Solar energy
in the Netherlands
Incentives, Impediments, Challenges and Opportunities
M S c T h e s i s P o l i t i c a l S c i e n c e I n t e r n a t i o n a l R e l a t i o n s T h e p o l i t i c a l e c o n o m y o f e n e r g y
Prof. Dr. M.P. Amineh
S u p e r v i s o rDr. W.H.J. Graus
Stef Haartman 10661972
S e c o n d R e a d e rSolar energy
in the Netherlands
Incentives, Impediments, Challenges and Opportunites
Solar PV
-Netherlands
-Renewable energy policy
-Economic interest groups
Acknowledgements
Studying the Dutch and German (renewable) energy politics over the past five months has been a challenging, but educational process. It is an understatement when I say that writing this thesis has not expired effortlessly. Luckily, the research program, ‘The political economy of Energy’, contains an interesting mix of politics, business and society, which makes that this topic remained fascinating to me till the end. Moreover, I truly enjoyed finding the contemporary relevance of this subject everywhere in the media. Eventually, I think that I might rightfully say that I understand the world a little bit better after writing this thesis, which is in my opinion a valuable experience.
I experienced that writing a thesis is predominantly an individual job. However, I could not have reached this result without the help of a few people. First of all I would like to thank Prof. Dr. M.P. Amineh for his efforts, assistance and professional involvement during the entire process. Although it was sometimes difficult for me to meet his challenging expectations, his feedback represents a vital part of this research. Secondly, I would like to thank Dr. W. Graus for co-reading this thesis. Also I would like to thank Cindy Krigee who was very kind to proofread my work on English grammar and style. Finally, I am very grateful for the unconditional support of my family, friends and partner. The positive environment they create is priceless.
One of the most important parts of this research has been the interviews held with individuals that play a key role in the Dutch energy system. Therefore, my special thanks goes to state officials of the Dutch Ministry of Economic Affairs, drs. Ronald W.A. Roosdorp former employee at the Dutch Ministry of Economic Affairs and Dr. Pieter Boot of the Netherlands Environmental Assessment Agency. The kindness to receive us and the valuable contribution of each person interviewed is gratefully rewarding. For efficiency reasons the interviews were conducted in collaboration with my colleague Timo de Groot. Of course, the collected data is individually processed in both our thesis’. I believe that Timo and I reached an excellent cooperation and I would like to thank him for his critical thoughts, analytical skills and positive spirit.
Stef Haartman June 24th 2016
Table of Contents
Acknowledgements ... 1 Maps ... 7 List of abbreviations ... 9 List of figures ... 11 Abstract ... 13 Chapter One Research design 1. 1 Introduction ... 15 1.1.1 Objectives ... 17 1.1.2 Research Question ... 18 1.1.3 Delineation of Research ... 18 1.1.4 Social relevance ... 19 1.1.5 Literature review ... 201.2 Concepts and Theory ... 23
1.2.1 The Resource Scarcity Model ... 24
1.2.2 Ecological Modernization Theory (EMT) ... 25
1.2.3 Liberalism and Historical Institutionalism ... 26
1.2.4 Advocacy Coalition Framework (ACF) ... 28
1.2.5 Concluding remarks ... 28
1.3 Brief argumentation and hypotheses ... 29
1.4 Method ... 31
1.5 The structure of the thesis ... 33
Chapter Two Energy situation in the Netherlands and Germany 2.1 Introduction ... 35
2.1.1 Worldwide growing energy demand ... 35
2.1.2 The reaction of the European Union ... 37
2.2 Energy mix in the Netherlands ... 38
2.2.1.1 Consumption per capita and sector ... 41
2.2.2 Production and supply of fossil fuels... 42
2.3 Energy mix in Germany ... 44
2.3.1 Consumption – Energy and electricity ... 44
2.3.1.1 Consumption per capita and sector ... 46
2.3.2 Production and supply of fossil fuels... 46
2.4 Energy Scarcity: The Netherlands versus Germany ... 47
2.5 Conclusion ... 50
Chapter Three An introduction of RE policy and policy practice in the Netherlands – 2000 until present: The case of solar PV 3.1 Introduction ... 53
3.2 Dutch RE policy over time ... 54
3.2.1 German RE policy over time ... 57
3.3 Policy instruments in the Netherlands ... 58
3.3.1 The ‘fixed feed in tariff’ in Germany... 61
3.4 Decentralization in the Netherlands ... 64
3.4.1 Decentralization in Germany ... 66
3.5 A factor of comparative advantages in the Netherlands ... 67
3.5.1 A factor of comparative advantages in Germany ... 69
3.6 Conclusion ... 72
Chapter Four Solar PV and the ‘Poldermodel’ 4.1 Introduction ... 75
4.2 Governmental institutions and Economic actors ... 76
4.3 Interests and strategies of individual economic actors ... 78
4.3.1 Royal Dutch Shell ... 78
4.3.2 Gasunie ... 78
4.3.3 GasTerra ... 79
4.3.4 Vattenfal/Nuon... 79
4.3.5 RWE/Essent ... 80
4.4 Company strategies and Dutch RE policy ... 82
4.4.1 Natural Gas: Production, distribution and trade ... 82
4.4.1.1 Benefitting from inconsistent policy instruments and slow transition ... 84
4.4.1.2 Shell’s major influence in the Energieakkoord ... 85
4.4.2 Utilities ... 87
4.4.2.1 Taking advantage of the MEP ... 88
4.4.2.2 Reducing renewable ambitions as consideration for offshore wind ... 88
4.5 Conclusion ... 90
Chapter Five Challenges and opportunities in the Netherlands 5.1 Introduction ... 93 5.2 Challenges ... 93 5.3 Opportunities ... 96 5.4 Strategy ... 96 5.5 Conclusion ... 99 Conclusion Focus ... 101
Theory and hypotheses ... 101
Findings ... 103
Recommendations for further research ... 105
Bibliography Interviews ... 107
Primary sources ... 107
Secondary Sources ... 110
Books ... 110
Articles from scientific journals ... 110
Internet publications ... 112
Magazine ... 113
Documentary ... 113
Appendix 1 – Interviews: Transcript Ministry of Economic Affairs ... 116
Q-Methodology – Ministry of Economic Affairs ... 136
Appendix 2 – Interview: Transcript Ronald W.A. Roosdorp ... 143
Q-Methodology – Ronald Roosdorp ... 153
Appendix 3 – Interview: Transcript Pieter Boot ... 155
Q-Methodology – Pieter Boot ... 159
Maps
Figure A. Map of Europe
Source: Worldatlasbook.com
Figure B. Map of the Netherlands Figure C. Map of Germany
List of abbreviations
ACF Advocacy Coalition Framework
BMU German Federal Ministry for the Environment, Nature conservation, Building and
Nuclear Safety
BMWi German Federal Ministry of Economic Affairs and Energy
BSW German Solar Industry Association
CBS Statistics Netherlands
CEO Chief Executive Officer
ECN Energy research Centre of the Netherlands
EEG Renewable Energy Act of 2000
EMT Ecological Modernization Theory
EU European Union
EU ETS European Union Emissions Trading System
EZ Dutch Ministry of Economic Affairs
GDP Gross Domestic Product
GE Germany
GW Gigawatt
IEA International Energy Agency
kWh Kilowatt per hour
LNG Liquefied Natural Gas
MEP Environmental Quality of Electricity (subsidy scheme)
Mtoe Million Tonnes of Oil Equivalent
MWh Megawatt per hour
New EEG Renewable Energy Act of 2014
NEV Netherlands National Energy Outlook
NGO Non-Governmental Organization
NL Netherlands
OECD Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development
PBL Netherlands Environmental Assessment Agency
PV Photovoltaics
R&D Research and Development
RE Renewable energy
RVO Netherlands Enterprise Agency
SDE Encouraging Sustainable Energy (subsidy scheme)
SDE+ Encouraging Sustainable Energy+ (subsidy scheme)
SOE State-Owned Enterprise
TNO Netherlands Organization for Applied Scientific Research
Toe Tonne of oil equivalent
TPES Total Primary Energy Supply
TWh Terawatt per hour
VNO-NCW Confederation of Netherlands Industry and Employers
List of figures
Figure A. Map of Europe.
