THE ROLE OF PERCEIVED SELF-COMPETENCE IN THE
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN INTELLIGENCE AND
EXTERNALIZING BEHAVIORAL PROBLEMS
The role of perceived self-competence in the relationship between intelligence and externalizing behavioral problems
Masterthesis of the Research Master Program: Developmental Psychopathology in Education and Child Studies
Eline Ruigrok s1012711
Leiden University
Faculty of Social Sciences
Mw. M. N. Brandenburg-Goddard August 6th , 2015
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Abstract
Child factors and contextual factors collectively contribute to the development of (externalizing) behavioral problems. Individual cognition and beliefs are of influence on this interplay. The current study focused on the influence of perceived self-competence on the negative relationship between intelligence (as an important child factor) and externalizing behavioral problems. It was hypothesized that the four aspects of perceived self-competence (cognitive, social, physical and general self-worth) fulfill mediating or moderating roles in the negative relationship between intelligence and
externalizing behavioral problems. The sample consisted of 117 children (27 girls, 90 boys) aged 6-14 years old (M = 9.67, SD = 1.65). Intelligence was measured using the Total IQ score of the WISC-IIINL, perceived self-competence was measured using the Competentie Belevingsschaal voor Kinderen, and externalizing behavioral problems were measured using the Externalizing Problem Score of the Teacher‟s Report Form. The presence of a negative relationship between intelligence and externalizing behavioral problems was confirmed through a Pearson correlation (r (116) = -.524, p <.001). In addition, a significant, negative association was found between the cognitive aspect of perceived self-competence and externalizing behavioral problems (r (104) = -.273, p <.01). No other associations were found, ruling out the possibility of the aspects of perceived self-competence fulfilling mediating or moderating roles in the relationship between intelligence and externalizing behavioral problems. However, the results of the current study have led to interesting insights, which can be implemented during the development of specifically targeted interventions in order to reduce externalizing behavioral problems.
3
Introduction
In the Netherlands, juvenile delinquency has been a major problem over the last decades. In the period between 1997 and 2012, there has been an increase of 22% in arrests of juveniles aged 12-24 years (van der Laan, Goudriaan & Weijters, 2014). Juvenile delinquency can be interpreted as being a (severe) kind of problem behavior. An important distinction that can be made in problem behavior is the one that distinguishes internalizing behavioral problems and externalizing behavioral problems (Achenbach, 1966). Internalizing behavioral problems are characterized as problems that are mostly affecting the individual itself (directed inward) and include for example depression and anxiety. Externalizing behavioral problems, on the other hand, are mostly affecting the surrounding system of the individual (directed outward) and include for example aggression and oppositional behaviors (Achenbach, 1966). Externalizing problem behavior can be seen as an important precursor of the development of criminal behavior among juveniles (Chung, Hill, Hawkins, Gilchrist, & Nagin, 2002; Klimstra, Luykx, Hale & Goossens, 2014).
It is not completely evident yet what causes externalizing problem behavior. However, it is known that several factors underlie the development of these types of behavioral problems. These factors can be categorized into two types, namely child factors and environmental factors. Child factors that are of influence on the development of externalizing problem behavior are often genetic or biological in nature. Environmental factors that are of influence on the development of externalizing problem behavior include family factors and processes, peer influences, and the broader social environment, communities and schools (Hann & Borek, 2001). The model described by Meij and Boendermaker (2008) reveals, however, that there is another relevant layer in the development of externalizing problem behavior, namely the influence of cognitions, beliefs and emotions. Meij and Boendermaker (2008) suggest that these aspects fulfill a mediating role between the child factors and the environmental factors in the development of problem behavior (Meij & Boendermaker, 2008). A child factor that has gained much attention during research over the past years is intelligence. Intelligence is described by Gottfredson (1997) as a set of skills used to reason, plan, solve problems, think in an abstract manner and learn from experiences. It allows an individual to understand his or her environment and to come up with solutions to any problems that may occur. Intelligence is considered as a trait which is quite stable throughout life after stabilizing during childhood. A term often used to describe the intellectual abilities of an individual is intelligence quotient, or IQ. IQ is highly dependent on genetics; heritability estimates range between .4 and .8 (Gottfredson, 1997). Studies suggest that the risk of developing psychopathology is elevated when lower intellectual abilities are present (Wallander, Dekker & Koot, 2003).
