Practical Implications
These findings portray volunteering as arising from a dynamic interplay of motivational factors that explain personal behaviours and intentions within volunteers over time. Perspective volunteers need to have incentives in order to engage in volunteering, preferably offered by their (future) employer. If their initial incentives are being met, they are more prone to committed to what they are doing. This in turn predicts future behaviour. Having personal incentives about what one is doing appears to be a good predictor of current intentions and actual future behaviour that relates to staying with an organization or even
applying for it. Thus, the present findings yield insight into what mobilises individuals to volunteer, which factors influence the unfolding dynamics of volunteering and how these relate to sustained involvement over time.
These findings carry implications for organizations that manage and mobilise volunteers. To establish recruiting procedures that allow individuals to choose between various volunteering types and programs when considering their future employer. Current and future employees should be able to choose from offers that are in line with their strengths, skills and intentions.
The outcomes of this study have some implications for managerial practice and are useful to organizations that would obtain insight into individuals who are willing to volunteer. Based on the findings and their significance described above, organisations should focus on their organisational attractiveness. If they can succeed in making their organisation highly attractive by offering volunteer programs for current and future employees, they will be able to compete effectively in the global run for talented prospects. Furthermore, individuals who are more willing to engage in volunteering become more engaged with their employers. Hence, people are more satisfied and will stay longer at their current workplaces.
As a result of these cognitions, it can be claimed that, the best way to attract (prospective) employees for companies is to directly target the right individuals with their recruiting procedures. Furthermore, individuals should be guided through the recruiting process to be able to match their social (volunteering) intentions with the activities offered by the employer. The more enticing an organisation seems to be for (future) employees, the more prone they are to pursue volunteering.
By integrating multiple motivational intentions towards volunteering, evaluated through a survey, it is possible to provide a more structured approach to conceptualize and operationalize volunteering. Furthermore, the study utilizes data randomly obtained from 98 individuals, belonging to thirty different nations and primarily consisting of current or former
students. This compilation allows making an accurate interpretation of how future employees, belonging Generation Y, are going to respond to the above-suggested changes, as they are known for being difficult to manage (Sheahan, 2005). Predictions of how to construct CSR programs in the future, makes it easier for companies to adapt recruiting processes to the special needs of their (future) employees. Therefore, prospective corporate citizenship goals will be easier to achieve. If companies around the globe would engage in the recruiting strategies mentioned above, a new trend that could benefit all people worldwide will occur.
6.3 Limitations and Direction for further Research
This thesis has some limitations that can be taken into account in further research. First, participation was voluntary, and the sample of this research contained 98 respondents. Therefore, the sample may exhibit response bias. Moreover, a convenience sampling technique was used to gather respondents, which means that the subjects were selected because of their convenient accessibility and proximity. Therefore, to get a larger sample, future studies need to collect more respondents.
Second, the results indicate that individuals who are more attracted to the organization for which they have already volunteered are more prone to invest more time in volunteering operations in general. However, it is not clear which factors are appealing to the respondents. Therefore, the direct effect of organizational attractiveness on willingness to volunteer needs to be studied. Apart from the theoretical and practical implications, this paper will hopefully inspire further research in the volunteering literature.
7. Conclusion
The purpose of this research was to examine volunteering and its role in the corporate world. Therefore, this thesis examined how to advance management research on volunteering. The results of this research illustrate a relevant relationship between self-concerned motivations for volunteering and volunteering intensity. Furthermore a significant influence of gender between the relationship of self-concerned motivations for volunteering and volunteering intensity could be registered.
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