Figure B. Map of the Netherlands.
Figure C. Map of Germany.
Figure 2.1. Expected RE sources deployment in Member States and 2020 RE sources targets. Figure 2.2. Total primary energy supply Netherlands, trend 1973-2012.
Figure 2.3. Primary energy consumption, adjusted for temperature (Projection 2013 – 2030) Figure 2.4. Share per sector in the gross final energy consumption in the Netherlands (2012). Figure 2.5. Crude oil imports by origin, 2012.
Figure 2.6. Natural Gas imports by Source 2011.
Figure 2.7. Expected Gas Production in the Netherlands (million m3).
Figure 2.8. Total primary energy supply Germany, trend 1973-2012.
Figure 2.9. Crude oil imports by origin, 2012. Figure 2.10. Natural Gas imports by Source 2012.
Figure 3.1. Share of gross electricity consumption covered by RE in Germany.
Figure 3.2. EEG surcharge in eurocent per kilowatt-hour.
Figure 3.3. Local civil society based organizations in the Netherlands (1980 – 2012). Figure 4.1. Sustainability scenario’s for gas demand in North West European market. Figure 5.1. Share of RE in the Netherlands
Abstract
The world’s appetite for energy will rise considerably. Along with this growing demand the pressure on climate and energy scarcity issues will rise accordingly. In a response to these long-term challenges the EU emphasized the important role of renewables. Therefore, the EU set country specific RE goals that are expected to be met in 2020. The marginal share of RE in the Netherlands, however, is in fierce contrast with the excessive growing share of renewables in for example Germany. The Dutch performance is particularly poor in the case of solar PV. Critics point at the role of large economic actors that dominate the energy system in the Netherlands. As a consequence, this research focuses on the influence of Shell, Gasunie, GasTerra, Nuon, Essent and Eneco and analyzes to what extent they form an impediment for successful RE policy and the implementation of solar PV in the Netherlands, towards 2020 and beyond.
This thesis performs mainly a qualitative analysis. The methodological approach concentrates on mainly two things. First, by making references to Germany, the thesis researches who the main economic actors in the Dutch energy system are and what opportunities they have to influence (renewable) energy policy in the Netherlands. Second, the thesis defines the company strategies of Shell, Gasunie, GasTerra, Nuon, Essent and Eneco and analyzes how these particular strategies are reflected in policy instruments and the outcome of the Energieakkoord, in order to determine to what extent these companies form an impediment for successful RE policy and the implementation of solar PV in particular. The collection of data with regards to the influence of companies on RE policy is key in this matter. The thesis collected data from intensive literature studies, interviews and Q-sort’s.
This thesis concludes that dominant business actors in the Dutch energy system contribute not only significant to the well diversified supply of fossil energy (chapter 2), but that they are also key in the exploitation of comparative advantages in the Netherlands and have therefore very much ability and opportunity to influence (renewable) energy policy. Moreover, the thesis concludes that the centralized energy system in the Netherlands and the centralized structure of the Dutch government provide unfavorable conditions for strong renewable energy polices and a faster pace towards renewables (chapter 3). The assets of the Dutch gas market and the importance of its economic actors in the exploitation of this comparative advantage made that strong RE policies could not take off in the first place. The transnational activities of Shell, Gasunie and GasTerra, that contribute to the geopolitical ambitions of the Netherlands, enhance the persuasive power of their arguments against strong sustainable
policies. Especially Shell is very influential and has the ability to steer the government in its decisions. Although the influence of Shell and the impediment they form for strong RE policies is very obvious, the energy-intensive industries on the consumption side formed in the end the bottleneck for more ambitious RE policies. In this matter, VNO-NVW was the predominant actor. In the end, the mian challenge towards 2020, is implementing policies that stimulate small scale RE technologies, that significantly could contribute to the EU objective. However, policies that stimulate small scale technologies are not supported by Shell, Gasunie, GasTerra, Nuon, Eneco and Essent and thus difficult to implement (chapter 5).
Chapter One
Research design
1. 1 Introduction
Each generation in human history is confronted with the challenges of their time. Many think that the main challenges of the 21st century will be related to energy production and consumption. Looking at energy consumption, one could see that the amount of consumption per human-being on earth differs widely over the world. The disproportional use in the Western world has adopted a severe form. An American citizen for example, consumes on average two times more energy than an European, ten times more than a Chinese, twenty times more than an Indian and a whopping thirty times more than a person living on the African continent (Armaroli and Balzani 2007: 4). With regards to this consumption the total demand for oil already passed a thousand barrels per second in 2007 (idem: 2). One need not be a genius to realize that the demand for energy will increase when people in developing countries, the largest part of the world’s population are getting more wealthy. While the demand for energy will grow, the production will increasingly be confronted with a depletion of conventional energy sources like coal, gas and oil. Energy trade relations in the future will, as a consequence of this worldwide growing demand for energy and depleting fossil fuel resources, extremely politicize (Amineh and Yang 2012: 3). Aside the estimated discrepancy between supply and demand of fossil fuels in the future, fossil fuel consumption has also contributed to another major problem. The consumption of conventional energy is associated with tremendous amounts of greenhouse gasemissions. As a consequence, the world of today faces the major challenge of combating climate change, which means limiting the process of global warming to a maximum rise of 1.5 degrees Celsius above the pre-industrial period (The Guardian.com).