A second widely investigated aspect that is associated with the development of externalizing problem behavior, is self-image. Van der Ploeg (2007) suggests that a negative self-image increases the risk of developing (externalizing) problem behavior. Self-image is the knowledge a person has
4 about his or her abilities and characteristics. An important related component is the evaluation of the self with respect to an individual‟s competences, namely perceived self-competence (Harter, 1982). Perceived self-competence is considered to be the perception of an individual about his or her competences. Four different aspects among perceived self-competence are distinguished by Harter (1982), namely a cognitive aspect, a social aspect, a physical aspect, and a general self-worth aspect. The cognitive aspect is related to the perception of oneself concerning academic performance, for example „doing well at schoolwork‟. The social aspect is described as the perception of oneself concerning social performance, for example „having a lot of friends‟. The physical aspect comprises the perception of oneself focusing on sports, for example „doing well at sports‟. Finally, the general self-worth aspect includes a general view or perception of functioning as a person. It should be noted, however, that the general self-worth is not merely the summation of the domain-specific aspects (the cognitive, social, and physical aspect), but rather an overall view through which the individual
determines to what extent he or she likes himself or herself as a person, for example „being happy with the way one is‟ (Harter, 1982). Referring to the model of Meij and Boendermaker (2008), perceived self-competence could be interpreted as being a kind of cognition or belief about oneself. In this sense, perceived self-competence is positioned at the layer fulfilling the interplay between child factors and environmental factors in the development of externalizing problem behavior.
Results from previous research indicate that there is a negative relationship between
intelligence and the development of problem behavior (Bartels, Ryan, Urban & Glass, 2010; Basten et al., 2014; Fan, Portuguez & Nunes, 2013). However, this relationship is not always direct in nature and several constructs are found to play a role within this relation (Loeber et al., 2012; Nader-Grosbois, Houssa & Mazzone, 2013).
Previous research indicated that intelligence is related to the construct of perceived self-competence as well. However, relations found in these studies varied in direction and the aspects of perceived self-competence involved. For example, Boissicat, Pansu, Bouffard and Cottin (2012) found a positive relation between cognitive abilities, which were comparable to IQ, and the cognitive aspect of perceived self-competence. Vickerstaff, Heriot, Wong, Lopes and Dossetor (2007) found an association between intelligence and the social aspect of perceived self-competence, in which higher IQ predicted lower perceived social self-competence. It should be noted, however, that the sample used in this study consisted of children with high-functioning autism spectrum disorders, in which rates of social competence and perceived social self-competence are significantly lower as compared to a normative population. These results may therefore not be generalizable to other populations. Kistner, Haskett, White and Robbins (1987) found that children with learning disabilities had lower perceived self-competence with respect to the cognitive and the physical aspect, but not with respect to the social aspect and general self-worth, when compared to normally achieving peers. In addition, Smith and Nagle (1995) found that children with learning disabilities had lower perceived self-competence with respect to the social aspect as well. Lastly, Shany, Wiener and Assido (2012) found
5 that university students with learning disabilities reported lower global self-worth, compared with students without learning disabilities. However, the samples used in these studies consisted of children and adolescents with learning disabilities and not with intellectual disabilities, per se.
The four aspects of perceived self-competence seem to have different effects on the actual functioning of an individual, with respect to externalizing problem behavior. For example, Gutierrez-Colina et al. (2014) found a significant, negative association between the cognitive aspect of perceived self-competence and externalizing behavior. Pardini, Barry, Barth, Lochman and Wells (2006) found a negative association between the social aspect of perceived self-competence and externalizing
behaviors, such as oppositional behaviors. White and Renk (2012) found that both perceived social acceptance and general self-worth predicted adolescents‟ externalizing problem behavior. More specifically, social acceptance appeared to be a positive predictor, whereas general self-worth appeared to be a negative predictor of externalizing problem behavior.
In conclusion, it could be stated that previous research provides mixed results. Therefore, it remains unknown whether the four aspects of perceived self-competence play a role in the relationship between intelligence and the development of problem behavior, and more specifically, externalizing problem behavior. The aim of the current study was to examine whether the four aspects of perceived self-competence play a role in the relationship between intelligence and externalizing problem behavior, and what the exact role of these separate aspects of perceived self-competence could be. More specifically, the goal was to determine whether the four aspects of perceived self-competence either act as a mediator or moderator. It is important to know whether the relationship between intelligence and the development of externalizing problem behavior is influenced by perceived self-competence, since this is seen as a concept that could be targeted by interventions or therapies (Yasutake, Bryan & Dohrn, 1996), in contrast to a more stable characteristic such as intelligence. By targeting perceived self-competence in interventions, the likelihood of the development of problem behavior in children with low intelligence could be reduced. This emphasizes the practical relevance of the current study.
