Genius, billionaire, playboy, philanthropist: The 21st Century Superhero in Film as an Expression of Contemporary Utopia

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Genius, billionaire, playboy, philanthropist

The 21st Century Superhero in Film as an Expression of Contemporary Utopia

Name: Wim Dijksterhuis

Student Number: 10650636

Address: Phone Number:

Supervisor: dr. Assimakis Tseronis

Second Reader: dr. Maryn Wilkinson

University of Amsterdam: Media & Culture, Master Thesis Filmstudies

Date of Completion: 03-02-2015

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Abstract

The last decade is marked by unprecedented individual freedom, but also by anxiety and a feeling of insecurity. In this same period, superhero films have been met with substantial commercial success and popularity. Different from their predecessors, the superheroes in these films have become complicated characters that show anxiety, fears and doubts. This thesis is concerned with the relation between the individuality of the contemporary superhero character in film, and individuality in contemporary society. Its main research question is: How does the increased complexity of the 21st century superhero character in film reflect cultural fantasies and anxieties regarding individualism in contemporary society? It answers this question by introducing insights from sociology and philosophy: In a case study of the popular Iron Man trilogy, the concept of safety utopia is used to demonstrate how the 21st century superhero character reflects a specific contemporary utopian desire that not only overcomes the negative state of contemporary individual anxiety, but aims for the balance between maximum individual freedom and a maximum feeling of safety.

Keywords:

Superhero, 21st century superhero film, safety utopia, moral discontent, anxiety,

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Introduction

You will give the people an ideal to strive towards. They will race behind you, they will stumble, they will fall. But in time, they will join you in the sun. In time, you will help them accomplish wonders.

(Jor-El, Man of steel, 2013) We live in an age of unprecedented individual freedom. We have ample choice in almost any field, such as education, food, lifestyle, nightlife and political party. People in the Western world have never been so rich and healthy, education is on the rise and criminality is in decline (Bregman 2014, 19). In other words: the world we live in seems in many ways to be an ideal one. However, our era is marked by depression and anxiety. The demise of

ideological frameworks, the attacks of 9/11, terrorism and the 2008 credit crisis have made many contemporary individuals anxious, at times not feeling safe (Boutellier 2004, 18).

It is in this context, the first decade of the 21st century, that superhero films have come to dominate Hollywood blockbuster production. The superhero film made its unexpected return with Bryan Singer’s X-Men (2000) and experienced mainstream commercial success with Sam Raimi’s Spider-Man (2002). Since then, superhero films like Iron Man (2008), The

Dark Knight (2008), Captain America: The First Avenger (2011), and The Avengers (2012),

have been among the most commercially successful films in their respective years. In total, more than fifty live-action superhero films have been produced between 2001 and 2014; of which fourteen appear in the one hundred highest all-time American grosses.1 Many of these are part of franchises with commodities ranging from toys to videogames.

Superheroes, like those in the films of the 1970’s, have traditionally represented the ideals associated with individualism. They were often represented as warriors, entrepreneurs

1_{These are: Marvel’s The Avengers ($760 million), The Dark Knight ($534 billion), The Dark Knight Rises} ($448 million), Iron Man 3 ($409 million), Man ($403 million), Man 2 ($373 million),

Spider-Man 3 ($336 million), Guardians of the Galaxy ($329 million), Iron Spider-Man ($318 million), Iron Spider-Man 2 ($312

million), Man of Steel ($219 million), The Amazing Spider-Man ($262 million), The Incredibles ($261 million),

Captain America: The Winter Soldier ($259 million). Batman (1989) features at place 82 in the list with ($251

million). The number of superhero films to appear in the one hundred highest worldwide grosses is seventeen. This count only includes big-budget superhero blockbusters. The information above is found in

Boxofficemojo.com.

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and patriarchs that could rely on their power as an individual to overcome any obstacle (Ryan and Kellner 1988, 220). In contemporary superhero films, the characters are not only depicted as powerful individuals, they are also shown as burdened and conflicted. As Slovenian

philosopher Slavoj Žižek states, contemporary superhero films can be seen as part of a

‘humanization trend.’ Much like the ‘ordinary individual,’ superheroes are depicted as human beings with their own fears and anxieties. Many of the films “dwell in detail over the

uncertainties, weaknesses, doubts, fears and anxieties of the supernatural hero, his struggle with his inner demons, his confrontation with his own dark side, and so forth” (Žižek 2009, 37). It seems that there are two sides to the representation of the contemporary superhero character: the films offer an ideal of powerful individuals and yet these superheroes are also burdened, conflicted and anxious.

Considering the humanization trend in superhero films in the context of contemporary individual anxiety, it is interesting to further explore the superhero character in the

contemporary superhero film. Is there a connection between the ideals the contemporary individual strives for and the depiction of the superhero in the popular superhero

blockbusters? Like Jor-El, Superman’s father, suggests in the citation above: do superheroes reflect a utopian ideal?

The relation between film and ideology has often been studied in the field of film studies. In their book Camera Politica, Michael Ryan and Douglas Kellner study the relation between ideology, politics and American film. They argue that these relations can work in two directions: films reflect societal values through their cinematic representations; while at the same time they project values for the spectators through these representations.2 In other words: film can reflect the ways society thinks about itself and contemporary socio-cultural events, while it can simultaneously offer ways of thinking about them. Thus, films thus do more than merely reflect reality; they become part of it. The authors call this ‘discursive transcoding’: films transfer discourses between fields, making them part of the discourses that construct reality, collective ideals, morals, and so on. This can allude to a specific historical period, but also to contemporary reality (1988, 1-12).

The recent surge in production and popularity of the superhero film has not gone unnoticed by academics. Scholars from fields such as film studies, cultural studies or even popular geopolitics have done research on the popularity of this genre, have sought to

2_{Ideology is understood here as the system of underlying ideals and principles that form the basis of structures in} contemporary society, for instance politics or economics. Or as Ryan and Kellner put it with regard to film, a “metaphoric way of representing the world that is linked to a particular way of constructing social reality (Oxford Dictionary; Ryan and Kellner 1988, 15).