Dealing with both challenges, the challenge of worldwide supply security and the challenge of negative side effects related to climate change, implicitly means that alternative energy sources become increasingly important. Today, alternative energy sources are part of daily life discussion and are frequently researched in multiple contexts. In recent years, alternative energy sources became more than just ‘alternatives’ for fossil fuels. As stated above, awareness of climate change and resource scarcity in combination with technological
development and industrial opportunities, increased the relevance of RE and made that specific industrial sector grow. As a consequence, the term ‘renewables’ replaced the term ‘alternatives’, where RE sources are no longer just an alternative for fossil fuels, but a strong growing industrial sector. Renewables include for example wind, water, solar, heating and biochemical produced energy. In general, all these sources are relatively promising, but renewables also have their pros and cons. Worldwide scholars are particularly expecting much from solar energy (Tegenlicht 2016). The costs of solar produced energy have dropped tremendously in recent years and are expected to drop even more in the future. Moreover, solar produced energy is, relative to other RE sources like wind, very efficient in terms of space.
In a response to the worldwide long-term challenges of energy supply security and climate change, the European Union opened a debate on future energy policies with the focus on a ‘common’ strategy (European Commission 2007: 3). The EU presented in 2007 their new ‘energy and climate change package’ aimed at reducing the EU import dependency and CO2 emissions (Idem: 14). Consequently, the focus on RE increased tremendously. The Netherlands for example, are obligated to produce 14.5% of their final energy consumption from RE sources by 2020. Their eastern neighbor, Germany is obligated to produce 18% by 2020. Although the Netherlands have a slightly higher GDP per capita (The World Bank.org), their starting point is lower. As a consequence they have to meet a lower target than Germany. Only 3.4% of the gross final energy consumption was produced by renewables in the Netherlands in 2008, for Germany this was 8.5% (BMWi 2014: 35). Halfway towards the targets set for 2020 the Netherlands increased their production in 2013 with only 1.1% to a share of 4.5 the total consumption (ibid). In the European context they rank third lowest and are not expected to meet their target set for 2020. Germany on the other hand, increased their share with almost 4% towards 12.4% in 2013 and might even exceed their targets by 2020 (ibid). Focusing on solar PV, statistics show that already 20% of the renewable power generation in Germany is generated by solar (Working Group on Energy Balances 2015). In the Netherlands the contribution of solar PV in the renewable electricity production is only 2.5% (CBS 2015: 26).
With regards to the marginal success of renawables in the Netherlands, the Energie rapport voor Duurzame groei 2016, as presented by the ministry of Economic Affairs was expected to provide a clear strategy for strong climate policies. However, according to Greenpeace, the report lacked inspiration, ambition and is devoid of any sense of urgency (Duurzaam
Nieuws.nl 2016, January 18). The following question arises, why are German RE policies successful with regards to the implemented capacity and do Dutch RE policies arguably fail? And, why do the Dutch perform so poorly in terms of solar energy, while this source is widely implemented in Germany and is one of the most promising RE sources for the future?
1.1.1 Objectives
This thesis sets out to research the impediments for successful policy and policy practice related to solar PV produced energy in the Netherlands. The core analysis will focus primarily on the role of economic actors and how they influence the RE policy-making process in the Netherlands. In this way, the research tries to uncover the impediments they arguably form for the transition towards renewables and the implementation of solar PV in particular. In order to clarify the importance of social economic actors in the Dutch energy system, the research tries to make references to policy and policy practice in Germany as much as possible. By doing so, the research aims to strengthen the validity of its findings.
1. Special focus will be on the role of business incumbents influencing RE policy and implementation in a liberal society like the Netherlands. By doing so, this thesis aims to provide an overview of incentives, impediments, challenges and opportunities for RE in general and solar PV in particular in the Netherlands, towards 2020 and beyond. 2. With references to Germany, one objective is to clarify the opportunities that social economic actors have in the Netherlands to influence the key aspects of the energy transition guided by RE policy and policy practice.
3. By researching the actual impediments caused by economic actors related to successful RE policy and the implementation of solar PV in the Netherlands in depth, the role of the following economic actors is taken into account: The top three utility companies Nuon/Vattenfall, Essent/RWE and Eneco and the major players in the Dutch gas market Royall Dutch Shell, Gasunie and GasTerra. The Dutch Ministry of Economic Affairs is the responsible governmental institution with regards to energy policy in the Netherlands. Researching their role is therefore also one of the key objectives in this research.
4. Based on the findings the research endeavors to achieve an overview of challenges and opportunities that provide the basic attributes for a successful RE strategy towards 2020 and beyond. The research aims to highlight the role of solar PV in this respect.
1.1.2 Research Question
The introductory part shows that, although the Netherlands face sustainability targets imposed by the EU, the country performs poorly in terms of successful policy and policy practice related to RE and solar PV in particular. However, facing fairly similar targets, Germany shows to be quite successful in this matter. Aiming to carry out the objectives as outlined above, the following research question is advanced:
What are the driving forces behind RE policy in the Netherlands and Germany and to what extent do Shell, Gasunie, GasTerra, Nuon, Essent and Eneco form an impediment for successful RE policy and the implementation of solar PV in the Netherlands towards 2020 and beyond?
Based on the above formulated research question the following sub questions are derived:
1. What is the contribution of renewables to the security of energy supply in the Netherlands and Germany and how do conventional energy sources curb or stimulate the impetus towards renewables in both countries?
2. To what extent do social economic actors have the opportunity to influence renewable energy policy and policy practice in the Netherlands and Germany, looking at policy instruments, the structure of the government, the structure of the energy system and industrial opportunities?
3. To what extent do Shell, Gasunie, GasTerra, Nuon, Essent and Eneco form an impediment for successful renewable energy policy in the Netherlands, and for the implementation of solar PV in particular?
4. What are the main challenges to overcome and opportunities for the Netherlands in order to conduct a successful RE strategy that contributes to the EU renewable energy targets for 2020 and beyond and what role can solar PV play in this strategy?