It was hypothesized that perceived self-competence plays a role in the relationship between intelligence and the development of externalizing problem behavior. It was expected that the separate aspects of perceived self-competence function as moderators or mediators in the relation between low intelligence and externalizing problem behavior.
Method Participants
Participants were excluded when missing data was observed on the outcome variable, the externalizing behavioral problems score of the Teacher‟s Report Form. The final sample consisted of 117 participants (27 girls and 90 boys) with a mean age of M = 9.67 (SD = 1.65). For the target group, 91 participants (75 boys and 16 girls) aged 6-14 years old from the city of Amsterdam were included.
6 For the control group, 26 participants (15 boys and 11 girls) aged 8-12 years old from various regions of the Netherlands were included.
Procedure
For the current study, data was obtained from the database of the University of Leiden, in collaboration with the DMO (Dienst Maatschappelijke Ondersteuning)-PIT (Preventief Interventie Team) Project of the municipality of Amsterdam. This project was developed in order to detect children with an heightened risk of developing externalizing problem behavior and to deploy (early) interventions to prevent the children of developing more serious problem behavior, like antisocial behavior or delinquency. Children were selected through different procedures. Firstly, the municipality of Amsterdam maintains a list on which 600 delinquents and repeat offenders are stated (the so-called “Top 600 list”). Relatives of these delinquents are at increased risk to develop deviant behavior patterns, like externalizing problem behaviors, and are therefore selected. Secondly, children were selected through a registration procedure by the school of the child (the so-called Pilot Primary Education), through which schools could express their concerns about children at heightened risk of developing externalizing problem behaviors, for example when children are frequently absent. Children with a heightened risk of developing externalizing problem behaviors (e.g. aggression) are subsequently screened for the actual presence of these problems. This was done through the use of questionnaires, which were obtained from both the parents and the teachers of the child. A
questionnaire targeting total functioning was obtained from the parents, and questionnaires targeting aggressive behavior and total functioning were obtained from the teachers of the children. If
externalizing problem behaviors appear to be present, an additional, more extensive screening is carried out. Several concepts are measured, such as intelligence, social-cognitive skills, executive functioning and perceived self-competence. When the presence of externalizing problems is confirmed and the extensive screening has taken place, the children are included in the PIT-program, which is targeted at early intervention in order to reduce the risk of more serious problem behavior. In order to be able to make comparisons, a control group (consisting of children without externalizing problem behavior) underwent the identical procedure, except for the fact that their parents did not have to fill out the questionnaire. These children were recruited by trained research assistants.
Instruments
Externalizing problem behavior. The Dutch version of the Teacher‟s Report Form (TRF)
was used to measure externalizing problem behavior (Achenbach, 1991). The TRF is an often used screening instrument which is used to describe a broad spectrum of problems in children aged six to eighteen years old. The TRF is a questionnaire which is filled out by the teacher of the child. The TRF consists of 118 items containing statements of which the teacher has to decide whether they are not true (score 0), somewhat or sometimes true (score 1), or very true or often true (score 2). The scores on these items are summed, after which several scores can be constructed, such as a Total Problem Score, an Internalizing Problem Score and an Externalizing Problem Score. This score is compared to
7 a relevant normative sample (with respect to the child‟s age and gender), after which it is indicated whether the score is within the borderline or clinical range (Achenbach, 1991). The Externalizing Problem Score is used to operationalize externalizing problem behavior in the current study. For the TRF, an Externalizing Problem Score of 60 is considered to be on the borderline and an Externalizing Problem Score of 65 or higher is considered to be in the clinical range. Thus, in this case, a higher Externalizing Problem Score represents more externalizing problem behavior. The Commissie Testaangelegenheden Nederland (COTAN) rated the reliability and validity of the TRF as good and sufficient, respectively.