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establish its generic boundaries, ascertained its role as a commodity in a neoliberal context, and drawn connections between the films and contemporary socio-political events.

In the fields of film studies and popular culture studies, several academics have explored the relation between the superhero film and contemporary society. John Shelton Lawrence and Robert Jewett show in The Myth of The American Superhero that superhero films offer important clues about the ‘tensions, hopes and despairs’ within contemporary American culture (2002, 5). This is similarly asserted by Rich Gray and Betty Kaklamanidou, editors of the volume The 21st Century Superhero: Essays on Gender, Genre and

Globalization in Film. They maintain that as “iconic figures of the American pop culture

mythology,” superheroes in superhero films can be seen to reflect anxieties caused by contemporary socio-political events of the last decade (2011, 5). Their bundle includes

contributions by Johannes Schlegel and Frank Habermann, who discuss individual morality in superhero films, and Vincent M. Gaine, who considers their status as a genre. Important is the work of film and cultural scholar Dan Hassler-Forest, who has written Capitalist

Superheroes: Caped Crusaders in the Neoliberal Age. In his detailed analysis of

contemporary superhero films he shows how the 21st century superhero character can be seen as the clearest articulation of neoliberal ideology in popular culture (2012).

The superhero characters in the films connect to individualism in contemporary society, as the studies of Gray and Kaklaminodou, Schlegel and Habermann and Hassler-Forest have pointed out. While the scholars show that this connection exists, the question what it entails remains one to be further explored. It is this aspect of individualism in

contemporary society and the popular superhero blockbusters that this thesis will examine in more detail. By using the insights of the aforementioned scholars and combining them with insights from sociology and philosophy, this thesis connects the individualism of the 21st century superhero character with two important contemporary views on the individual and its role in society. The first one is the view of objectivism as introduced by Ayn Rand, which holds that the individual is powerful and should be independent from anyone (1987, 848). The second one is the view on individualism as described by philosophical movement of

postmodernism, which holds that the contemporary individual is defined by an anxiety, moral discontent and a crises of agency (Boutellier 2004, 34; Hassler-Forest 2012, 42).

This thesis will use the concept of the safety utopia, as introduced by criminologist and sociologist Hans Boutellier, in order to connect these views on individualism with the individualism of the 21st century superhero character. He argues that there is a dominant utopia in contemporary society: The safety utopia, which aims for the balance between

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maximum individual freedom and safety. This utopia implicitly guides political and cultural discourse, and provides a utopian ideal that individuals can aim for (2004, 2, 38).

The main research question of this thesis will be: How does the increased complexity of the 21st century superhero character in film reflect cultural fantasies and anxieties regarding individualism in contemporary society? In order to answer this question several aspects have to be taken into consideration: how can the superhero film genre be defined? How is the superhero character represented in contemporary superhero films? And what are the fantasies and anxieties related to individual freedom in contemporary society? The hypothesis of this thesis is that contemporary superhero films connect to individualism in contemporary society in the process of discursive transcoding. That is, by reflecting parts of society they offer it ways of thinking about itself, in this case especially regarding individualism. Moreover, superhero films depict a specific contemporary utopian desire that not only overcomes a negative state (contemporary individual anxiety), but aims for the balance between maximum individual freedom and a maximum (feeling) of safety.

In order to look at how the 21st century superhero film genre reflects specific elements of contemporary reality, the first chapter will explore the superhero film genre. It will show that the economical context of Hollywood has been influential in how the genre has

developed and how it can be defined. Building on the insights of Steve Neale, Rick Altman and Hassler-Forest, it then argues that the genre should be approached as an open category, of which the boundaries are not easy to define. With this in mind, the chapter then offers a definition of the superhero film genre based on Altman’s semantic/syntactic/pragmatic approach.

The second chapter explores one of the essential characteristics of the superhero genre: the superhero character. Based on research from Gaine, Schlegel and Habermann, it argues that these films show what will be called a two-sided individualism: on the one hand they continue to uphold the belief in the power of the individual, while on the other they show more complex and conflicted superheroes.

The third chapter then focuses on the contemporary individual. What are the fantasies and anxieties of the individual in contemporary society? It shows that there are two main perspectives on individualism in contemporary society. On the one hand there is the ideology of objectivism, which supports a view of the strong and independent individual. On the other hand the philosophical movement of postmodernism foregrounds a view of individual anxiety and a crisis of agency. These two views will be considered in the light of the two-sided individualism of the superhero character. This consideration shows that a new concept is

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needed to study the two-sided individualism of the superhero character.

The fourth chapter will introduce the concept of the ‘safety utopia’ to study the 21st century superhero film. Dutch sociologist and criminologist Hans Boutellier introduced this concept in his book The Safety Utopia: Contemporary Discontent and Desire as to Crime and

Punishment. The concept is best defined as an individual utopian desire for the convergence

of ‘maximum individual freedom’ and ‘optimum protection’ that has risen out of the

indefinable fear that characterizes the contemporary individual. The chapter will explain how the concept can be used to study the superhero in the 21st century superhero film (2004, 2). The two views on individuality in contemporary society can be connected with vitality and safety, which can guide an analysis of the 21st century superhero film.

The fifth chapter does so, and offers a case study of one of the most successful superhero blockbuster franchises of the last decade: the Iron Man trilogy. This chapter illustrates how the concepts of safety utopia – vitality, the need for safety, moral discontent and the risk society – can be applied to the analysis of a concrete film of the superhero genre. In this way, it shows how the increased complexity of the superhero character in the 21st century superhero film reflects contemporary fantasies and anxieties regarding individualism in contemporary society.