1.1.3 Delineation of Research
This research is narrowed down to one selected RE technology, namely solar PV. Geographically the research is delineated by the Netherlands, Germany and Europe. Moreover, the focus lies on the interests of economical actors in relation to the domestic RE policy-making processes. The choice for researching the influence of these particular actors
on the policy making-process as an impediment for the implementation of RE in the Netherlands follows from the Literature Review (1.1.5). The argumentation behind choosing the Netherlands, Germany and Europe as the geographical borders of this research is based on the different share of solar PV implemented capacity in the Netherlands and Germany and the sustainability targets posed by the EU for 2020.
This research will be performed related to the 20-20-20 objectives set by the European Union in 2007. The 2020 package is a set of binding legislation to ensure the EU meets its climate and energy targets for the year 2020 (Europa.eu). The package sets three key targets:
1. 20% cut in greenhouse gas emissions (from 1990 levels), 2. 20% of EU energy from renewables,
3. 20% improvement in energy efficiency.
This research particularly focuses on the second key target that is related to RE. the overall time frame of this research will therefore be from 2000 until 2020 and shortly thereafter. This implicitly means that a part of my research will be in the past, 2000 until the present and a part will be in the future. Of course, one can predict implications for the future, but one cannot research the future. Therefore, the second part of my research that concerns the future until 2020 will consist of predictions about challenges and opportunities that the Netherlands will face that are derived from the past (from 2000 until present).
1.1.4 Social relevance
Researching the success of solar energy in the Netherlands is relevant from several perspectives and purposes. First of all, renewables play a key role in combating climate change (IEA 2015: 1) Secondly, the Netherlands are far behind other EU member countries, with regards to the share of RE in their total consumption (BMWi 2014: 35). Thirdly, the Dutch are struggling to meet their binding targets posed by the EU. Targets that represent a vital part in the common European energy strategy (European Commission 2007: 13). Finally, the prediction that solar produced electricity, could be cheaper than fossil fuel produced electricity in the near future makes this research even more relevant (Tegenlicht 2016). Relative to their neighbors, other EU member states and the rest of the world, the Dutch economy could lose competitiveness as a consequence of unsuccessful RE implementation. In short, successful implementation of RE and solar energy in particular can be considered as being essential for maintaining daily-living standards, within a context of trade-off between
the struggle of survival under climate change and the economy’s sustainability (Marques 2011: 1601).
1.1.5 Literature review
This research is focused on RE policy in the Netherlands and Germany, where the latter will act as a reference country. Based on this focus, the literature review can be separated into two subfields. The literature review will elaborate on the available literature that is written on ‘RE incentives’ and ‘energy policy implementation on the EU level and on the national level with regards to the Netherlands and Germany’.
The amount of literature written in the context of RE increased significantly in recent years. Scholars asses the issues that come along with RE and energy transition in a variety of ways. One could research RE from a technological, economic or political perspective and the research design can be both, quantitative and qualitative. If one addresses the issue of RE on a high level, the focus is on ‘energy transition’. This is the broader field wherein the topic of RE sources can be researched. One important driver behind RE is technology. Looking at potential technology growth rates and outlooks of production of the required natural resources (Davidsson 2015: 2) will help to construct a forecast for energy transition. It is concluded that individual energy technologies affect the energy transition to a large extent. This is an interesting insight, with regards to the focus on one particular energy technology in this research, namely solar PV.
On the European level, Marques (2010, 2011) concluded from his research that the motivations that drive RE in Europe are significantly correlated with membership in the EU. Moreover, he argues that lobby pressure, energy self-sufficiency, emissions and income are important drivers of RE deployments in EU member states (Marques 2010: 6885). Furthermore, traditional energy sources would curb the impetus towards renewables. In a third research, Marques (2012: 116) concludes for 23 EU member countries that “incentive/subsidy” policies, such as feed-in tariffs, and “policy processes”, such as strategic planning, have been effective in fostering RE use in these 23 European countries. In a review on ‘best practices’ based on case studies, Abdmouleh (2015: 249) provides policy-makers and RE project developers with background information and analysis into the successful penetration of RE policies. He concludes that in many member countries of the EU, the current energy system is centralized and dominated by large traditional energy corporations. This is the first barrier to overcome when developing a more successful decentralized RE
system. Besides the domination of corporations, Polzin (2015: 95) points at the importance of a stable investment climate. ‘To improve the conditions for institutional investments, advisable policy instruments include economic and fiscal incentives such as ‘feed-in tariffs’. Supplementing these fiscal incentives with regulatory measures such as codes and standards and long-term strategic planning could further strengthen the context for RE investments’ (Polzin 2015: 98). A third feature of successful implementation is related to the governmental level where this implementation of RE policy takes place. Passimeni (2014: 170) argues that there is a need for RE planning on a municipal scale in order to be effective.
Abdmouleh (2015: 249) links the domination of large (energy) corporations to unsuccessful development of a decentralized RE system. To understand this barrier one should take a look at the role of these large companies in the formation policy on the European level and at the national level. Richardson (2006) writes in his book ‘European Union, Power and Policy Making’, that the policy-making process in the EU is a reflection of policy-making process in Western democracies. Policy-making process in Western democracies is defined by the interaction between different interest groups (Richardson 2006: 249). In terms of energy policy, the European Council adopted in 2007 ambitious energy and climate change objectives for 2020 (European Commission 2010: 2). To meet these objectives, the EU set binding targets for each individual country and adopted the ‘Third Energy Package’ to accelerate progress. The domestic adaptions of EU policy, like the targets posed by the EU and the third energy package are often linked to the concept of ‘Europeanisation’. This concept assumes that the EU provides the direct or indirect impulse for domestic change (Richardson 2006: 59). Taking this as the starting point one should expect that the RE policy in two, at first sight, similar countries like the Netherlands and Germany (comparable GDP and both institutionalized in the EU) would be quite the same. Statistics show on the other hand that this is not true. Therefore, one could argue that there must be a significant difference in the domestic policy-making process between either countries, or the policy making process is influenced by different actors and structural factors.
On the national level, Karapin (2012: 6) translated structural factors that stimulate or inhibit the transition towards RE sources in four assumptions. First, he assumes that energy policies are primary influenced by the availability of domestic resources. Countries that are more dependent on fossil fuel imports are more likely to promote and implement renewables. Second, he assumes that countries that are strong in manufacturing have interest in new industries that potentially can create jobs. Since renewables are a manufacturing good,
incentives are stronger in manufacturing countries. Third, green movements or green political parties influence the adoption of renewables. The establishment of these parties and movements is determined by the electoral system. Finally, Karapin (2012: 7) argues that centralized systems are characterized by a concentrated representation of interest with cooperative relations between business and government. He assumes that a centralized system provides less favorable conditions for renewables.
