The Relationship between Perceived Gender Equality and Turnover Intention: The Effect of Job Satisfaction, Communication Climate, and Gender
Name: Yara Vertegaal Student ID number: 10263071
Master’s Thesis
Graduate School of Communication Master’s programme Communication Science
University of Amsterdam Supervisor: Claartje ter Hoeven
Abstract
This study investigated the relationship between perceived gender equality and turnover intention. The mediating roles of both job satisfaction and communication climate were
examined, as well as the moderating role of gender. These relationships have been studied among 143 employees working in organizations in the Netherlands through an online survey. The results of the study suggest that there is a negative relationship between perceived gender equality and turnover intention, and that this relationship is mediated by both job satisfaction and
communication climate. Additionally, a positive relationship between perceived gender equality and job satisfaction was found, and this relationship was found to be the same among both men and women. Implications for practitioners and suggestions for future research are discussed.
Keywords: perceived gender equality, turnover intention, job satisfaction, communication climate, gender
The Relationship between Perceived Gender Equality and Turnover Intention: The Effect of Job Satisfaction, Communication Climate, and Gender
Introduction
The work environment has changed significantly over the past few decades. Both the number of women in the work force and the share of women in management positions has increased considerably (Semykina & Linz, 2013). However, the fact that both men and women are well represented in today’s work environment, does not mean that they are treated in an equal manner. The Global Gender Gap Report 2017 indicated that the Netherlands dropped sixteen places on the Economic Forum’s gender equality ranking in one year. The country came in 32nd this year, while it appeared on the 16th place the year before. The report examines equality between men and women on income and political power. This year’s results indicate that there is a 16.1 percent wage difference between men and women in the Netherlands. Surprisingly, the country came in 12th place in 2006 when the list was first published. This suggests that gender equality in the Netherlands has been decreasing over the past decade (Pieters, 2017).
This inequality between both genders might influence how satisfied employees are with their job. Job satisfaction is defined as “an employees’ affective reactions to a job based on comparing desired outcomes with actual outcomes” (Cranny, Smith, & Stone, 1992, p. 187). Thus, job satisfaction exists out of certain affective responses that employees have towards their job, which are based on how well certain expectations are met. Therefore, unequal treatment might generate negative affective reactions and thus decrease job satisfaction. A high level of job satisfaction is favorable, since it is related to numerous beneficial outcomes for organizations (Memon & Jena, 2017). It is found to increase employee productivity, and it influences overall life satisfaction and worker health (Judge & Watanabe, 1994; Sousa-Poza & Sousa-Poza, 2007;
Tait, Padgett, & Baldwin, 1989). Furthermore, job satisfaction is found to be one of the most important predictors of turnover intention. A high level of job satisfaction decreases turnover intention, while a low level of job satisfaction increases it (Cranny et al., 1992). Research has shown that turnover intention strongly predicts actual turnover, or leaving behavior (Rosin & Korabik, 1991; Tet & Meyer, 1993). Since a high turnover rate comes with a lot of additional costs for organizations, such as recruiting, selecting, and training new employees, it is important for organizations to know how to reduce their turnover rate (Schwepker, 2001; Tet & Meyer, 1993). Because job satisfaction is one of the most important predictors of turnover intention, and since it is likely that job satisfaction is influenced by perceived gender equality, it is expected that there is a relationship between perceived gender equality and turnover intention as well (Cranny et al., 1992). Specifically, it is assumed that the negative relationship between perceived gender equality and turnover intention is mediated by job satisfaction. Thus, it is expected that perceived gender equality does not influence turnover intention directly, but through job satisfaction. It is assumed that people do not want to stay at a job when they are not satisfied with it, and that perceived gender equality influences one’s job satisfaction. Existing literature seems to point in this direction (Foley et al., 2002; Rosin & Korabik, 1991; Stroh, Brett, & Reilly, 1996). Foley et al. (2002) found that there is a positive relationship between perceived glass ceiling and turnover intention, meaning that when people perceived there to be a glass ceiling, this increased their turnover intention. Stroh et al. (1996) found that there is a positive relationship between
perceived career opportunities and job satisfaction, and a negative relationship between perceived career opportunities and turnover intention. They did not specifically study perceived gender equality, but perceived career opportunities is an important aspect of it, since one’s perceptions of gender equality can be connected with their career opportunities in relation to the opposite sex (Stroh et al., 1996). Rosin and Korabik (1991) also found that there is a negative relationship
between job satisfaction and turnover intention. In conclusion, previous research seems to suggest that there is a relationship between perceived gender equality and job satisfaction, and between perceived gender equality and turnover intention. However, it remains unclear whether the relationship between perceived gender equality and turnover intention is mediated by job satisfaction. As discussed in the previous section, it is likely that job satisfaction mediates the relationship between these two variables. Therefore, this paper will examine the relationship between perceived gender equality and turnover intention, and the mediating role of job satisfaction. Consequently, the following research question has been formulated:
RQ1: What is the effect of job satisfaction on the relationship between perceived gender equality and turnover intention among employees in organizations in the Netherlands?
Additionally, this research will look into the differences between men and women regarding the relationship between perceived gender equality and job satisfaction. This
relationship is expected to differ between men and women for two reasons. First, because gender inequality generally negatively affects women, while it rarely negatively affects men (Semykina & Linz, 2013). Second, since empirical evidence suggests that women generally perceive gender equality to be significantly lower than men (Foley et al., 2002; Tominc, Šebjan, & Širec, 2017). Therefore, it seems logical that women attach more value to perceived gender equality than men do. Consequently, it is expected that the relationship between perceived gender equality and job satisfaction is stronger among women than among men. However, the findings in the literature regarding this relationship have been inconclusive (Kim, Lee, & Sung, 2013; Memon & Jena, 2017; Semykina & Linz, 2013; Tominc et al., 2017). Tominc et al. (2017) found that there was a positive relationship between perceived gender equality and job satisfaction among women, while they found a nonsignificant negative effect among men. On the other hand, Semykina and
Linz (2013) found that perceived gender equality positively influences job satisfaction among both men and women, but that this relationship is stronger among women. Memon and Jena (2017) found that there was a positive relationship between perceived gender equality and job satisfaction among women, but they did not examine the relationship among men (Memon & Jena, 2017). Furthermore, Kim et al. (2013) found a negative relationship between gender
discrimination and job satisfaction among female employees. Their study also focused on women only (Kim et al., 2013). In summary, the literature seems to suggest that there is a positive
relationship between perceived gender equality and job satisfaction, but it remains unclear how this relationship differs between men and women. Since gender inequality generally specifically affects women, and because women perceive gender equality to be significantly lower, it is expected that the positive relationship between perceived gender equality and job satisfaction is stronger among women than among men (Foley et al., 2002; Semykina & Linz, 2013). Therefore, this study will investigate whether the relationship between perceived gender equality and job satisfaction is moderated by gender. Consequently, the following research question has been formulated:
RQ2: What is the effect of gender on the relationship between perceived gender equality and job satisfaction among employees in organizations in the Netherlands?