Intelligence. The Dutch version of the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC-IIINL ) was used to measure general intelligence. The WISC-IIINL is an often used instrument to draw
conclusions regarding the intellectual abilities of a child. The WISC-IIINL is standardized for children aged six to sixteen years old. The WISC-IIINL consists of thirteen subtasks, namely Picture
Completion, Information, Coding, Similarities, Picture Arrangement, Arithmetic, Block Design, Vocabulary, Object Assembly, Comprehension, Symbol Search, Digit Span, and Mazes. The raw scores on each of these subtasks are converted into standard scores, with which several scores can be calculated. These scores are the Total score Intelligence Quotient (TIQ), the Verbal Intelligence Quotient (VIQ), and the Performance Intelligence Quotient (PIQ). The TIQ score provides an overall measure of cognitive functioning, whereas the VIQ provides a measure of verbal capacities, and the PIQ provides a measure of performance abilities. Furthermore, the standard scores on the subtasks can be used to construct Factor scores, namely the Verbal Comprehension Factor (VCF), the Perceptual Organization Factor (POF) and lastly, the Processing Speed Factor (PSF) (Wechsler, 2005). For the current study, eleven subtasks of the WISC-IIINL were conducted (all subtasks except Mazes and Symbol Search). Since the TIQ score is considered to provide an overall measure of intellectual functioning, this score is used to measure intelligence in the current study. TIQ scores in the general population follow a normal distribution, with an average score of 100 and a standard deviation of 15. For the TIQ of the WISC-IIINL, a higher score indicates better intellectual capabilities and thus higher intelligence. Except for criterion validity (which could not yet be assessed due to ongoing research), the COTAN rated the WISC-IIINL as reliable and valid.
Perceived self-competence. Perceived self-competence was measured using the Competentie
Belevingsschalen voor Kinderen (CBSK). The CBSK is a questionnaire, which is based on the Perceived Competence Scale for Children (Harter, 1982), and in which each item consists of a pair of contradictory statements. The child has to fill out which of the statements fits him or her best, and to what extent this statement is appropriate (somewhat true or very true). The scores are summed and divided into separate scales, namely Academic Abilities, Social Acceptance, Sports Skills, Physical Appearance, Behavioral Attitude, and Self-Worth. The summed scores are compared to normative samples (with respect to gender), and converted into rank percentiles on each of the scales (Veerman, Straathof, Treffers, van den Bergh & Ten Brink, 1997). For the current study, the scales Academic
8 Abilities, Social Acceptance, Sports Skills, and Self-Worth were used, in order to represent the four aspects distinguished by Harter (1982). The rank percentiles of these scales were used in the analyses, and a higher score and thus higher rank percentile represents better perceived self-competence on a certain aspect. For the CBSK, criterion validity could not yet be rated by the COTAN, due to a lack of research. Concerning the other reliability and validity ratings, the CBSK was rated reliable and valid by the COTAN.
Data analyses
In order to explore the data, several procedures were performed. First, descriptive statistics and frequencies were obtained on gender, age, Total IQ, perceived self-competence rank percentiles, and the Externalizing Problem Score of the TRF. If necessary, log transformations were calculated in order to meet the assumptions for the subsequent data analyses. By making use of z-scores, outliers were detected and if necessary, winsorized. A cut-off of a z-score of 3 was maintained. In order to make interpretations more useful, the variables intelligence and the separate scales of perceived self-competence were centered before they were entered in the analyses.
Firstly, it was determined whether the relationship between intelligence and externalizing problem behavior was present in the current dataset. To do so, a Pearson correlation between IQ and the Externalizing Problem Score was calculated, in order to assess the strength of the relationship. Afterwards, the presence of separate relationships between IQ and the four aspects of perceived self-competence (cognitive, social, physical and self-worth aspect) were tested using Pearson correlations. Also, the separate relationships between the four aspects of perceived self-competence (cognitive, social, physical and self-worth aspect) and externalizing problem behavior were tested using Pearson correlations.