The Dutch are limited in their success related to effective RE policies. Rooijen (2006) argues that this is a consequence of ongoing discussion on vital points, namely on objectives and targets, voluntary versus compulsory RE consumption and local production versus imports. One argument for this lack of coherent policy towards more RE in the Netherlands, is that it has not been a top priority, in any case not before the 2020 targets set by the EU (Verbong & Geels 2007: 1036). They argue that energy policy in the Netherlands has remained part of wider industrial policy (ibid). The main drivers in the ongoing energy transition are liberalization/privatization and Europeanization. Climate change and environmental sustainability, that are highly related with RE, have been added as additional considerations, but are not main drivers. Secondly they state that, policymakers in the Netherlands too rapidly abandon innovations when developments are more difficult than expected. Such unpredictable policies create uncertainties and hamper investments. In short, a strong, stable and clear RE policy was lacking already before the EU conducted their energy strategy towards 2020. Especially in the case of solar PV, even small disappointment about technology caused lower expectations and decreased interest by regime actors which eventually resulted in a very low solar PV capacity (idem: 1035). But even, when technology in the field of solar PV significantly improved (Tegenlicht 2016), the Dutch are still doing poorly.
One of the main reasons that RE is lower in the Netherlands than in other relative similar countries is, that RE lacks support from the government (CBS 2015: 27). Boon (2014: 306) argues that this lack of governmental support is related to the fact that the Dutch energy market is a centralized market dominated by only a few actors. These actors are primarily economic actors that have vested interest in fossil fuels technologies and thereby could form an impediment for the transition towards renewables. Kern & Smith (2008: 7) researched for example the influence of the taskforce on energy transition in the Netherlands. Until 2007, the same year wherein the European Commission communicated their energy strategy to the parliament, this taskforce was for five year a dominant actor in the (so far unsuccessful) Dutch energy transition process (P+.nl, 2007, September 20). This taskforce consists of
seventeen high level members mainly from industry and the public sector and is chaired by the CEO of Shell, Netherlands. Kern & Smith (2008: 7) concluded from interviews with researchers and NGOs, that the taskforce has been criticized for being dominated by large energy companies from the existing energy system such as Shell, Essent, and Gasunie. In 2007, the taskforce transformed into the ‘Regieorgaan Energietransitie’. The most important change was deleting state officials in the taskforce (P+.nl, 2007, September 20).
To understand the powerful position of these companies, one has to focus on their deep integration in (inter)national institutional frameworks and today’s society. In terms of international connectives one must understand that the high level strategy of the Netherlands in becoming a Northwest-European ‘gasrotonde’ (gas hub) includes more than just energy trade. This strategy creates specific international relationships with other countries and companies, attracts important investments and technologies and includes major employment. Secondly, focusing on today’s society, Meadowcroft (2009: 329) argues that multiple components of the energy systems are closely integrated in an established sociotechnical system. Focusing on companies like Shell, Gasunie, GasTerra that play a critical role in the development of the ‘gasrotonde’ and companies like Nuon, Essent and Eneco that are close integrated in sociotechnical systems seems to be important when explaining the lack of political support for renewables.
1.2 Concepts and Theory
In order to conduct a descent academic research, the main research question and related sub questions should be researched within a theoretical framework of theories and concepts that fits the problem and is able to frame all the relevant actors in the right context. The research question that defines the direction of this research is built upon two main pillars:
The first part: - What are the driving forces behind RE policy in the Netherlands and Germany – is concerned with incentives that drive RE. These incentives can follow from supply security issues, industrial opportunities, hazardous events and international agreed obligations, like the targets set by the EU. can be considered as driving forces behind RE policies. The contribution of RE sources to a countries’ supply security can be conceptualized by the scarcity model.
After conceptualizing the driving forces behind RE policy this thesis researches the interaction between social economic interest groups and the established RE policies in the
Netherlands. The second part: - To what extent do Shell, Gasunie, GasTerra, Nuon, Essent and Eneco form an impediment for successful RE policy and the implementation of solar PV in the Netherlands towards 2020 and beyond? – can only be researched rightfully when one understand the policy-making process in the Netherlands. The fact that the Netherlands is a liberal and democratic country confirms that the economic actors mentioned in the question could be indeed relevant. Therefore, this thesis elaborates on the Ecological Modernization Theory, Liberalism and Historical Institutionalism and the Advocacy Coalition Framework, which are all applicable to the liberal state type and are able to frame the involved actors in the right context. Ecological Modernization Theory is able to translate the driving forces behind RE policy into effective transition in the energy system. Liberalism and Historical Institutionalism is able to frame the interaction between governments and social interest groups and their role in the policy making process. Finally, the Advocacy Coalition Framework conceptualizes the impediments for policy change in subsystems that are subjected to a market oriented system. The advantage of the three theoretical approaches mentioned above is that they include the force of economic actors and make suggestions on the way these actors could influence policy. Scholars of liberalism separate the market from the state in the field of political economy and suggest that the interaction between the both defines how policies are constructed. As a result, these theoretical approaches are preferable over theories from scholars linked to, for example, ‘realism’ who suggest that the market is subordinated to the state. The primacy of the state would mean that they alone would be responsible for the formation of policy, which is simply not true in the Netherlands.
1.2.1 The Resource Scarcity Model
As described in section 1.1.5 (Literature review), the first assumption presented by Karapin (2012: 6) is related to the security of supply. Meeting the demand for energy is a constant challenge and the driving force behind energy policy and state activeness. Securing the supply of energy means nothing more than the ‘availability of sufficient energy supply at prices that are considered affordable for that particular country’ (Yergin 2006: 70). The process behind energy supply security is described by the concept of the so called scarcity model. This model is able to conceptualize the actions of nation states in their search for energy supply. As described in the introduction, renewables are becoming increasingly important to energy supply security. Therefore, although the concept of the scarcity model is originally directed at the analysis of fossil fuels, it is also relevant when explaining a state’s activeness towards RE sources.
The need for energy security is related to the importance of affordable energy and electricity for western societies in general (Verbong & Geels (2007: 1025). The challenge of energy security is enhanced by the situation of increased resource scarcity worldwide (Amineh and Houweling 2007: 374). The resource scarcity model conceptualizes the interaction between producer and consumer countries, and all other national and transnational actors involved in the context of geopolitics (ibid). The model claims that challenges of energy security are either caused by a factor of demand-induced scarcity, supply-induced scarcity or structural scarcity. As global consumption rises, the effect of demand-induced scarcity could become present. Demand-induced scarcity explains the decreasing availability of energy per capita. This effect can arise as a consequence of three developments: The first one is population growth in energy consuming countries, the second is increasing energy consumption per capita income in countries where energy consumption is the highest and in industrializing countries like China and India and the third is technological change. In this concept, technological change is viewed as an development that increases the access to fossil energy (idem: 75). On the other hand, the effect of supply-induced scarcity is caused by dwindling reserves. In reality, both effects interact and the intersection of demand and supply determines the price (ibid). However, fossil fuels are not a manufacturing good. In the case of resources, supply-induced scarcity should be studied in its own right. Due to the awareness of dwindling stock, anticipation on price volatility may provoke a process of competitive power projections. This process brings us to structural scarcity. Structural scarcity is supply-induced scarcity, deliberately imposed by major powers or non-state actors such as major oil companies. These major powers have the ability to cut off countries from energy supply at affordable prices.