Furthermore, this research will examine the mediating role of communication climate on the relationship between perceived gender equality and turnover intention. It is assumed that there is a positive relationship between perceived gender equality and communication climate. Communication climate is defined as the “subjective experienced quality of the internal
environment of an organization” (Bartels, Pruyn, De Jong, & Joustra, 2007, p. 177). Because the Netherlands is a modern country that supports gender equality, it is expected that perceived
gender equality will influence how employees experience the quality of the communication climate of their organization (Rijksoverheid, n.d.). Specifically, it is expected that equal treatment of men and women will be viewed favorably, and will result in an increase of the experienced quality of the internal environment. Therefore, it is expected that equal treatment of both genders will lead to a positive communication climate, while any gender inequality will lead to a negative communication climate. Furthermore, it is expected that the relationship between perceived gender equality and communication climate will influence turnover intention. It is assumed that a positive communication climate decreases turnover intention, while a negative communication climate increases it, because it is assumed that people do not want to stay at an organization with a negative communication climate. Therefore, it is expected that there is no direct relationship between perceived gender equality and turnover intention, but that this relationship is mediated by communication climate. A study conducted by Unler, Bülent and Ciray (2014) supports part of this assumption. They found that communication climate negatively influences turnover intention. Their results indicated that a positive communication climate leads to a lower turnover intention, while a negative communication climate increases turnover intention (Unler et al., 2014). In line with the previous information, the relationship between perceived gender equality and turnover intention is expected to be mediated by communication climate. Consequently, the following research question has been formulated:
RQ3: What is the effect of communication climate on the relationship between perceived gender equality and turnover intention among employees in organizations in the Netherlands?
This research aims to contribute to the existing literature in three ways. First, by examining the mediating role of job satisfaction on the relationship between perceived gender equality and turnover intention, since it is likely that job satisfaction mediates this relationship
(Tominc et al., 2017). Second, by investigating the moderating role of gender on the relationship between perceived gender equality and job satisfaction. Previous research on the relationship between perceived gender equality and job satisfaction have reported inconclusive results on the difference between both genders, or have focused their study exclusively on women (Semykina & Linz, 2013; Tominc et al., 2017). Lastly, this study will add to existing literature by examining the mediating role of communication climate on the relationship between perceived gender equality and turnover intention, since it is likely that there is a negative relationship between these variables, through communication climate.
The results of this study could have important implications for practitioners as well. Since both men and women play an important role in today’s work environment, and there still is a lack of equality between genders in the Netherlands, it is important for practitioners to know how this perceived gender equality affects job satisfaction, communication climate and turnover intention among both men and women. When organizations can use this knowledge to make decisions, they might be able to increase job satisfaction, create a positive communication climate, and reduce their turnover rate. This would reduce costs of recruiting, selecting and training new employees, and therefore be beneficial for organizations (Schwepker, 2001; Tet & Meyer, 1993).
Theoretical background
Perceived gender equality, turnover intention and job satisfaction
Since empirical evidence indicates that there is a lack of equality between genders in the work force, and the number of working women has increased significantly, it is likely that this will affect several important job-related aspects, such as job satisfaction and turnover intention (Pieters, 2017; Semykina & Linz, 2013). Even though both the relationship between perceived
gender equality and job satisfaction and the relationship between perceived gender equality and turnover intention have been examined by several researchers, their results have been
inconclusive (Semykina & Linz, 2013; Tominc et al., 2017). Perceived gender equality is defined as “the belief that men and women are equal in the professional arena” (Bastounis & Minibas-Poussard, 2012, p. 440). Job satisfaction is defined as “an employees’ affective reactions to a job based on comparing desired outcomes with actual outcomes” (Cranny et al., 1992, p. 187).
Affective responses are defined as “the actual positive or negative impressions that are elicited by an object” (Goller, Khalid, & Ansorge, 2017, p. 2). Many researchers have focused on job
satisfaction over the past decades (Card, Mas, Moretti, & Saez, 2012; Cranny et al., 1992; Egan, Yang, & Bartlett, 2004; Green, 2010; MacDonald & MacIntyre, 1997; Munyon, Hochwarter, Perrewé, & Ferris, 2010; Sousa-Poza & Sousa-poza, 2007; Tett & Meyer, 1993; Unler et al., 2014; Wood, Veldhoven, Croon, & De Menezes, 2012). This might not come as a surprise, since a high level of job satisfaction is related to numerous positive consequences for organizations. Empirical evidence suggests that it leads to an improved employee productivity, and significantly reduces turnover rates (Cranny et al., 1992; Green, 2010; Munyon et al., 2010; Sousa-Poza & Sousa-Poza, 2007; Wood et al., 2012). Additionally, it influences overall life satisfaction and employee health (Judge & Watanabe, 1994; Sousa-Poza & Sousa-Poza, 2007; Tait et al., 1989). Turnover intention is defined as “a conscious and deliberate willingness to leave the
organization” (Tett & Meyer, 1993, p. 262). This research will look into the relationship between perceived gender equality and turnover intention, and investigate the mediating roles of both job satisfaction and communication climate. Additionally, the moderating role of gender on the relationship between perceived gender equality and job satisfaction will be examined. The conceptual model can be found in Figure 1.