If correlations between these four aspects and externalizing problem behaviors and intelligence were present, the possible mediating and moderating role of the separate scales of perceived self-competence were assessed. The moderating role of perceived self-competence in the relationship between intelligence and externalizing problem behavior was tested by four separate moderation models with the four aspects of perceived self-competence (cognitive, social, physical and self-worth aspect) as a moderator in each moderation model. These models were tested using linear regression analyses in which an interaction term is added between the particular aspect of perceived self-competence and intelligence. There is moderation when the relation between intelligence and externalizing problem behavior differs in strength for different amounts of the particular aspect of perceived self-competence. The mediating role of perceived self-competence in the relationship between intelligence and externalizing problem behavior was tested by the Causal Steps Approach from Baron and Kenny (1986). This approach was performed four times as well, so that four separate mediation models were tested with the four aspects of perceived self-competence (cognitive, social, physical and self-worth aspect) as a mediator in each mediation model. There is mediation when intelligence predicts perceived self-competence, which in turn predicts externalizing problem
9 behavior. During the statistical analyses, cases were excluded pairwise and a significance level of α < .05 was maintained.
Results
The descriptive statistics of the relevant variables are summarized in Table 1. As can be seen, some distributions follow a deviant pattern. This is especially the case for the distributions of the social aspect (Perceived Social Acceptance), the physical aspect (Perceived Sports Skills) and the self-worth aspect of perceived self-competence (Perceived Self-Worth). It appears that for these aspects, most observations are positioned on the right side of the distribution. This means that there are relatively many high scores present. Due to the fact that log transformations did not improve these distributions, a decision was made to use the orginal, non-transformed data.
Table 1.
Descriptive statistics of relevant variables.
Nvalid Mean SD
Standardized Skewness
Standardized Kurtosis
Externalizing Problem Score 117 67.85 12.68 -2.71 -1.24
Total IQ 116 86.71 16.48 3.20 -2.16
Perceived Academic Abilities 104 46.72 32.69 .75 -3.07
Perceived Social Acceptance 104 61.50 31.15 -1.87 -2.48
Perceived Sports Skills 104 59.63 30.90 -1.89 -2.29
Perceived Self-Worth 104 57.38 33.17 -.95 -2.82
A Pearson‟s correlation was calculated between the Externalizing Problem Score and Total IQ,
in order to determine whether the relation between intelligence and externalizing behavioral problems is present for the current dataset. A highly significant, negative relation was found between Total IQ and the Externalizing Problem Score, r (116) = -.524, p <.001. Subsequently, Pearson correlations were calculated between Perceived Academic Abilities, Perceived Social Acceptance, Perceived Sports Skills, Self-Worth and both Total IQ and the Externalizing Problem Score, of which the results are shown in Table 2.
Table 2.
Pearson correlations between the Externalizing Problem Score, Total IQ and Perceived Academic Abilities, Perceived Social Acceptance, Perceived Sports Skills and Self-Worth.
Perceived Academic Abilities
Perceived Social
Acceptance Perceived Sports Skills Self-Worth
Externalizing Problem Score -.273** -.069 .037 -.059
Total IQ .154 .028 -.186† .021
† p < .10, *p <.05, **p<.01.
As can be seen in Table 2, the negative correlation between Total IQ and Perceived Sports Skills was marginally significant. A significant, negative correlation was found between the
10 Externalizing Problem Score and Perceived Academic Abilities. Because of the lack of any other significant correlations, the possibility for the four aspects of perceived self-competence acting as mediators or moderators was ruled out. Therefore, no subsequent analyses were conducted.
Discussion
The current study aimed to examine the exact role of perceived self-competence on the relationship between intelligence and externalizing behavioral problems. According to the model of Meij and Boendermaker (2008), perceived self-competence could interact with the child factor intelligence in the development of externalizing behavioral problems. Perceived self-competence is thereby placed at the layer of beliefs, cognitions and emotions, which is the layer that is fulfilling the interplay between child factors and environmental factors in the development of externalizing problem behavior (Meij & Boendermaker, 2008). However, previous research has yielded mixed results, so that it remains unclear in what way intelligence and perceived self-competence might possibly interact. Therefore, two possible roles were tested for each of the four aspects of perceived self-competence: a mediating role and a moderating role. The four aspects of perceived self-competence that were tested, were the cognitive, social, physical and overall self-worth aspect. In order to determine whether the four aspects of perceived self-competence act as mediators or moderators in the relationship between intelligence and externalizing behavioral problems, several analyses were conducted.
Firstly, the presence of the relationship between intelligence and externalizing behavioral problems was determined with a Pearson correlation. A highly significant, negative correlation was found, indicating that lower intelligence scores are associated with higher externalizing behavioral problem scores and vice versa. This means that for children with lower intellectual abilities, more externalizing behavioral problems are reported by the teachers. This is in accordance with results of previous research (Bartels, Ryan, Urban & Glass, 2010; Basten et al., 2014; Fan, Portuguez & Nunes, 2013).