The conclusion then reviews these findings and examines the hypothesis that has been given in the introduction. It shows that while the case study demonstrates an articulation of the safety utopia, there are some problems yet to be researched. These questions will be presented in recommendations for further research.

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1. On genre and superheroes

I’m here to fight for truth, and justice, and the American way.

(Superman, Superman: The Movie) Superman, the first superhero, was introduced on the pages of the first issue of Action Comics in 1938. After the character’s immediate success, superhero characters started to appear in other comics. Because of their success superhero narratives soon spread across other media, like radio and film serials; well-known examples include Captain America (1944) and

Superman (1948). In this way, superheroes became an unmistakable part of American popular

culture. The first superhero flew across the cinematic skies in Superman: The Movie (1978). From 1978 onwards, Hollywood continued to produce blockbuster superhero films, many films have since followed which together can be considered as a genre (Coogan 2013, 1-2).

This chapter will explore the notion of such a superhero film genre. It will show that the genre is tied to the context of the post-classical age of Hollywood. In this context, superhero films are continuously exploring and expanding generic boundaries. This chapter will therefore argue that superhero genre should be approached as an open category, of which the borders shift and are continually altered. This signifies that the way the superhero

character is depicted, and the way it reflects cultural fantasies and anxieties, is similar across the different films in the genre.

The first section will explore questions of genre and how the superhero film genre can be approached and defined. The second section describes the early development of the

superhero genre in the context of post-classical Hollywood while the third does the same for the 21st century superhero genre. Together, these sections show that the genre can best be approached as an open category. In doing so this chapter provides relevant context for the following chapters and shows that while its generic borders are constantly shifting, superhero films can be grouped together in a genre.

1.1 What defines the superhero film genre?

To understand the group of films labeled as the ‘superhero film genre’ and why they are connected and, one must start with a consideration of the concept of genre. Of origin, ‘genre’

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is a French word, which translates to ‘kind’ or ‘type.’ As such it can be understood as a term used to indicate a certain type – or category – of literature, music or film. This rudimentary definition is deceptively simple, as is demonstrated by its use in a range of disciplines and fields: genre theorists have interpreted the term in different ways, to different ends (Oxford Dictionary; Neale 2000, 17-20).

In film studies the term has been mostly used to study commercial film and

Hollywood cinema. In the introduction of the edited volume Genre Reader IV, genre scholar Barry Keith Grant argues: “Genre movies are those commercial feature films that, through repetition and variation, tell familiar stories with familiar characters in familiar situations.” In addition they “encourage expectations and experiences similar to those of similar films we have already seen” (2012, xvi). He continues to argue that commercial genre films make up the large part of the body of films that have been produced in the history of the film medium, in contrast to the more studied and much smaller body of art films. Genre films are produced by Hollywood, following certain formulas that are varied and exploited to gain commercial success. Grant identifies certain aspects that form a genre. These aspects are the repetition and variation of generic elements, audience expectations and experiences, and the influence of Hollywood (Ibid).

Recent approaches to genre have foregrounded their status as open categories. In

Genre and Hollywood, Steve Neale reasons that genres should not be viewed as having

eternal or essential features; these features should rather be viewed as changing in their historical context. In approaching genre, it is thus important to pay attention to variation and change within genre and its development through time. Genres tell familiar stories with familiar characters in familiar situations, but there is still much variation between certain time periods of a genre and the different films of a genre in these periods. Films add, change or subtract certain elements to the genre in which they belong. They can also combine generic elements, leading to hybrid films or even hybrid genres. Viewed from this perspective, Neale argues that genres “are best conceived of as processes” (2000, 204).

When speaking of the ‘superhero film genre’ a singular approach to it is not

immediately apparent. This is reflected in scholarly work involving superhero films. In his book on Hollywood genre, Barry Langford argues that blockbuster franchises like

Spider-Man and X-Men are dominated by “effects-laden SF spectaculars” (2008, 182). In a study on

the fantasy genre, Katherine Fowkes argues, on the other hand, that the “recent Spider-Man movies lean heavily toward fantasy” (2010, 123). These observations point to the notion that films featuring superhero narratives belong mainly to other film genres – for instance science

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fiction or fantasy. As the subsequent sections in this chapter will show, it might however be more productive to think of the superhero film genre as a separate genre. This genre can best be seen as an open category, incorporating hybrid films with elements of multiple genres.

Dan Hassler-Forest adopts a similar perspective in his book Capitalist Superheroes. He points out that the superhero character is “a flexible and adaptable figure” that unites a large group of texts. This group is very diverse but does show certain similarities and

‘common tendencies’ that can be used to group them together in a genre (2012, 14). Defining this genre means not only looking at producers or consumers of texts but at the “complex process of interaction between constantly changing groups of interacting users” (2012, 16). If the insights of Neale and Hassler-Forest are combined, it can be reasoned that a suitable approach to the superhero film genre as an open category should be one that recognizes and addresses the interaction between these users. The influence of these groups (both the demands of the audience and those of producers) leads the genre to expand its borders. For this reason, Rick Altman’s approach to genre serves well to define the superhero film genre.

Altman’s semantic/syntactic/pragmatic approach features three levels. The semantic level refers to the semantic elements, or building blocks of a genre (characters, settings, locations, and so on). The syntactic level refers to the structures in which these building blocks are arranged (certain plot structures, narratives). Altman later added the pragmatic level, this level entails that texts can be considered as part of a genre when they are written and talked about as belonging to that genre (Altman 1999; 207).