The concepts suggests that established energy policy and state activeness is based on avoiding a situation of supply-scarcity, structural or not. Therefore, the resource scarcity model will be used as a general framework to analyze the Dutch and German energy situation in relation to their domestic economy. Finally, this concept can help us to understand and explain the motivations behind and the function of RE in the Dutch and German energy system.
1.2.2 Ecological Modernization Theory (EMT)
The ‘Ecological Modernization Theory’ (EMT) is a relevant approach to translating incentives for RE, driven by scarcity issues or climate change, into effective energy transition and implementation of renewables. EMT is extremely relevant in western Europe and literature within the boundaries of this perspective is mainly originating in Germany, the
Netherlands, the United Kingdom and the United States of America. EMT gained popularity due to the increasing importance of environmental policies in recent decades (Buttel 2000: 57). The theory contributes to the problem of energy transition by elaborating on two major innovative insights that are related to the state-market relations. The first contribution is that one should move away from believe that main economic actors are forces that only disturb the environment (Mol and Jänicke 2007: 6). Instead, the theory suggests that the market and main economic actors also can work in favor of environmental reforms. The second contribution of EMT is that the theory emphasizes that, although a state remains an important institution in safeguarding the environment and thus remains important for energy transition, it needs to be restructured. The theory suggest that the state should be more flexible, decentralized and actively involved in the creation of new networks with other actors than the traditional one in order to conduct energy transition. In other words, ecological modernization processes, like transition towards renewables, ‘are a reflection of policy environments that are made possible through the restructuring of the state’ (Buttel 2000: 59). Looking at state-structure of the Netherlands and Germany, there is one major difference. The Dutch state is highly centralized while state governments play a major role in Germany (idem: 62). Especially in centralized states like the Netherlands, scholars of EMT stress the role that advocacy-coalition type relations play among state officials, corporate managers, and environmental NGOs, in ecological modernization processes like the successful implementation of renewables. In conclusion, the core of EMT stresses the role of social and state-institutional transformation as the pre-condition for change in the energy regime.
1.2.3 Liberalism and Historical Institutionalism
Energy systems are related to the International Political Economy (IPE), where market forces and states interests cross each other’s paths. The second contribution of the EMT, that suggests that state-institutional transformation and advocacy coalition type relations form the key to the success of energy transition, must be integrated in a theoretical perspective that realistically represents the state-market relationship in the Netherlands and Germany. In Western democracies and especially in the EU, which is an institution on its own, the liberal perspective is arguably the dominant perspective. Thus, in order to understand the interaction between states and non-state actors in the (inter)national energy systems of the Netherlands and Germany, one must elaborate on this liberal perspective.
The liberal theory accepts the state as an actor, but not as the primary actor to which the market and all other actors are subordinated. Interaction between actors is based on rules and
laws that are stipulated in international organizations. Moreover, these international organizations and institutions are relevant in world politics as arenas for cooperation. Cooperation is an important aspect of the liberal perspective, because scholars of liberalism believe that cooperation between actors will lead to mutual benefits and absolute gains (Duffield 2001: 98).
In many of the various international cooperative systems of today, non-governmental actors account for the major portion of cross border activity. The degree of governmental participation is highly dependent on the nature of the system. For example, the more transnational a system is, the more likely it is that non-governmental actors constitute the basis for the compelling forces in it (Keohane and Nye 1974: 55). The global energy system and especially the energy system within the EU is highly dependent on transnational relations. Thus from the liberal perspective, the activities in the energy system of the Netherlands and Germany are mainly organized by non-state actors like non-governmental organizations and multinational corporations.
Furthermore, state-market systems, like the energy system are often embedded in institutional frameworks. Although institutions are mainly in place to facilitate the coordination of activities, they also anchor the power of involved rules, laws and actors (Keohane 1984: 64). The anchored power of actors within institutions can be explained from the perspective of historical institutionalism. In political science, historical institutionalisms have become a prominent approach to institutional analysis (Peters et al. 2005: 1276). Deeply embedded in the literature written from this perspective lies the assumption that systems tend to be conservative and find ways to defend existing patterns and actors that make and deliver that policy. The perspective suggests that institutions consist of self- reinforcement processes that make institutional configurations what makes their policies difficult to change once a pattern had been established (ibid). Moreover, Energy systems conquered an inseparable place in liberal high income countries with regards to their (international) power. This is because inputs of energy into the state-society complex in these liberal high income countries (Amineh and Houweling 2007: 368) are traded in transnational networks that cross state borders. The powers of these states originate in technological innovations and capital goods developed by high technology companies. The energy system is an existing sociotechnical one that is characterized by path dependence and lock-in mechanism, mainly resulting from incumbent actors that have vested interests. Secondly, regulations and standards may stabilize regimes and routines may blind actors to developments outside their focus resulting in path
dependency (Verbong & Geels 2007: 1026). Combining the presence of path dependency in institutional frameworks, like the energy regime, with the valuable role of non-state actors in established energy systems, suggests that states are highly dependent on these non-state actors with regards to the formation of energy policy. Assuming that incumbents are not completely identical with the actors involved in radical innovation processes (Markard & Truffer 2008: 601), historical institutionalism suggests, that incumbents can form an impediment for successful RE policy.
1.2.4 Advocacy Coalition Framework (ACF)
EMT stresses the role of advocacy-coalition type relations in particular, when elaborating on the restructuring of the state. Policy change over time and the role of advocacy coalition type relations are conceptualized in the ‘Advocacy Coalition Framework’ (ACF). The conceptualization follows from Helco’s (1974) view on policy change. This scholar saw policy change as being a product of large scale social, economic and political changes and secondly as being a product of strategic interaction of people within a policy community, involving competition for power and efforts to develop more knowledgeable means of addressing the policy problem (Sabatier 1988: 130). The conceptual framework consist of three basic premises. At first, the process of policy change requires a time perspective of about a decade. This means that analyzing the success or failure of policy related to the implementation of solar PV in the Netherlands should be researched over approximately ten years or more. Secondly, the most useful way to think about policy change is by focusing on policy subsystems. Actors from a variety of public and private organizations who are actively concerned with a policy problem or issue. And third, that public policy can be conceptualized as sets of value priorities and causal assumptions about how to realize them. The ability to map beliefs and policies on the same canvas provides a vehicle for assessing the influence of various actors on policy over time (idem: 131). Analyzing these three premises, the ACF suggests that the core (basic attributes) of a governmental program are unlikely to change as long as the advocacy coalition, which is instituted the program remains in power (idem: 148).