Secondly, Pearson correlations were obtained in order to determine whether the separate relations between intelligence and the four aspects of perceived self-competence were present. A marginally significant, negative correlation between intelligence and the physical aspect was found. This indicates that lower intelligence scores are associated with higher scores on the physical aspect of perceived self-competence. This means that in general, children with lower intellectual abilities feel better about their own abilities with respect to sports skills. In contrast to the results from this study, Kistner et al. (1987) found an association between intelligence and the physical aspect of perceived self-competence in the opposite direction. An explanation for this discrepancy might be that for the children of the current study, sports and playing outside are a major leisure. Therefore, they may have extraordinarily high expectations of themselves with respect to sports skills. In addition, Kistner et al. (1987) found a positive association between intelligence and the social and general self-worth aspect as well. These results were not found in the current study.
11 Thirdly, Pearson correlations were obtained in order to determine whether the separate
relations between the four aspects of perceived self-competence and externalizing behavioral problems were present. A significant, negative correlation was found between the cognitive aspect of perceived self-competence and externalizing behavioral problems. This indicates that lower scores on the cognitive aspect of perceived self-competence are associated with higher externalizing behavioral problems scores. This means that in general, for children who are feeling better about themselves concerning cognitive abilities, less externalizing behavioral problems are reported by their teacher and vice versa. This result is partly in accordance with previous results, since Gutierrez-Colina et al. (2014) found a negative association between the cognitive aspect of perceived self-competence and externalizing behavioral problems as well. Thus, it seems evident that when children have positive self-evaluation with respect to the cognitive aspect of perceived self-competence, externalizing behavioral problems are less likely to occur. Whereas additional associations were found between the cognitive, the social and the general self-worth aspect of perceived self-competence and externalizing behavioral problems in previous studies (Pardini et al., 2006; White & Renk, 2012),these associations were not found in the current study.
Because of the lack of significant associations between the four aspects of perceived self-competence and both intelligence and externalizing behavioral problems, the possibility of these aspects acting as mediators or moderators is ruled out. An important possible explanation for the lack of results in the current study, are the deviant patterns found in the scores on the separate scales and thus aspects of perceived self-competence. The participants included in the study tend to overestimate themselves. According to the statistical cut-off score described by Veerman et al.(1997) in the manual of the CBSK, scores below the fifteenth and above the eighty-fifth percentile are considered divergent. For the current study, 25-30percent of the participants scored above the eighty-fifth percentile on the social, physical and general self-worth aspect of perceived self-competence, which means that they possibly tend to overestimate themselves. This leads to a lack of variation in the variable of perceived self-competence, which possibly causes the absence of significant effects.
Several explanations are possible for the lack of variation in the variable of perceived self-competence. The first explanation might be that participants answered the questions in a way they feel is viewed favorable by others, due to the social desirability bias (Bryman, 2008). Previous studies do report presence of the social desirability bias in younger children (Kalliopuska, 1992). It is possible that there is a lack of variance in the variable of perceived self-competence due to a social desirability bias which is enhanced by the young age of the participants. The second explanation is related to the age of the participants as well, since it was found in previous studies that for younger children, it is more difficult to reflect on their own abilities and themselves in general. Self-reflection is an ability which develops gradually throughout childhood (Kohnstamm, 2008). According to Kohnstamm (2008), children are able to reflect on their selves vaguely at the age of seven years, and more precisely at the age of eleven years. In addition, Jacobs, Lanza, Osgood, Eccles, and Wigfield (2002)
12 found that perceptions of self-competence declined with age, and that perceptions of self-competence were unrealistically high at the age of seven and eight years old. For the current study, participants were aged 6-14 years, with a mean age of 9.67 years old. It could therefore be that not all participants were completely able yet to reflect on themselves in a proper way, resulting in relatively many high scores and thus a lack of variation in perceived self-competence scores. In addition, Kohnstamm (2008) describes that during the development of the ability to reflect on oneself, not only the age of the child is determinative, but the child‟s intellectual abilities as well. In the current study, a mean
intelligence level of 86.71 was found. Mean intelligence within the normative population is 100, with a standard deviation of 15. This means that for the current study, mean intelligence was one standard deviation below the mean of the normative population, indicating reduced intellectual abilities. A possible explanation therefore, is that the participants in this study might not be able to reflect on themselves properly, due to reduced intellectual abilities. This is the third possible explanation for the lack of variance within the variable of perceived self-competence. The fourth and last explanation for the relatively large amount of high scores on perceived self-competence is related to gender. It has been reported that boys tend to score higher on specific aspects of perceived self-competence, as compared to girls. For example, boys scored higher on the social and physical aspect of perceived self-competence as compared to girls, which is probably due to gender role socialization, whereby boys and girls attach importance to different domains, according to their gender (Rose & Montemayor, 1994). Since the majority of the sample used in the current study consisted of boys, the possibility exists that these boys caused the relatively large amount of high scores observed in perceived self-competence in these domains. It is important to note that these explanations are not mutually
exclusive, and may separately or jointly have led to the lack of variation in the variables of perceived self-competence.