Using Altman’s approach for the superhero genre, Hassler-Forest argues that films can be seen as part of the superhero film genre when they are identifiable on these three levels. Semantically superhero films feature superheroes, costumes, masks, superhuman powers, etc. On the syntactic level they feature plots in which superheroes save a world, city or

community from evil. And finally, on the pragmatic level they should be written of and talked about as part of the superhero film genre (2012, 16).3

One of the common tendencies of the superhero genre that Hassler-Forest points to is that they are (almost without exception) big-budget blockbusters. These blockbusters are commodities, centerpieces of franchises. Perhaps superfluous to state, these commodities

3_{This definition of the superhero genre is neither exclusive, nor does include films that have some similarity} with superhero films. For example: while the Hulk in The Incredible Hulk does not have a costume or a mask, it is a part of the superhero genre because it is talked of in this manner. On the other hand, Harry Potter, the protagonist of the eponymous franchise, could be seen as having (magic) superpowers; he also saves the wizard community from evil, time and time again. However, on the basis of the pragmatic level the Harry Potter films cannot be considered as part of the superhero genre.

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have to be profitable for their producers. Considering this, it seems that the essential generic elements of the superhero genre are to a certain extent dependent on and defined by their status as commodities. A further consideration of Hollywood’s post-classical age in the following sections shows how their status as blockbusters influences the construction of the superhero film genre.

1.2 Convergence and high concept Superheroes (1970’s – 2000)

Superman: The Movie marked the beginning of the first wave of superhero films. At the same

time, it marked the beginning of a new age of Hollywood blockbusters. According to film historians Kristin Thompson and David Bordwell, this new age was marked by a

‘megapicture mentality’ (2010, 666). In the late 1970s and early 1980s, studios began to focus their attention on high-budget films filled with stars and special effects, usually released around Christmas or summer holidays. The success of these films was no longer only decided by its box office success but by the combined revenues of a franchise: its video release, CD soundtrack, tie-in merchandising and other licensing deals (2010, 487). This new mentality is illustrated by the way Superman: The Movie was produced: the leading roles were played by big stars like Marlon Brando and Gene Hackman, visual effects were emphasized and the film was launched accompanied by a string of merchandise. This approach paid off: Superman was the most successful film in 1979 and its merchandise created millions in revenues. The

success of the film paved the road for other superhero blockbusters like Superman IV: The

Quest for Peace (1987), Batman (1989), Batman Returns (1992), Batman Forever (1995) and Batman and Robin (1997) (Thompson and Bordwell 2010, 487).

This period in Hollywood history is known as ‘post-classical Hollywood’ or ‘New Hollywood.’ In this period ‘high-concept’ filmmaking became popular. Film historian Richard Maltby further elaborates on high concept filmmaking. He asserts that during the 1980 and 1990s, the convergence of the major Hollywood studios made it easier for them to access and distribute to global markets, which lead to a stable revenue growth. The best strategy to ensure these revenues proved to be the high-budget film. These films provided franchise options, which in turn provided a safe-fail if the films failed at the box office: Losses could be compensated by the revenues from secondary markets. High-budgets were however only available to high-concept films (1998, 35-37).

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story” (1998, 37). To appeal to an audience as wide as possible, the stories more often than not featured multiple action sequences, emphasized special effects and famous actors portraying protagonists with muscular bodies. High concept films emphasized spectacular visual elements like action sequences and CGI (computer generated imagery). Like the studios that produced them, the look and narrative of high concept films converged as well. As Maltby states, they relied on “the replication and combination of previously successful narratives” (1998, 37). They reproduced visual and narrative elements from each other, leaving just enough variation to make them commercially viable on a global scale. In other words: why change a winning recipe?

Viewed from an economical perspective, the superhero films of the 1980s and 1990s were an ideal fit in a new age of Hollywood production. This position has only improved during the recent wave of superhero films, which started with the X-Men (2000, 2006, 2009, 2011, 2014) and Spider-Man (2002, 2004, 2007) franchises.

1.3 The superhero film in the new millennium (2000’s – 2010’s)

Viewing superhero films as high-concept films in the context of post-classical Hollywood can help explain why superhero films have been produced with such frequency over the last decades. Hassler-Forest argues that the commercial characteristics of the superhero have made the genre so prevalent in contemporary Hollywood. Their marketability as a “branded, recognizable commodity,” which appeals to large audiences, has ensured a comfortable position in the age of postclassical Hollywood (2012, 18).

In addition to their status as commodities, popular geopolitics scholar Jason Dittmer argues that two ‘interconnected elements’ perform a decisive role in the heightened centrality of superhero films in Hollywood: The increased reliance of Hollywood on the summer blockbuster, and the ‘evolution’ of special effects (2011, 119). Together, these elements contribute to the ever-expanding borders of the genre.

Because of steadily increasing budgets, the need for a summer blockbuster to succeed has increased. The budgets of summer blockbusters increased even more in the 2000s. In 2002, Spider-Man had a budget of $139 million; in 2007 Spider-Man 3 nearly doubled that number to $258 million. Now, if a blockbuster fails a whole studio might go bankrupt. Dittmer shows that this happened after the box-office failure of The Golden Compass (2007). It led to the forced merger of Time Warner with Warner Brothers pictures.Because of the potential devastating effects of box office failure, studios rely on genres and narratives that

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have proved themselves to provide audiences that are predicable in size and demographic structure (2011, 120). Superhero films give the studios what they want: Their narratives attract youthful audiences with their thrills, whilst appeasing to older and more nostalgic audiences as well. In addition, they offer ‘archetypal characters’ that have a long history of popularity, licensing and other franchise and sequel potential (2011, 119).4

The second element that adds to the centrality of the superhero genre in contemporary Hollywood is the increasing sophistication of special effects. Like film scholar Scot

Bukatman asserts, “it’s no accident that this wave of superhero films followed the

development of ever more convincing CGI technologies” (2011, 120).5 Dittmer observes that the special effects of the films are constantly evolving in a race to meet audience expectations. More personnel and budget is spent to increase the realism of the special effects. The

audience expects that the heroic feats of superheroes using their superpowers are portrayed as realistically as possible, leading to increasing ‘unreal’ special effects in the summer

blockbusters. These factors lead to a self-intensifying circle: studios give higher budgets to films in order to satisfy audience demands, to eventually gain higher profits. To meet audience demands for the next summer blockbuster, even more must be invested in special effects, leading to higher budgets, and so on.6 According to Dittmer, superhero films thus drive the industry forwards, leaving it to appear ‘addicted’ to the genre (Dittmer 2011, 120).