1.2.5 Concluding remarks
As stated in the introduction of the theoretical framework, the role of these theories and concepts in this research is to frame the research question in the right context. The scarcity model explains energy policy and state activeness from the perspective of scarcity. The scarcity model suggests that alternative energy sources could contribute to the security of supply. Understanding this concept is relevant in researching the driving forces behind RE.
The Ecological Modernization Theory suggests that the state should be restructured into a more decentralized state that is actively involved in the creation of new networks with new actors in order to conduct energy transition in the system. Liberalism and Historical Institutionalism suggest that politics in the Netherlands and Germany are highly dependent on activities from non-state actors and that incumbents in institutional frameworks can form an impediment for system change and thus for policy change. Finally, the Advocacy Coalition Framework is able to conceptualize policy change over time and suggests that governmental programs are unlikely to change as long as the dominating actors remain in power.
1.3 Brief argumentation and hypotheses
The scarcity model outlined above, is part of the puzzle in explaining why countries are forced or not to impose strong RE policies. As mentioned, renewables can contribute to the security of supply, at least when they are at affordable prices. As we know, RE policies in the Netherlands are so far relatively unsuccessful. In 2014, not even 5% (CBS 2015: 27). of the total final energy consumption was produced by RE sources in the Netherlands and more than 13.5% in Germany (Berlin energy transition dialogue press office 2016: 5). Identifying the driving forces behind renewables could help us explaining the unequal performance in both countries. As described in the theoretical framework, the scarcity model claims that those forces dependent on a factor of demand-induced scarcity, supply-induced scarcity or structural scarcity. Both countries are high income countries with a decreasing energy use per capita income (IEA.org), so the factor demand-induced scarcity is quite similar in these countries. As a consequence, the hypothesis that is derived from the scarcity model is the following:
Hypothesis 1: As a result of the fact that the Netherlands is less sensitive than Germany to
fossil fuel shortages deliberately imposed by major powers, the driving force behind renewable energy policy and the implementation of solar PV in the Netherlands is less present than in Germany.
Incentives behind the implementation of RE, driven by energy scarcity, can lead to state activeness and effective RE policies. However, as the theoretical framework describes, energy policies in the Netherlands are formed not only by the government, but also by the governmental actors active in the energy system. The Dutch energy system manifested itself as an important hub for international energy trade and transportation. The system plays a key role in refining oil (IEA Energy Supply Security Netherlands 2014: 319), transporting natural
gas through pipelines (Aardgas in Nederland.nl) and transshipping LNG (Port of Rotterdam.com). This energy system is characterized by transnational actors like Royal Dutch Shell, GasTerra, Gasunie and many more. Moreover, the Dutch electricity market is rapidly emerging as a key transit market within the European market and their power production capacity is enormous (IEA, Energy Policies, the Netherlands 2014: 72). Important actors in this process are the large utility companies like Vattenfall/Nuon, RWE/Essent and Enceco. The consequences of systems that include actors that operate ‘Transnational’ as outlined by Keohane & Nye (1974: 55) leads to the following hypothesis:
Hypothesis 2: The transnational character of the Dutch energy system enhances the
compelling forces of Shell, Gasunie, GasTerra, Nuon, Essent and Eneco in the Dutch energy system.
The institutional structure in which the policy-making process takes place and in which the above mentioned actors interact with the government is key for the transition renewables. As outlined by Mol and Jänicke (2007: 6), the EMT suggests that governmental institutions needs to be flexible, decentralized and actively involved in the creation of new networks. Governmental institutional transformation is seen as the pre-condition for change in the energy regime.
Hypothesis 3: The central governance structure in the Netherlands, provides favorable
conditions for a clustered representation of established business interest, but less favorable conditions for the implementation of solar PV.
The cooperative relation between the government and established economic actors, the so-called business incumbents as mentioned above, are likely to define the attributes of the program for energy transition. Somehow, the basic attributes must change in order to conduct a successful strategy for the transition from a fossil fuel based energy system towards a renewable based energy system. Sabatier (1988: 148) argues that as long as incumbents, that are instituted in the program, remain in power, it is unlikely that these basic attributes will change. This argument is the basis for the final hypothesis:
Hypothesis 4: Incumbents in the energy system, like Shell, Gasunie, GasTerra, Nuon, Essent
and Eneco influence renewable energy policy in the Netherlands and form the impediment for energy transition and the implementation of solar PV, because they have vested interests in conventional energy that dominates the system.
1.4 Method
The scarcity model outlined in the theoretical framework suggest that strong RE policies could partly be driven by supply security issues. Moreover, the liberal intuitionalism theory, EMT and ACF suggest that economic actors included in the policy making-process in the Netherlands are able to influence RE policy in the Netherlands. In order to find an answer on the research question, data should be gathered within the boundaries of the applied theories. The attempt to research the extent to which Shell, Gasunie, GasTerra, Nuon, Essent and Eneco form an impediment for successful RE policy in the Netherlands, will be executed on the basis of mixed methods originating from predominantly qualitative analyses.
The majority of data will be collected throughdesk-research in the form of intensive literature studies of both primary and secondary sources. With respect to matters concerning validity, the literature under study will be drawn from a variety of sources, like journals, books, governmental sources and institutions. Vital sources are articles published in journals like Energy Policy, Renewable and Sustainable energy reviews and Energy Research and Social Science and publications by the IEA, CBS, ECN - PBL, RVO, the Dutch Ministry of Economic Affairs, the German Federal Ministry for Economic Affairs and Energy), Fraunhofer Institute and the European Commission. On top of the intensive literature studies semi-structured interviews (Appendix 1-3) and ‘Q-methodology’ (Appendix 1-4), will form a critical source for the collection of data, which will be used as vital part of the analysis.