In the first hypothesis, it will be examined whether job satisfaction mediates the relationship between perceived gender equality and turnover intention. As could be read in the definition of job satisfaction by Cranny et al. (1992), it exists out of the affective reactions of employees towards their job. It is expected that perceived gender (in)equality will influence these affective reactions. Specifically, it is assumed that if an employee feels like he or she is not being treated equally compared to employees of the opposite sex, this might generate negative affective reactions. Consequently, this might decrease the employee’s job satisfaction. Therefore, it is assumed that there is a positive relationship between perceived gender equality and job satisfaction. Furthermore, since job satisfaction is found to be one of the most important
predictors of turnover intention, and it is expected that perceived gender equality influences job satisfaction, we expect that perceived gender equality will influence one’s turnover intention as well (Cranny et al., 1992). It is assumed that perceived gender equality does not influence turnover intention directly, but that job satisfaction mediates this relationship. Specifically, we expect that a high level of perceived gender equality will be considered favorable and therefore increase one’s job satisfaction, and that this will decrease one’s willingness to leave an
organization. On the other hand, it is expected that a low level of perceived gender equality will result in negative affective responses, which will decrease one’s job satisfaction, and that this will lead to an increased willingness to leave the organization. This is expected because we assume that people who are not satisfied with their job are less likely to want to continue working at their organization, while people who are satisfied with their job are more likely to want to remain at their organization. In sum, it is expected that employees like to work in an organization that treats all employees equally, and that this will influence whether a person wants to keep working at an organization. Therefore, it is expected that the negative relationship between perceived gender equality and turnover intention is mediated by job satisfaction. Empirical evidence largely
supports this expectation. In the upcoming section, an overview of the literature regarding this subject will be given.
Foley et al. (2002) examined the relationship between perceived glass ceiling, promotion fairness and turnover intention through a survey. The glass ceiling has been defined as “a barrier so subtle that it is transparent, yet so strong that it prevents women and minorities from moving up in the management hierarchy” (Morrison & Von Glinow, 1990, p. 200). When a glass ceiling exists, it means that there is a lack of equality between genders. Perceived glass ceiling and gender equality are therefore closely related. Foley et al. (2002) found that both men and women perceived there to be a glass ceiling. Additionally, they found that when people perceived there to be a glass ceiling, this decreased their perception of promotion fairness. Lastly, they found that there is a positive relationship between perceived glass ceiling and turnover intentions (Foley et al., 2002). This seems to indicate that when gender equality is perceived to be high it decreases one’s turnover intention, while a low level of perceived gender equality increases it.
Stroh et al. (1996) examined perceptions of career opportunity, job satisfaction and turnover intention through a longitudinal survey among both male and female managers. They found that there was a positive relationship between perceptions of career opportunity and job satisfaction. A negative relationship was found between perceived career opportunities and turnover intention (Stroh et al., 1996). Since perceived career opportunities are closely related to perceived gender equality, in the sense that perceived gender (in)equality might be largely based upon one’s career prospects compared to the other sex, similar results might be found for
perceived gender equality.
Rosin and Korabik (1991) investigated the main reasons for female managers to leave their organization through a survey. Their results showed a negative relationship between job
satisfaction and turnover intention. Furthermore, they found that the dislike of working in a male dominated environment led to a lower level of job satisfaction, which in turn led to an increased turnover intention. Additionally, they found that when a job did not live up to the expectations, this led to a lower level of job satisfaction and a higher level of turnover intention. Their results confirm that job satisfaction is an important precursor of turnover intention. There is some clear overlap between these factors and perceived gender equality. As can be concluded from the definition of perceived gender equality by Bastounis and Minibas-Poussard (2012), it entails the perception that both sexes are treated equally in the business environment. This includes equal leadership opportunities, and an equal distribution of both sexes within an organization. Since a relationship between these factors and both job satisfaction and turnover intention was found in the existing literature, it is expected that similar results will be found for perceived gender equality.
In conclusion, previous research seems to indicate that there is a negative relationship between perceived gender equality and turnover intention, and that this relationship might be mediated by job satisfaction. Therefore, the following hypothesis has been formulated: H1: Perceived gender equality is negatively related to turnover intention, through job satisfaction.
Perceived gender equality, job satisfaction and gender
This research will examine whether the relationship between perceived gender equality and job satisfaction differs between men and women. It is expected that there is a difference between both sexes. First, because several studies have shown that perceived gender equality in the professional arena is lower among women than it is among men (Foley et al., 2002; Tominc et
al., 2017). Second, because in case of any gender inequality, women generally are the ones who are in a disadvantage, while men are not (Semykina & Linz, 2013). This makes it likely that women find it more important that both men and women are treated in an equal manner.
Therefore, it is expected that the positive relationship between perceived gender equality and job satisfaction is stronger among women than it is among men. In the upcoming section, a brief overview of the literature regarding this subject will be given.
Tominc et al. (2017) investigated perceived gender equality among men and women in managerial positions through a questionnaire. They examined the differences between both sexes regarding perceived gender equality, and the effect of this perceived gender equality on
satisfaction with the employment position, job satisfaction, and work-family conflict. They found that women perceive gender equality to be significantly lower than men. Additionally, they found a positive relationship between perceived gender equality and job satisfaction among women, while a nonsignificant negative relationship was found among men. They state that men might see gender equality in organizations as a threat to their own opportunities, and therefore perceive it as less favorable than women (Tominc et al., 2017). In sum, the results of this study seem to indicate that perceived gender equality increases job satisfaction among women, while it has no effect among men.
Semykina and Linz (2013) investigated whether perceived gender equality in promotion opportunities influenced job satisfaction among both men and women in six countries through a survey. The results of their study indicated that the view that both sexes were not treated equally was widely held. Additionally, they found that in general there was a positive relationship between perceived gender equality in promotion opportunities and job satisfaction. This effect was found to be stronger among women than among men. The findings of this research suggest
that perceived gender equality is generally considered favorable by both men and women, even though the relationship is stronger among women (Semykina & Linz, 2013).
Memon and Jena (2017) examined gender inequality in organizations among female employees through interviews. They investigated the effects of perceived gender inequality on job satisfaction and job motivation. They found that workplace gender inequality influences both job satisfaction and job motivation. A high level of workplace gender inequality led to a lower level of job satisfaction and job motivation (Memon & Jena, 2017). According to the researchers, women expect to be treated equally in organizations. Nonfulfillment of this expectation, by not being treated equally compared to their male counterparts, will therefore decrease their job satisfaction and job motivation. In conclusion, the research by Memon and Jena (2017) suggests that there is a significant positive relationship between perceived gender equality and job
satisfaction among women.
Kim et al. (2013) investigated the relationship between gender discrimination and job attitudes among female employees through a survey. The results of their study suggest that there is indeed a significant relationship between gender discrimination and job satisfaction among female employees. They found that perceived gender discrimination significantly influenced job satisfaction. When gender discrimination was perceived to be high, this decreased their job satisfaction (Kim et al., 2013). Therefore, the results of this study seem to indicate that there is a significant positive relationship between perceived gender equality and job satisfaction among women.
The results of the previously discussed study by Foley et al. (2002) also showed that the level of perceived glass ceiling was significantly higher among women than among men. Since a relationship between perceived glass ceiling and turnover intention has been found, it would
seem likely that this effect would therefore be stronger among women than among men. Consequently, this research seems to suggest that the relationship between perceived gender equality and turnover intention is stronger among women than among men.