While Dittmer asserts that production budgets are rising and special effects are playing an increasingly central role, another film theorist has described the influences of other genres on the superhero film genre. In Genre and Super-Heroism: Batman in the New Millennium, Vincent M. Gaine expands on generic elements from other genres in the superhero films, which he calls ‘influences’ and ‘borrowings’: genres that feed into the superhero film genre and elements that surpass the borders of it. Focusing mainly on the skills and resources of Batman in Batman Begins and The Dark Knight, Gaine shows that the films incorporate elements of other genres. To give two examples: The first act shows Batman practicing his martial arts skills in several ‘training sequences,’ which echoes martial arts films like Kill bill (2004) and Rocky (1976) (2011, 115). And rather than developing his technological gadgetry himself (like he did in earlier Batman films), Bruce Wayne goes to Lucius Fox at the Applied

4_{Moreover, the narratives of superhero films can be repeated over and over again, as the latest iteration of the} Spiderman shows: only seven years after Spider-Man 3 the franchise was rebooted with The Amazing Spiderman (2014).

5_{CGI stands for Computer Generated Imagery.}

6_{This reliance on high-budget summer blockbusters has lead ‘Movie Brats’ George Lucas and Steven Spielberg} to predict the end of Hollywood as we know it. They sketch a doom scenario in which half dozen $250 million films flop, changing the industry forever. This will result in price variances, where ‘you're gonna have to pay $25 for the next Iron Man, you're probably only going to have to pay $7 to see Lincoln’ (Hollywood Reporter).

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Science division of Wayne Enterprises to obtain military prototypes that were never put into development. This echoes the role of Q as equipment master for agent 007 in the James Bond franchise, part of the spy thriller genre. Q gives 007 gadgets of which he often demonstrates the use. These sequences are repeated in Batman, for instance by Fox showing the use of the Batmobile (2011, 116-118). These two examples are a few of many, which, according to Gaine, “indicate the existence of an identifiable genre, yet one, that can stretch and mutate” (2012, 114).

If the assertions from Dittmer and Gaine are combined, it can be ascertained that the increased financial pressure on studios to meet audience demands for the next superhero blockbuster, leads to the production of films that incorporate many generic elements from other genres. This in turn confirms Maltby’s assertion that high-concept films replicate and combine previously successful narratives.

This observation can be underlined with a statement from Kevin Feige, producer and president of Marvel studios, which he made in the 2014 documentary Marvel Studios:

Assembling a Universe:

We love all of our movies to stand apart. And we love that Guardians of the Galaxy is a full on action-adventure, science-fiction film, and that we have

techno-thriller elements in the Iron Man films. The new Captain America film The Winter

Soldier is a political thriller. So, we don’t believe that the superhero film genre is a

genre onto itself. We love taking subgenres and taking them together and then adding the superhero elements into other genres of film.

This statement is remarkable, because the president of the largest superhero film production studio made it. It indicates that studios themselves do not see the superhero genre as distinct from other film genres, and seems to underline the notion that superhero films are

characterized by the incorporation of many generic elements from other genres. In addition, it seems to contradict the notion of a superhero film genre as separate from others. It can

however be interpreted otherwise in the lights of the observations made by Maltby, Dittmer and Gaine: superhero films can be seen as commodities that cross borders between genres, incorporating elements of other genres to make the films as attractive to an audience as wide as possible, so that they create as much revenue as possible. What can better be asserted, in contrast to Feige’s statement, is that Maltby’s assertion has become even more relevant for the superhero blockbuster in the digital age.

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The observations from the scholars cited in this chapter give rise to the thought that the superhero genre is too diverse to be designated as a separate genre. However, like Hassler-Forest asserted in the first section, the superhero is a flexible figure in a diverse group of texts that does show common tendencies. There is some degree of similarity between the films; some elements are more likely to be found in superhero films than others. It is for instance more likely that the films borrow elements of the martial arts film or spy-thriller than it is for superheroes to burst into a musical-like song. Superhero films share certain semantics and have a similar syntax. In this way, the genre can be seen to include the science fiction and fantasy elements Langford and Fowkes see in the superhero films, or the martial arts and spy thriller elements Gaine identifies in them.

Through a consideration of their history in the context of post-classical Hollywood, this chapter has shown that the superhero film genre is best approached as an open category that incorporates elements of many genres. Due to increased financial pressure and the continuing success of the films, the superhero film genre is constantly shifting and expanding its borders. One of the most recognizable semantic elements of the superhero genre then is its protagonist: the superhero. The next chapter will examine this character type in the 21st century superhero film.

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2. The two-sided contemporary superhero

I believe there's a hero in all of us, that keeps us honest, gives us strength, makes us noble, and finally allows us to die with pride, even though sometimes we have to be steady, and give up the thing we want the most. Even our dreams.

(Spiderman, Spiderman 2) This statement from Spiderman in the recent Spiderman franchise shows an idealistic belief in the power of the superhero to overcome obstacles through strength and pride. These

characteristics are reminiscent of the characteristics Ryan and Kellner identify in the filmic superheroes of the first wave. They argue that these superheroes represented the ideals associated with individualism through their depiction of superheroes as warriors,

entrepreneurs and patriarchs (1988, 220). This chapter will focus on the individuality of the superhero character in the 21st_{century superhero film. This individuality partly corresponds}

with the ideals Ryan and Kellner observed in the first wave of superhero films, yet the superheroes in the second wave have taken on new layers of complexity.