In conclusion, it could be stated that the presence of the negative relationship between intelligence and externalizing behavioral problems is confirmed. However, it appears that the four separate aspects of perceived self-competence (cognitive, social, physical and general self-worth) did not fulfill a mediating or moderating role in this relationship, as was hypothesized. This is possibly due to a lack of variation in the scores on the separate aspects of perceived self-competence. However, one particularly interesting association was found, namely the negative relation between the cognitive aspect of perceived self-competence and externalizing behavioral problems. The clinical relevance of the current results lies in the fact that these results can be used to develop and deploy targeted
interventions. Sklad, Diekstra, De Ritter, Ben and Gravesteijn (2012) described earlier that during interventions deployed at school aimed at targeting child-specific goals with respect to scholastic abilities, children may become more content about their own abilities. This may lead to the reduction of externalizing behavioral problems, as reported by the teacher. The results of the current study support these previous findings of Sklad et al. (2012). Additionally, targeted intervention by the PIT program specifically may help prevent more serious behavioral problems. The results from the current
13 study may aid in achieving this goal. According to the results of the current study, these targeted interventions by the PIT program should be designed for children with low self-esteem and should also be applicable for children with reduced intellectual abilities. A specific recommendation for such an intervention could be to let the children experience more successes in the classroom, thereby receiving positive reinforcements of the teacher. This will enhance self-esteem and thereby reduce externalizing behavioral problems.
Despite the fact that this study led to insight in the relationship between perceived self-competence and externalizing behavioral problems, some limitations were present. The most
important limitation of the current study is the fact that the influence of the context of the child is not taken into consideration. According to the model of Meij and Boendermaker (2008), both child factors and contextual factors are of importance in the development of problem behavior. Including contextual factors could lead to more interesting insights in the development of externalizing behavioral problems and, in addition, to more practical directions for future interventions targeting these problems. Another limitation of the present study is the use of the Total IQ score to measure general intelligence. The Total IQ score is difficult to interpret when there is a significant difference present between the Verbal IQ and Performance IQ score, which is the case for a certain amount of participants of the current study. Therefore, the Total IQ scores in the present study may not be representative of the overall cognitive functioning of all of the participants, even though the Total IQ is considered to be an overall measure. However, it is important to note that the current study has several strengths as well. An important strength is the use of an extensive, standardized measure of intelligence, namely the WISC-IIINL, which is considered to be the “gold standard” within intelligence research. Another strength of the current study is the use of the teachers‟ report of the presence of externalizing behavioral problems (through the use of TRF), instead of using parent reports. Previous research has demonstrated that the way mothers reported on their child‟s externalizing behavioral problems was affected by the age and socioeconomic status (SES) of the mother (Stone, Speltz, Collett & Werler, 2013), a problem that is avoided by the use of teacher reports. More research is necessary in order to explore the underlying mechanisms in the development of externalizing behavioral problems even further. The possible mediating or moderating role of perceived self-competence in the negative relationship between intelligence and externalizing behavioral problems should be addressed in future research. A clearly defined, scientifically supported model in which these mechanisms are described, can provide even more specific directions for the development and implementation of intervention programs.
Additionally, it is important to take both child factors and contextual factors into consideration, because it is precisely the interaction of these factors that seems to be of interest (Meij &
Boendermaker, 2008). Nevertheless, the current study has led to interesting results with directions for future research.
14 References
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