The previously discussed study by Stroh et al. (1996) also found that when women perceived there to be a glass ceiling, this significantly increased their likelihood of turnover. The threshold for poor career opportunities was different for female than for male managers. Women with the same perceptions of prospective career opportunities were more likely to leave than men. In other words, the results indicate that women were both more likely to leave than male
managers, and more likely to want to leave given the same level of future career opportunities. Additionally, job satisfaction was found to be negatively related to turnover intention. This suggests that perceived gender inequality decreases job satisfaction among women, and increases their turnover intention (Stroh et al., 1996).
In sum, it can be concluded that research generally seems to indicate that there is a positive relationship between perceived gender equality and job satisfaction, and that this relationship is stronger among women. Additionally, it makes sense that this relationship is stronger among women, because women are generally the ones that are negatively affected by gender inequality, and women perceive gender equality to be significantly lower than men (Foley et al., 2002; Semykina & Linz, 2013; Tominc et al., 2017). Therefore, it is expected that there is a positive relationship between perceived gender equality and job satisfaction, but that this
relationship is stronger among women than among men. Consequently, the following hypothesis has been formulated:
H2: There is a positive relationship between perceived gender equality and job satisfaction, and this relationship is stronger among women.
Perceived gender equality, turnover intention and communication climate
The third hypothesis examines the mediating role of communication climate on the
relationship between perceived gender equality and turnover intention. Communication climate is defined as the “subjective experienced quality of the internal environment of an organization: the concept general cluster inferred predispositions, identifiable through reports of members
perceptions’ messages and message-related events occurring in the organization” (Bartels et al., 2007, p. 177).
To our knowledge, no research has yet investigated the relationship between perceived gender equality and communication climate. However, we do expect there to be a relationship between both variables. As could be read in the definition of communication climate as proposed by Bartels et al. (2007), communication climate is related to the subjective experienced quality of the internal environment of the organization. Additionally, perceived gender equality was defined as the belief that both genders are equal in an organization (Bastounis & Minibas-Poussard, 2012, p. 440). Since research indicates that perceived gender equality significantly increases certain affective responses among employees, it is assumed that perceived gender equality can influence the subjective experienced quality of the internal environment of an organization (Foley et al., 2002; Stroh et al., 1996). It is expected that any inequality between genders will be considered unfavorable, and therefore result in a decline of the perceived quality of the organization’s
communication climate. Additionally, it is expected that when people perceive the level of gender equality to be high, this will increase the experienced quality of the internal environment in their organization. Therefore, we expect there to be a positive relationship between perceived gender equality and communication climate.
Unler et al. (2014) investigated the relationship between job satisfaction and turnover intention, and whether this relationship was mediated by communication climate. The results of the study indicated that communication climate was negatively related to turnover intention. Thus, a positive communication climate was found to decrease turnover intention, while a
negative communication climate increased it. The results of this study therefore suggest that there is a negative relationship between communication climate and turnover intention. In the previous sections it has been discussed that based upon current literature by Foley et al. (2002) and Stroh et al. (1996), there is expected to be a negative relationship between perceived gender equality and turnover intention. Therefore, it can be concluded that there are indications in existing literature that there is a relationship between perceived gender equality and turnover intention, and that communication climate negatively affects turnover intention. Additionally, given the definitions of both communication climate and perceived gender equality, it is assumed that perceived gender equality positively influences communication climate. It is expected that
communication climate mediates the relationship between perceived gender equality and turnover intention, since it is assumed that people do not like to work in an organization with a negative communication climate, and because perceived gender equality is expected to influence the communication climate. Thus, it is assumed that perceived gender equality does not influence turnover intention directly, but through communication climate, because a high level of perceived gender equality is expected to lead to a negative communication climate. Consequently, it is expected that there is a relationship between perceived gender equality and turnover intention, and that this relationship is mediated by communication climate. Therefore, the following hypothesis has been formulated:
H3: Perceived gender equality is negatively related to turnover intention, through communication climate.
Figure 1. Conceptual Model
Method
Research design
In order to answer the proposed research questions, an online survey has been conducted. Surveys are used in order to describe, predict and explain social phenomena. Additionally, this research method can generate a large amount of respondents (Hart, Boeije, & Hox, 2009). Since the aim of this research is to study the relationship between perceived gender equality and turnover intention among a large group of respondents, the characteristics of this research are largely in agreement with those of a survey. Therefore, this has been chosen as the appropriate method.
The survey was conducted online, and was brought to the attention of the respondents by the researcher. Therefore, the research population mainly consists of friends, relatives and
acquaintances of the researcher. This means that each member of the population had an unequal chance statistically of being selected compared to the total Dutch population. This sampling method has led to a nonprobability sample. The survey was conducted once among all
respondents, which means that all variables were measured at the same time. Therefore, the study has a cross-sectional research design. The respondents could fill out the survey in an individual setting, since they could answer the proposed questions whenever they wanted. The questionnaire has been conducted via Qualtrics, an online survey software. Prior to the survey, respondents were shown an ‘informed consent’ form that they had to agree to in order to participate. When the participants consented to this form, they stated that they had been sufficiently informed about the nature and method of the current research, that their participation was voluntary, that they could end the questionnaire whenever they wanted, and that their anonymity would be
guaranteed. The informed consent form can be found in the Appendix. Selection of research units
The respondents have been recruited via Facebook, Facebook Messenger, e-mail, and WhatsApp over the course of two weeks in November and December 2017. The survey was published once on Facebook among the Facebook friends of the researcher. In addition to the link, the post contained the criteria that respondents had to meet in order to participate, and an image. An image was used in order to attract more attention. The original Facebook post can be found in the Appendix. Simultaneously, friends and relatives of the researcher have been contacted via e-mail and WhatsApp. Friends and relatives were encouraged to share the survey among their contacts.