The 21st century superhero films depict multi-faceted superheroes. While they, like their 20th century predecessors, continue to show strong individuals, they also show their weaknesses, fears and anxieties. While these characteristics could be seen as opposing each other, this chapter argues that they should rather be seen as complementary. That is, 21st century superheroes in film are characterized by what I call a ‘two-sided individualism.’ Not only do the films emphasize the positive aspects of the superhero such as a traditional American belief in the power of the individual, they also show their negative characteristics. It is in this way that they connect to contemporary individual fears and anxieties – as I will expand on in chapter 4.

The first section will expand on the depiction of superheroes as representations of the belief in the power of the individual, and show how these narratives are viewed as modern myths. The second section will then complicate this perspective. Guided by recent research from Schlegel and Habermann, Gaine and Hassler-Forest, the section will show that besides being depicted as strong individuals, the superheroes are also characterized by their fears, doubts and anxieties.

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2.1 Superheroes as powerful individuals

The word ‘superhero’ can be divided into two parts: ‘super’ and ‘hero.’ Super means above, over or beyond, in this case referring to the superpowers of the character. A hero is someone “who is admired for their courage, outstanding achievements or noble qualities” (Oxford Dictionary). According to this definition, a superhero is an individual with superpowers, who uses them to demonstrate good qualities, for which a community admires him.

Working from the field of comics studies, Peter Coogan has drawn up a more specific definition of the superhero. In an attempt to define the character with its long and eventful history – including the recent superhero film wave – Coogan argues in Superhero: The Secret

Origins of a Genre that the superhero is best defined by three characteristics: a mission, his

powers and his identity. A superhero is:

A heroic character with a selfless, pro-social mission; with superpowers— extraordinary abilities, advanced technology, or highly developed physical, mental, or mystical skills; who has a superhero identity embodied in a codename and iconic costume, which typically express his biography, character, powers, or origin (transformation from ordinary person to superhero); and who is generically distinct, i.e. can be distinguished from characters of related genres (fantasy, science fiction, detective, etc.) by a preponderance of generic conventions. Often superheroes have dual identities, the ordinary one of which is usually a closely guarded secret (2006, 30).

According to Coogan, a superhero typically has a pro-social mission in which he fights against evil. This mission must fit into the presently accepted ‘mores of society’ and not be for personal gain (2013, 31). A superhero has powers, but according to Coogan they need not necessarily be supernatural – Batman and Iron Man for instance do not have supernatural abilities, but they are considered as superheroes because they feature the other two main characteristics. A superhero uses his powers to pursue his mission, often wearing a costume and a mask; these two aspects form the hero’s identity. The characters often have codenames – Spider Man, Superman, Batman – that serve to hide their real world identities (2006, 30).

Coogan’s definition again shows that the relation of the superhero to a community or society is important. This community can be diegetic, part of the fictional world a film represents. But, as has been commonly argued in recent academic and popular writing,

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superheroes are as much admired (in one way or another) by the community who watches, or better consumes, superhero films in 21st century.

Several authors argue that after the events of September 11th and the ensuing War on Terror, superheroes provided a comforting escape from reality. For instance, Kenneth Muir, author of Encyclopedia of Superheroes on Film and Television argues: “We all wanted desperately to believe that good can defeat evil, and, perhaps more to the point, that there is a clear line differentiating these opposing philosophies,” and later he states that “immediately following September 11th, superheroes became comforting and safe, like creamy vanilla ice cream, reflecting pure American values and innocence” (2004, 7). Similarly, Liam Burk argues in Superhero Movies: “If cinema represents for many the great escape then, with horrors on our doorstep, the idea of taking that journey with heroes who can turn back time and always save the world seems like a tempting prospect” (2008, 13). Authors like Burk and Muir thus view superhero films as invoking nostalgic notions of pure American values, referring back to a time that the divide between good and evil was still readily apparent. To undertake the cinematic journey with a hero is comforting and escapist, it distracts from a reality marked by the events of 9/11. With this assertion, Burk points out an important aspect of the superhero narrative: the journey the hero undertakes.

The concept of the ‘hero’s journey,’ was first coined in 1949 by Joseph Campbell. In his book The Hero With a Thousand Faces he argues that all the major world mythologies share a similar narrative structure. The typical journey of the hero follows a structure of separation-initiation-return, a rite of passage. A hero departs from his common day life to a region of ‘supernatural wonder,’ he encounters fabulous forces there, some aiding him, others testing him (1949, 30). At the pinnacle of his journey he encounters his gravest challenge, over which a decisive victory is won. Leaving the supernatural behind, the hero then returns from this region of wonder to “bestow boons [helpful things] on his fellow man” (ibid). Campbell identifies this journey, also known as the monomyth, as universal and timeless, transcending individual cultures and periods of time. Examples of this plot can be seen throughout the ages in different cultures. It can be seen in the story of Jezus, but also in Prometheus stealing fire from the gods. The fairy tales of the Grimm brothers are examples, as is the story of Buddha. Indeed, the pattern can also be seen in superhero films.

In their 2002 book The Myth of the American Superhero, John Lawrence and Robert Jewett argue that this pattern is repeated throughout in American popular film, but with some alterations. They call this narrative pattern the American monomyth. The basic formula of it goes as follows:

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A community in a harmonious paradise is threatened by evil; normal institutions fail to contend with this threat; a selfless superhero emerges to renounce temptations and carry out the redemptive tasks; aided by fate, his decisive victory restores the community to its paradisiacal condition; the superhero then recedes into obscurity (2002, 6).