Chapter two is devoted to the first sub question: To what extent do social economic actors
have the opportunity to influence renewable energy policy and policy practice in the Netherlands and Germany, looking at policy instruments, the structure of the government, the structure of the energy system and industrial opportunities? As outlined in the theoretical framework, susceptibility to fossil fuel scarcity can form one of the drivers for strong RE policies. As described by the scarcity model, fossil fuel scarcity can occur in three different forms. Analyzing the energy situation in both countries is used as research method in order to find answer on the question. By looking at the energy situation the chapter elaborates in particular on the energy and electricity consumption and production, the energy mix and the geographical origin of fossil fuel supply in the Netherlands and Germany. In order to analyze the energy situation in both countries the WEO 2015 and country specific publications by IEA, Communication reports from the European Commission and national reports, like the NEV 2015 released by PBL and the monitoring reports of German Expert Commissions under BMWi are considered vital sources of data.
Chapter three seeks to find an answer to the sub question: To what extent have social
economic actors the opportunity to influence renewable energy policy and policy practice in the Netherlands and Germany, looking at policy instruments, the structure of the government, the structure of the energy system and industrial opportunities? This sub question is concerned with factors that contribute to effective implementation of RE sources. These factors are strong sustainable policies and policy instruments (Polzin 2015: 95), the level of decentralization in the energy system (Passimeni 2014: 170), the level of decentralized governmental autonomy (Karapin 2012: 7) and the level of industrial opportunities related to comparative advantages (idem: 6). The ‘Ecological Modernization Theory’ suggest that government structures should be more flexible, decentralized and actively involved in the creation of new networks with other actors than the traditional one in order to conduct actual energy transition. Therefore, the used method is based on an evaluation of these factors in the Netherlands with a special focus on the decentralization/centralization of the Dutch system. In order to clarify the role of economic actors in this respect, all factors analyzed, are also referred to the German system. In this way, the opportunity for economic actors to influence RE policy and the effect of their activities becomes more clear. Data comes from journals like Energy Policy, Renewable and Sustainable energy reviews and Energy Research and Social Science and publications by the, ECN-PBL , RVO, the Dutch Ministry of Economic Affairs, the German Federal Ministry for Economic Affairs and Energy, Fraunhofer Institute and interviews.
Chapter four contains the core of the analysis and is devoted to the sub question: To what
extent do Shell, Gasunie, GasTerra, Nuon, Essent and Eneco form an impediment for successful renewable energy policy in the Netherlands, and for the implementation of solar PV in particular? ACF suggests that the transition towards renewables, is a reflection of policy environments that are made possible through the restructuring of the government (Buttel 2000: 59) and the energy system. Energy policies that emerge within this policy environment are, in liberal western democracies, formed by governmental and non-governmental actors. The Dutch energy system manifested itself as an important hub for international energy trade and transportation. The consequences of ‘Transnationalization’ of the system, as outlined by Keohane & Nye (1974: 55) means that non-governmental actors gain influence relative to governmental actors. Therefore, the analysis will, inter alia, focus on the international character of the system. Moreover, the cooperative relation between the government and the business incumbents defines the attributes of the program for energy
transition. Somehow, the basic attributes must change in order to conduct a successful strategy for the transition from a fossil fuel based energy system towards a renewable based energy system. Sabatier (1988: 148). As a consequence the used method focuses on the place of Shell, Gasunie, Gasterra, Nuon, Essent and Enceco in the (inter)national energy systems and how they define the attributes for energy transition. Chapter four analyzes how the strategies of the companies mentioned above are reflected in the policy instruments and the Energieakkoord in Netherlands as a method to define to what extent these companies actual influenced RE policy in the Netherlands. The analyses is based on data mainly collected from corporate annual reports, publications from Greenpeace, results of the Q –methodology and a reconstruction of the negotiations that took place prior to the Energieakkoord..
Chapter five is devoted to the final sub question: What are the main challenges to overcome
and opportunities for the Netherlands in order to conduct a successful renewable energy strategy that contributes to the EU RE targets for 2020 and beyond and what role can solar PV play in this strategy? This chapter is framed within the same political context as chapter four. The method used to answer this research question is based on the conclusions of previous chapters. It divides short and long term challenges and opportunities and derives a successful RE strategy for the Netherlands within the context of the EU RE objectives, geopolitical implications, technological developments, environmental concerns and of course within the context of the RE policy-making process including the influence of dominant economic actors. Conclusion from previous chapters will form an import source of data. Moreover, among others, the RE projection of ECN-PBL and the progress report of SER will serve as additional sources of data.
1.5 The structure of the thesis
Chapter two describes the energy situation in the Netherlands and makes references to the
energy situation in Germany as well. By researching to what extent dominant economic actors form the impediment for strong RE policies and the implementation of solar PV, one must first correct for the driving force derived from fossil fuel scarcity between the Netherlands and Germany. By analyzing the energy situation in the Netherlands and referring to the energy situation in Germany, the purpose of this chapter is to define the needs for renewable as contribution to the security of supply that would possibly lead to strong energy policies.
decentralization of the energy system and comparative advantages. As a result, the chapter is able to define what other factorsother than scarcity issues, as analyzed in chapter two, curb or stimulate the impetus towards wide deployment of renewables in general and solar PV in particular in the Netherlands. In this matter, the chapter makes, as well as chapter two does, references to Germany in order to conclude which factors social economic actors truly have the opportunity to exert pressure on. The purpose of chapter three is thus to provide an insight in the opportunities that social economic actors have to influence the key aspects of the energy transition and who those actors most likely would be.
Having gained insights in the role and nature of social economic actors, by evaluating what factors stimulate and curb the impetus towards strong RE policy in the Netherlands and Germany, chapter four analyzes to what extent individual economic actors have influenced RE policy in the Netherlands. The economic actors analyzed, as individual companies, are Shell, Gasunie, Gasterra and utility companies Vattenfal/Nuon, RWE/Essent and Eneco. This chapter analyzes in depth how the companies’ strategies are reflected in conducted policy instruments and the outcome of the Energieakkoord. As a result, the chapter draws conclusions with regards to the impediments formed by these particular companies for strong RE policies and the take of solar PV in particular in the Netherlands.
Chapter five provides an overview of the challenges and opportunities that should be taken
into account when defining a viable RE strategy for the Netherlands towards 2020 and beyond. The challenges that should be overcome and the opportunities that lie ahead are derived from all previous chapters. The chapter makes some recommendations for viable short and long term RE strategies and elaborates on the role of solar PV in this respect.
Giving an answer on the main research question, this thesis ends with a conclusion. The conclusion is more or less a short presentation of the thesis, starting with the relevance of researching the impediments of RE in the Netherlands and followed by a short conclusion on used theories and derived hypotheses. The findings, that result from testing the hypotheses, are reformulated in a way that they can answer the research question. Finally, by evaluating the contribution of this research to existing literature, the thesis ends with a recommendation for continuation of the research.