The online survey has been filled out by 143 respondents. In total, 85 women (59.4%) and 58 men (40.6%) participated in the research. The mean age was 30.34 (SD = 11.72), and ranged between 19 and 65. The percentages, means, and standard deviations of all background variables can be found in Table 1. Initially, a sample of 184 respondents was gathered. However, some surveys had not been filled out completely. Incomplete questionnaires were eliminated, which ultimately led to a sample of 160 respondents. Additionally, respondents had to meet certain criteria in order to participate. First, due to ethical considerations, respondents needed to be eighteen years or older. Second, since this research examines the relationship between perceived gender equality and turnover intention in Dutch organizations, respondents had to work and live in the Netherlands. Third, since it would be impossible to measure perceived gender equality in an organization with only a few employees, respondents needed to have a sufficient number of fellow employees. This is why it was decided that in order to participate in this research, respondents had to work in an organization with at least five employees. Additionally,
respondents have to work a sufficient amount of hours per week in order to perceive any gender (in)equality. Therefore, it has been decided that solely employees that work twenty hours or more per week were able to participate in this research. Furthermore, since all questions in the survey were in Dutch, sufficient knowledge of the Dutch language was needed. Even though these criteria were explicitly mentioned prior to the survey, some respondents did not meet all of them. Therefore, seventeen additional respondents were eliminated, leading to the final sample of 143 respondents.
Table 1
Background characteristics (N = 143).
Note. Managerial position = 1, no managerial position = 2.
Measures
The questionnaire contained 46 questions in total. After all data had been gathered, it had to be prepared for further analysis. First, the data were checked for missing values and outliers. The variable ‘gender’ was transformed into a dummy variable containing zero and one. Men received the value zero, while women received the value one. Afterwards, four new scales were constructed. In order to measure attitudes towards gender equality, the previously validated Perceived Gender Equality in Organizations Scale by Tominc et al. (2017) has been used. This scale contained eleven items that could be answered on a 5-point Likert scale (1 = strongly disagree and 5 = strongly agree). An example of a statement is: “I believe that people trust me equally in comparison with the opposite gender” (Tominc et al., 2017). In order to use this scale for further analysis, the scale ‘perceived gender equality’ had to be constructed. One item had to be recoded. First, in order to find out whether all items measured the same construct, a principal component factor analysis was run. Two components had an Eigenvalue higher than one. The
Variable % M SD Sex .59 .49 Men 40.60 Women 59.40 Age 30.34 11.72 Education level 3.84 1.21 High school 2.10 MBO 12.60 HBO 30.10 University (Bachelor) 11.90 University (Master) 41.30 Managerial position 1.79 .41 Yes 21.00 No 79.00
first factor explained 37.49 percent of the variance, and was chosen as the appropriate factor to measure perceived gender equality. It contained six items: three, four, five, six, nine and ten. Items that scored lower than .45 on this factor were excluded. Therefore, items one, two, seven, eight, and eleven were removed. Afterwards, a reliability analysis was run on the six remaining items. The scale proved to have a strong reliability (α = .84). Since the scale proved to be sufficiently reliable, the scale perceived gender equality was constructed. This new variable contained the mean for each respondent on the variable perceived gender equality.
In order to measure the variable ‘turnover intention’ a previously validated scale by Kelloway, Gottlieb and Barham (1999) has been used. This scale consists of four statements that could be answered on a 5-point Likert scale (1 = strongly disagree and 5 = strongly agree). An example of a question is “I am thinking about leaving this organization” (Kelloway et al., 1999). In order to use the scale for further analysis, the scale turnover intention had to be created. None of the items had to be recoded. The factor analysis showed one factor based on an Eigenvalue above one. In total, 84.53 percent of the variance was explained by this component. All items scored higher than .45 on this factor, which meant that none of the items had to be removed. Afterwards, a reliability analysis was run. This scale proved to have an even higher level of reliability (α = .94). Afterwards, the scale turnover intention was created. This new variable contained the mean for each respondent on the variable turnover intention.
Job satisfaction was measured with the Generic Job Satisfaction Scale as constructed by Macdonald and MacIntyre (1997). This scale consists of ten items that could be answered on a 5-point Likert scale (1 = strongly disagree and 5 = strongly agree). An example of one of these items is: “I feel good about working at this company” (MacDonald & MacIntyre, 1997). Again, one scale had to be created. None of the items had to be recoded. The factor analysis showed
three factors based on an Eigenvalue above one. The first factor explained 44.65 percent of the variance, and was chosen as the appropriate factor to measure perceived gender equality. Solely the items that scored higher than .45 on this factor, and did not load on multiple factors were taken into account. Therefore, items one, four, five, six and seven were deleted. Afterwards, a reliability analysis was run on the remaining five items. The reliability analysis showed that the scale had a high level of reliability (α = .75). Therefore, all five items were constructed into one combined variable that contained the mean score for each respondent: job satisfaction.
Communication climate was measured with the Communication Climate scale by Smidts, Pruyn and Van Riel (2001). This scale consists of fifteen items, that could be answered on a 5-point Likert-scale (1 = strongly disagree and 5 = strongly agree). An example of a statement is: “when my supervisor tells me something, I trust he/she is open and honest” (Smidts et al., 2001). All items had to be combined into one new scale. Six of the items had to be recoded. In order to test whether all items measured the same construct, a factor analysis was run. The factor analysis showed that four factors had an Eigenvalue above one. After analysis of the content of these items, the first factor was chosen as the appropriate factor to measure communication climate. This factor explained 36.65 percent of the variance. All items that had a value above .45 on this factor, and did not load on multiple factors were used for the first factor. This factor contained items three, four, seven and eight. Afterwards, a reliability analysis was run in order to find out whether the scale was sufficiently reliable. This proved to be the case (α = .86). Therefore, these four items were combined into the last scale: communication climate.
Respondents also had to fill out some demographic characteristics, such as age, gender, education level, and whether they fulfilled a managerial position. The questions and scales that were used in this research can be found in the Appendix. Since this study merely wants to look
into the relationship between perceived gender equality and turnover intention in the Netherlands, the questionnaire was in Dutch. Therefore, a method called back translation has been used (Slavec & Drnovsek, 2012). This means that the previously validated English scales were translated into Dutch. Afterwards, another person that is proficient in both the Dutch and the English language translated the Dutch questionnaire back into English. Subsequently, both the researcher and the translator compared the original, translated, and retranslated questionnaires. They discussed whether all retranslations were similar enough to the original, and if all questions were clear. This procedure was used for all of the aforementioned scales. After this, some minor adjustments were made. Afterwards, all questions were incorporated into a questionnaire in Qualtrics and this survey was checked by the researcher and four friends and relatives of the researcher. They made sure the questionnaire contained no errors, checked whether all questions were clear, and if all needed questions were asked. A few adjustments were made after this procedure, which led to the final version of the questionnaire. This led to a survey that took respondents approximately five to ten minutes to fill out.