While the similarities are obvious, the difference with Campbell’s concept is that the

American monomyth expresses a lack of faith in the government and a reliance on the power of the individual. On the contrary, Campbell’s monomyth emphasises the relation of the hero with his community, he takes his social responsibility to protect it and provide for it. In Lawrence and Jewett’s concept, evil can only be overcome by lonely and selfless individuals who rescue an impotent community, often through extreme violence. They recognize that the monomythic hero is characterized by his individualism; he essentially operates outside or on the borders of society. The community on the other hand is characterized as passive and impotent. The American superhero enters the community from outside, does what is required of him to save it and then leaves, not to be seen by its members again (Lawrence and Jewett 2006, 6-8).7

This depiction of the individual is not only repeated in the 21st century superhero film; the power of the individual has become the focus of it. In the introduction to the edited

volume The 21st Century Superhero, Gray and Kaklamanidou argue that the main narrative

theme in 21st century superhero films is that of the ‘cult of the individual’ (2012, 25), that is a focus on a powerful individual who succeeds against all odds. The theme was originally introduced by film scholar Daniel Franklin as one of the themes that are most often featured in American film: A courageous individual succeeds against overwhelming odds without anyone’s help. He is often opposed by the government, which is depicted as oppressive. By showing how an individual overcomes obstacles against all odds, the theme “promotes a dynamic, vibrant, and creative society” (2012, 25). Gray and Kaklamanidou argue that this theme is presented with some alterations in superhero films. They state that the films do not show ‘resilient’ and ‘resourceful’ ordinary individuals but rather special individuals with

7_{Indeed, recognizing the emphasis the American monomyth lies on the violent power of the individual in spite} of the community, Lawrence and Jewett criticize the un-democratic aspects of this narrative structure. Often these superheroes operate against or in spite of democratic institutions. These superheroes convey the belief that society can be saved not through reliance on the government, but by trusting loner individuals.

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superpowers – like Batman, Superman, or a group like the X-men. In addition, they argue that the films do not show a vibrant and creative society in the way that other films like Erin

Brockovich (2006) and Schindlers List (2003) do. Instead, the aim of the superhero films is

for viewers to admire the strength of the superhero as individual, who can overcome any challenge, no matter what personal difficulties he has or what society thinks of him. Gray and Kaklaminodou argue that in this way the films confirm the American ideal and belief in the power of the individual, which also entails that the government should have limited authority (2012, 5).

To briefly reiterate, Muir argues that the films represent pure American values and a clear divide between good and evil, while Burk states that they provide a comforting escape from a harsh reality. Lawrence and Jewett show how the films foreground a depiction of the superhero character that emphasises the (violent) power of the individual, often in contrast to that of the community. According to Gray and Kaklaminodou the viewer is left to admire these individuals, who seem to triumph over every obstacle. What unites the assertions of the scholars cited above is a foregrounding of the aspects of the superhero character that

emphasise a belief in the power of the individual. This is the first side of the two-sided individualism of the 21st century superhero in film that this chapter describes. This view on the superhero character is however problematized by insights from other academics, as I discuss in the following section.

2.2 The complex superhero

Recent scholarly work on the 21st century superhero film shows that the superhero has taken on layers of complexity. In contrast to an emphasis on their ability to overcome every obstacle as an individual, the superhero characters are shown questioning the Manichean divide

between good and evil, as burdened, conflicted and at times not even heroic. These assertions point to the second side of the two-sided individualism of the 21st century superhero, which emphasizes the negative characteristics of the character.

It is good to elaborate on the place of the Manichean divide between good and evil in older films. In his definition, Coogan argues that the superhero fights a pro-social mission against evil – the ‘mission’ characteristic. What is considered to be good or evil in this mission is dictated by the existing mores of society. It seems that Coogan assumes that it is clear to the superhero what is evil or good. This is indeed true for the superhero films of the

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first wave. In Superman: The Movie, the eponymous character is portrayed as a godlike savior who seems to be incapable of doing evil. His arch-enemy Lex Luthor on the other hand is clearly evil; this is illustrated by his evil plan: he wants to destroy the American West Coast using a nuclear missile, so that he can gain financial mastery over the United States. Reacting directly on the earlier quoted Muir who also detects this divide, Johannes Schlegel and Frank Habermann observe that it is precisely this clear distinction that is being questioned in recent superhero films (2012, 29).

Schlegel and Haberman argue that in recent films, superheroes and their enemies can be seen to wield a different set of morals, which do not so obviously belong to the good or evil side. The scholars illustrate this with the example of Rha al Ghul, the antagonist in

Batman Begins. Al Ghul is not depicted as an intrinsically evil character. In the first act, he

trains Bruce in martial arts, teaching him a utilitarian system of morals and developing a teacher-mentor relationship with him. When Bruce later refuses to follow this system to the extreme by destroying Gotham this relationship is broken. Only later, when Bruce Wayne becomes Batman, they become enemies. Al Ghul plans to evaporate a chemical fear-inducing gas in its waterways so that the city of Gotham will be consumed by fear. While this plan seems similar to Lex Luthor’s, Al Ghul follows a system of utilitarian morality. Al Ghul genuinely believes that by following his utilitarian system of morals and by destroying Gotham as a consequence, he is doing a good thing for the world. This is an unconventional moral system, but a system nonetheless. Batman on the other hand is not characterized as a purely good character. Like Al Ghul he, too, uses fear as a weapon to terrorize Gotham’s criminal community. And especially in later films, some of his actions become questionable. He can for instance be seen torturing the Joker in The Dark Knight (Schlegel and Habermann 2012, 30-31).

Based on these observations, Schlegel and Habermann raise a fair question: what really separates this villain from the hero? Their proposed answer to this question is that in the 21st century superhero film, the difference between good and evil does not necessarily exist. Rather, it is ‘performatively’ generated (2012, 31). To put this in other words: what is evil (Rha’s Al Ghul) and what is good (Batman) is constructed through storytelling. The films still depict Batman as a good force battling the forces of evil. However, if judged solely by the actions of villains and superheroes, this distinction is not really apparent, but blurred.