Analytical approach
Prior to the hypothesis testing, the means, correlations and standard deviations of all variables and background variables were calculated. Afterwards, in order to measure the mediating role of job satisfaction on the relationship between perceived gender equality and turnover intention, a mediation analysis as proposed by Baron and Kenny (1986) has been carried out. This analysis is used to test whether the relationship between two variables is caused by a third variable. A moderation analysis was carried out in order to examine the moderating effect of gender on the relationship between perceived gender equality and job satisfaction. This analysis is used to check whether the relationship between two variables changes under the influence of a
third variable. In other words, it tests whether there is an interaction effect, meaning that it tests whether B can be explained by the interaction between A and M. An additional mediation analysis was executed to measure the mediating role of communication climate on the relationship between perceived gender equality and turnover intention. To make sure the relationships found were not caused by any demographic characteristics, the background variables gender, age, education level, hours per week and managerial position were controlled for. These variables were controlled for because research indicates these variables might
influence certain relationships within the organizational context (Balogun, 2014; Mittal & Dhar, 2015).
Results
The means, correlations, and standard deviations of all variables and background variables were calculated. The results can be found in Table 2. As can be concluded from this table, all main variables are significantly correlated with one another. Three background variables are significantly correlated with one of the main variables. There is a significant correlation between perceived gender equality and gender (r = .17, p = .05). Additionally, turnover intention and age are significantly correlated (r = .22, p = .01). Furthermore, job satisfaction and age are significantly correlated (r = .18, p = .03).
Table 2
Correlations and Descriptive Statistics (N = 143).
*p < .05. **p < .01. Hypothesis 1
In order to test the first hypothesis: “perceived gender equality is negatively related to turnover intention, through job satisfaction” a mediation analysis as proposed by Baron and Kenny (1986) was run. The independent variable was perceived gender equality, the dependent variable was turnover intention and the mediating variable was job satisfaction. First, the relationship between perceived gender equality and job satisfaction was measured through a linear regression analysis. The relationship between perceived gender equality and job satisfaction was significant, F(1, 141) = 16.65, p < .001. Therefore, a correlation between perceived gender equality predicts and job satisfaction was found, but the strength of the correlation was weak. Eleven percent of the variation in job satisfaction could be explained by
Variable M (SD) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 PGE 4.07 (0.82) .84 2 TI 2.56 (1.30) -.18* .94 3 JS 3.98 (0.72) .33** -.59** .75 4 CC 3.92 (0.81) .42** -.40** .62** .86 5 Gender .59 (0.49) .17* -.06 .05 .03 - 6 Age 30.34 (11.72) -.06 -.22** .18* .06 -.15 - 7 Education 3.84 (1.21) -.03 .12 -.08 .08 .15 .02 - 8 Hours per week 4.31 (1.43) -.08 -.03 -.04 .06 -.41** -.11 -.06 - 9 Managerial position 1.79 (0.41) -.11 .05 -.08 -.18* .20* -.15 -.03 -.17* -
perceived gender equality (R2 = .11). b = .37, t = 4.08, p < .001, 95% CI [.19, .55]. Second, the relationship between job satisfaction and turnover intention was measured through a linear regression. This relationship was significant as well, F(1, 141) = 76.90, p < .001. Therefore, job satisfaction is related to turnover intention, but the strength of the relationship is moderate. 35 percent of the variation in turnover intention could be explained by job satisfaction (R2 = .35). b = -.33, t = -8.77, p < .001, 95% CI [-.40, -.25]. Third, the relationship between perceived gender equality and turnover intention was measured through a regression analysis. This relationship was also significant, F(1, 141) = 4.79, p = .03. Therefore, perceived gender equality is related to turnover intention. Three percent of the variation in turnover intention could be explained by perceived gender equality (R2 = .03). b = -.29, t = -2.19, p = .03, 95% CI [-.55, -.03]. Since all three relationships were significant, a multiple regression analysis was conducted. Additionally, five background variables (gender, age, education level, hours per week, and managerial
position) were controlled for. We can see that the relationship between perceived gender equality and turnover intention is no longer significant, F(7, 135) = 12.15, p = .97. Therefore, we must conclude that there is no relationship between perceived gender equality and turnover intention when it is controlled for job satisfaction (R2 = .39). b = .01, t = .05, p = .97, 95% CI [-.23, .24]. This means that controlling for job satisfaction removes all of the effect of perceived gender equality, and that there is a full mediation. In order to find out whether the mediation is
significant, Sobel's Z value was calculated. The results confirmed that there was a full mediation (b = -.29, p = .03; b’ = .01, p = .97; Sobel’s Z = -3.70, p < .001). Consequently, hypothesis 1 was supported. There is a negative relationship between perceived gender equality and turnover intention, and this relationship is mediated by job satisfaction. The results can be found in Table 3.
Table 3
Multiple regression analysis of perceived gender equality (PGE) and job satisfaction (JS) and background variables on the dependent variable turnover intention (N = 143, R2 = .39.)
B SE b* t p Constant 7.47 .96 7.78 .00** PGE .01 .12 .00 .05 .97 JS -1.02 .13 -.56 -7.67 .00** Gender -.29 .21 -.11 -141 .16 Age -.02 .01 -.15 -2.14 .04* Education .09 .07 .09 1.24 .22
Hours per week -.10 .07 -.11 -1.50 .14
Managerial position -.05 .23 -.01 -.20 .84
*p < .05. **p < .01. Hypothesis 2
In order to test hypothesis 2: “there is a positive relationship between perceived gender equality and job satisfaction, and this relationship is stronger among women” a moderation analysis was run. The independent variable was perceived gender equality, the dependent variable was job satisfaction, and the moderating variable was gender. It was checked whether the interaction between perceived gender equality and gender resulted in a significant
relationship. This was done by adding an interaction term to the regression. First, a standardized version of the continuous variable perceived gender equality had to be made, this variable was called ZPGE. This was not necessary for gender, since it solely contained two categories. Afterwards, an interaction term between ZPGE and gender was constructed. This variable was called PGExGender. Afterwards, a multiple regression analysis was conducted with the ZPGE, gender and PGExGender as the independent variables, and job satisfaction as the dependent variable. Additionally, four background variables were controlled for (age, education level, hours
per week, and managerial position). The analysis showed that there was no interaction of perceived gender equality and gender on the dependent variable job satisfaction, F(7, 135) = 3.90, p = .10. This means that gender was not considered a moderator of the relationship between perceived gender equality and job satisfaction in this study, b = .19, SE = .12, t = 1.65, p = .10, 95% CI [-.04, .42]. Therefore, hypothesis 2 was not supported. The relationship between perceived gender equality and job satisfaction is not moderated by gender. The scores for each variable can be found in Table 4.
Table 4
Multiple regression analysis for perceived gender equality (PGE), gender, and the interaction between PGE and Gender (PGExG) and background variables on the dependent variable job satisfaction (N = 143, R2 = .17.) B SE b* t P Constant 3.66 .47 7.85 .00** PGE .14 .08 .20 1.74 .08 Gender .07 .13 .05 .54 .59 PGExG .19 .12 .19 1.65 .10 Age .01 .01 .21 2.55 .01* Education -.03 .05 -.06 -.73 .47
Hours per week .01 .04 .02 .17 .86
Managerial position -.01 .15 -.01 -.10 .92
*p < .05. **p < .01. Hypothesis 3
The third and last hypothesis stated: “perceived gender equality is negatively related to turnover intention, through communication climate”. In order to test this hypothesis, another mediation analysis as constructed by Baron and Kenny (1986) was run. In this case, perceived gender equality was the independent variable, turnover intention the dependent variable, and
communication climate the mediating variable. First, the relationship between perceived gender equality and communication climate was measured. This was done by a linear regression. The relationship between perceived gender equality and communication climate was significant, F(1, 141) = 30.74, p < .001. We could therefore conclude that there is a correlation between perceived gender equality and communication climate, but the strength of this correlation is weak. Eighteen percent of the variation in communication climate could be explained by perceived gender
equality (R2 = .18). b = .42, t = 5.54, p < .001, 95% CI [.27, .57]. Second, the relationship between communication climate and turnover intention was measured through a linear regression. The relationship between communication climate and turnover intention was significant, F(1, 141) = 26.69, p < .001. This means that there is a correlation between communication climate and turnover intention, but the strength of the relationship is weak. Sixteen percent of the variation in turnover intention could be explained by communication climate (R2 = .16). b = -.65, t = -5.17, p < .001, 95% CI [-.89, -.40]. It can be concluded that there is a negative relationship between communication climate and turnover intention in this study. This means that a positive communication climate decreases an employee’s turnover intention, while a negative communication climate increases one’s turnover intention. Lastly, the
relationship between perceived gender equality and turnover intention was measured, as was done to test hypothesis 1. The relationship between perceived gender equality and turnover intention was also significant, F(1, 141) = 4.79, p = .03. Three percent of the variation in turnover intention could be explained by perceived gender equality (R2 = .03). b = -.29, t = -2.19, p = .03, 95% CI [-.55, -.03]. This means that there is a significant relationship between perceived gender equality and turnover intention. Since all relationships were significant, a multiple regression analysis for perceived gender equality and communication climate on turnover intention was calculated. Additionally, five background variables (gender, age, education level, hours per week,
and managerial position) were controlled for. When we look at the correlation coefficients, we can see that the relationship between perceived gender equality and turnover intention is no longer significant, F(7, 135) = 6.07, p = .87. Therefore, it must be concluded that the relationship between perceived gender equality and turnover intention no longer exists when it is controlled for communication climate (R2 = .24). b = -.02, t = -.16, p = .87, 95% CI [-.29, .25]. This means that controlling for communication climate removes all of the effect of perceived gender equality. Thus, there is a full mediation. In order to find out whether the mediation was significant, Sobel's Z value was calculated. The results confirmed that there was a full mediation (b = -.29, p = .03; b’ = -.02, p = .87; Sobel’s Z = -3.79, p < .001). Consequently, hypothesis 3 was supported. There was a negative relationship between perceived gender equality and turnover intention, and this relationship was mediated by communication climate. The results can be found in Table 5. Table 5
Multiple regression analysis perceived gender equality (PGE) and communication climate (CC) and background variables on the dependent variable turnover intention (N = 143, R2 = .24.)
B SE b* t p Constant 6.08 1.03 5.88 .00** PGE -.02 .14 -.01 -.16 .87 CC -.63 .14 .39 -4.62 .00** Gender -.35 .23 -.13 -1.51 .13 Age -.03 .01 -.24 -3.04 .00** Education .18 .08 .16 2.14 .03*
Hours per week .08 .08 -.09 -1.01 .31
Managerial position -.15 .25 -.05 -.60 .55
*p < .05. **p < .01.
Conclusion & Discussion
The first hypothesis stated that perceived gender equality and turnover intention would be negatively related, through job satisfaction. A negative relationship between perceived gender equality and turnover intention was found, but this relationship disappeared when controlled for job satisfaction. This indicated that the relationship between perceived gender equality and turnover intention was indirect, and that job satisfaction mediated this relationship. This was in line with the first hypothesis. Hypothesis 2 stated that there would be a positive relationship between perceived gender equality and job satisfaction, and that this relationship would be stronger among women than among men. Indeed a significant positive relationship was found between perceived gender equality and job satisfaction, but the results did not differ between both sexes. This indicated that the relationship between perceived gender equality and job satisfaction was not conditional upon gender. Therefore, the second hypothesis was not supported. The last hypothesis stated that there would be a negative relationship between perceived gender equality and turnover intention, through communication climate. A negative relationship between perceived gender equality and turnover intention was found, but this relationship disappeared when controlled for communication climate. This indicated that the relationship between perceived gender equality and turnover intention was indirect, and was mediated by communication climate. Therefore, hypothesis 3 was confirmed as well.
Theoretical contributions
This research aimed to contribute to the existing literature in three ways. First, by examining the mediating role of job satisfaction on the relationship between perceived gender equality and turnover intention. This research shows that job satisfaction mediates the
relationship between perceived gender equality and turnover intention. These findings are in line with findings by several researchers, such as Foley et al. (2002) and Stroh et al. (1996). The
former investigated the relationship between perceived glass ceiling and turnover intention, and found there to be a positive relationship. Since a glass ceiling means that there is a lack of equality between genders, this is in line with the current findings. The latter investigated the effect of perceptions of career opportunities on job satisfaction. Stroh et al. (1996) found that perceptions of career opportunities positively influence job satisfaction, and that a high level of job satisfaction decreases turnover intention. Since perceived career opportunities are an
important part of perceived gender equality, these findings complement each other (Stroh et al., 1996). Furthermore, it is in line with findings by Rosin and Korabik (1991), who found that there is a negative relationship between job satisfaction and turnover intention.
The second contribution that this research provided was by examining the moderating role of gender on the relationship between perceived gender equality and job satisfaction. This study shows that the relationship between perceived gender equality and job satisfaction is the same among men and women. A high level of perceived gender equality seems to increase job
satisfaction among both sexes. Since research suggests that women perceive gender inequality to be higher than men, and because gender inequality generally negatively affects women, it was expected that the relationship between perceived gender equality and job satisfaction would be stronger among women (Foley et al., 2002; Tominc et al., 2017). This does not appear to be the case. Therefore, this research seems to contradict some findings in the existing literature. Tominc et al. (2017) found there to be a significant positive relationship between perceived gender equality and job satisfaction among women, while they did not find a significant effect among men. Additionally, the research by Semykina and Linz (2013) suggested that there was a positive relationship between perceived gender equality in promotion opportunities and job satisfaction, and that this relationship was stronger among women. However, the findings of this research
were in line with several other studies. Memon and Jena (2017) found that gender equality increases job satisfaction, and Kim et al. (2013) found that gender discrimination decreases job satisfaction. Both studies focused on women only. It is unclear why different results were found by Tominc et al. (2017) and Semykina and Linz (2013). A possible explanation is the country in which the research took place. Both previous studies focused on Eastern European countries, while the current study investigated employees in the Netherlands. The fact that gender equality is largely promoted in the Netherlands might explain why a high level of perceived gender equality increases job satisfaction among both men and women (Rijksoverheid, n.d.).
The third contribution this research provided to the existing literature was by examining the mediating role of communication climate on the relationship between perceived gender equality and turnover intention. This research shows that communication climate seems to mediate the relationship between perceived gender equality and job satisfaction, and that there seems to be no direct relationship between perceived gender equality and turnover intention. To our knowledge, solely one research examined part of this relationship. Unler et al. (2014) found that there is a negative relationship between communication climate and turnover intention. Therefore, their findings are in line with the results of the current study. A positive
communication climate seems to reduce one’s turnover intention, while a negative
communication climate increases it. Additionally, this research shows that there seems to be a relationship between perceived gender equality and both communication climate and turnover intention. Therefore, this study provides a deeper insight into this relationship, which future research can build upon.
In addition to contributing to the existing literature, this research provides some practical implications as well. First, the results of this research suggest that there is a positive relationship between perceived gender equality and job satisfaction among both men and women. Since gender equality is found to increase job satisfaction among both men and women, organizations might not have to worry that gender equality practices will be considered negative by men, because they might see this as a threat for their own opportunities, as some research suggests (Tominc et al., 2017). Thus, it seems that if organizations want to achieve a high level of job satisfaction among their employees, it might be wise for them to ensure that men and women are treated in an equal manner. Second, it is found that perceived gender equality seems to decrease one’s turnover intention. This means that it might be beneficial for them to treat men and women in an equal manner, not only because it seems to increase one’s jobs satisfaction, but because it seems to reduce one’s turnover intention as well. Third, communication climate is found to mediate the relationship between perceived gender equality and turnover intention. This means that a high level of gender equality seems to lead to a positive communication climate. Since a positive communication climate is found to increase employee productivity, satisfaction and loyalty, this might be beneficial information for organizations to take into account when making decisions (Abdussamad, 2015; Šulentić, 2014).
Since there is still a lack of equality between genders, and both men and women play an important role in today’s business environment, it is important for organizations to know how this perceived gender equality affects job satisfaction, communication climate and turnover intention among men and women. The current research suggests that organizations should treat men and women equally. This way, they might be able to increase their employees’ job satisfaction, create a positive communication climate, and reduce their turnover rate. This could be beneficial for
these organizations, since job satisfaction is found to improve employee productivity, enhance overall life satisfaction, and increase employee health (Cranny et al., 1992; Judge & Watanabe, 1994; Sousa-Poza & Sousa-Poza, 2007; Tait et al., 1989). Additionally, it could reduce various costs related to a high turnover rate, such as recruiting, selecting and training new employees (Schwepker, 2001; Tet & Meyer, 1993).
Limitations and suggestions for future research
There were some limitations to this study, which might influence the generalizability of the findings towards other contexts and countries. The first limitation is the use of a cross-sectional research design. It would have been better to use a longitudinal research design.
Longitudinal research could determine the causality of the investigated relationships. Causality is generally impossible to determine with cross-sectional studies (Rindfleisch, Malter, Ganesan, & Moorman, 2008). Furthermore, a longitudinal research could have taken actual turnover into account, instead of turnover intention. However, this went beyond the scope of this research. Since turnover intention is found to be a good predictor for actual turnover it was deemed appropriate for this study (Rosin & Korabik, 1991; Tet & Meyer, 1993). Second, solely
quantitative methods have been used in the current study. Quantitative research provides insights into certain relationships, but fails to investigate why these relationships exist. Ideally, a
combination of both quantitative and qualitative methods would have been used. This would provide both information about which relationships exist, and the reason for them (Tominc et al., 2017). Qualitative research could provide insight into why job satisfaction and communication climate mediate the relationship between perceived gender equality and turnover intention. Additionally, it might explain why no differences were found between men and women regarding the relationship between perceived gender equality and job satisfaction. Therefore, a combination
of quantitative and qualitative methods would be recommended for future research. Third, all questions were measured through self-reports. This raises the possibility for common methods bias (Foley et al., 2002). Ideally, future research should not solely rely on self-report measures, but use other forms of measurement as well, such as actual turnover rates. Fourth, the type of sample was a convenience sample. This means that the respondents had an unequal chance statistically of being selected, which decreases the external validity of the findings (Hart et al., 2009). It is likely that the use of a convenience sample has influenced the characteristics of the respondents, since the questionnaire was mainly filled out by friends, relatives and acquaintances of the researcher. The average age was relatively low (M = 30.34), and unevenly divided (SD = 11.72). Additionally, the education level of the respondents was relatively high. For example, 41.3 percent of the respondents had obtained a Master’s degree, while solely 9.9 percent of the Dutch population has received a similar degree (Centraal Bureau voor de Statistiek, 2017). Because a convenience sample was used, and the sample is not representative of the actual Dutch population, this means that the results of this study cannot be generalized towards the population (Acharya, Prakash, Saxena, & Nigam, 2013). Future research could examine whether similar results are found in a representative sample of the Dutch population. Additionally, since 143 respondents have been examined, it would be recommended to investigate a larger sample. However, a convenience sample was seen as the appropriate method for this research since it is a cheap and convenient way of data gathering, that can generate a large amount of respondents (Hart et al., 2009).
In conclusion, the results of this study suggest that there is a negative relationship between perceived gender equality and turnover intention, and that this relationship is mediated by both job satisfaction and communication climate. Furthermore, perceived gender equality is
found to increase job satisfaction among both men and women. These findings could be useful for practitioners, and can be used for future research to build upon.
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