Partly because the good/evil distinction between hero and villain is blurred, 21st

century superheroes are at times not heroic. In line with his consideration of the 21st superhero film genre as incorporating elements of many other genres (as explained in the first chapter),

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Gaine argues that the crossing of borders is also constitutive for the character type of the superhero. Superheroes cross a number of thresholds such as those between legality and criminality, authority and anarchy and justice and oppression. Together, these thresholds form a social and physical space, which Gaine calls ‘liminal.’ This term is derived from the Latin word limen, which means threshold. The term refers to a transitional stage or to something that exists on both sides of a border. This space then features tensions and contradictions (2012, 111). Like Schlegel and Habermann, Gaine elaborates on this concept by a case study of Christopher Nolan’s Batman trilogy.

One of the thresholds Batman crosses is that between justice and oppression. Gaine argues that in the films, Batman’s role is initially to assist Gotham’s justice system and law enforcement. He therefore has a liminal status in which he exists on the borders of justice and oppression: he is an illegal and violent vigilante but he delivers criminals into the hands of the justice system (2012, 120-124). Slowly Batman crosses this threshold between justice and oppression. Gaine argues that because he crosses this border, Batman slowly becomes oppressive – the tension between justice and oppression starts to show. Because of his successful cooperation with the justice department, he is able to decimate organized crime in Gotham. In this contradictory role, Batman commits acts that are not heroic.

The methods Batman uses eventually include torture and the spying on the entire city of Gotham. Indeed, these are not the ‘outstanding achievements or noble qualities’ that are associated with heroism (Oxford Dictionary). Thus, Gaine argues: “By becoming part of the establishment, Batman has ceased to be a hero,” as the character himself observes with a known saying: “You either die a hero, or you live long enough to see yourself become the victim” (2012, 127).

The assertions made by Schlegel, Habermann and Gaine connect with the

humanization trend that Žižek observes in contemporary superhero films. The scholars point to aspects of the superhero character that can be seen as human characteristics: weaknesses, a confrontation with the dark side of the hero, and doubts about what is good and what is not. These characteristics form the second side to the two-sided individualism of the 21st century superhero character.

This chapter has shown that there are two distinctive sides to the superhero character in the 21st century superhero film. The question that arises out of this two-sided individualism is: why is such a distinction present in the films? Building on the insights of Hassler-Forest and other theorists, the next chapter will show that the two sides of the superhero can be

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connected with two opposing views on the individual and its role in contemporary society.8 I would like to conclude this chapter with a quote from Joe Quesada, head of Marvel’s Creative Committee, who argues in Marvel Studios: “I think what resonates with these characters of popular culture … is their humanity. That you see yourselves in our characters.” Like Quesada suggests, superhero films might reflect aspects that characterize their spectators.

8_{It is good to note that this does not mean that these superheroes have crossed the line between Good and Evil} and have become oppressing and torturing villains, as Schlegel and Habermann state: “recent superhero film does not allow for presupposing such a ‘clear line’ – and neither does it for abolishing that distinction totally” (2012, 31).

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3. The individual in contemporary society

We have been raised with the thought that not society, but we ourselves are makeable. Success is a choice. As a matter of fact, failure is too.

(Bregman 2014, 21) In his book Gratis geld voor iedereen, historian Rutger Bregman gives a cynical account of contemporary Western society. In contemporary society the dominance of the great ideologies is over, as churches and other collectives slowly dissolve and the modernist belief in the progress of society has fallen to cynicism. In the resulting freedom from moral and

ideological frameworks, the make-ability of the individual has become the focal point of our society – the belief that everyone is special and can make his own success is omnipresent (2014, 21). Bregman argues that the downside to this belief is that failure is seen as a choice too (i.e. lost your job? you should have worked harder). The causes of the problems of the collective (unemployment, discontent and depression) are consistently localized in the individual. Bregman reasons that the result of this is that behind the belief in make-ability there lurks ‘a pool of uncertainty’ (2014, 20). Never before have so many young people undergone treatment by a psychologist, never before have so many antidepressants been taken, and never before so many young employees suffered from burnouts (2014, 21). In this context of the belief in make-ability of the individual and the resulting uncertainty, it comes as no surprise that the 21st century superhero blockbuster films have proved to be appealing to immense audiences.

The previous chapter has shown that superheroes in the 21st century superhero film show a two-sided individualism. Like the contemporary individual, superheroes are conflicted and burdened. The difference is that superheroes are able to overcome every challenge and triumph in the end, in this way they connect to contemporary fantasies and anxieties. This chapter will further substantiate these ideas by connecting the two-sided individualism of the 21st century superhero with two important contemporary views on the individual and its role in society.

In Bregman’s description two distinct views on the individual and its role in

contemporary society can be distinguished: One that foregrounds the power of the individual and another that stresses the individual discontent and anxiety that arises out of contemporary individual freedom. These two views will be further explored in this chapter. The view of

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objectivism and its connection to postmodernism will be the focus of the first section. Objectivism is the philosophical movement that was founded by Ayn Rand. She argued that the individual should foremost follow his own needs and desires, be strong and independent – he should be free to act out his ‘selfish’ interests. Objectivism has in recent years been described as the ideological fundament of postmodernism – the economical and political discourse that has radically intensified in post-9/11 Western society (Achterhuis 2010; Hassler-Forest, 2012).

The concepts of moral discontent and the crisis of agency – concepts that are part of the philosophical movement of postmodernism – will be the focus of the second section. Postmodernism holds a cynical view on the freedom of the individual in contemporary

society. The demise of the Grand Narratives (the fading collectives and ideals Bregman refers to) is not seen as liberation but rather as a cause for anxiety, moral discontent and a crisis of agency. The postmodern perspective has been used to criticize contemporary society for its moral freedom and to criticize the dominant paradigm of neoliberalism (Achterhuis 2010; Hassler-Forest, 2012).

The third section then explores the connections that have been made between contemporary views on the individual in society and the representation of the superhero character in superhero films. Scholars like Umberto Eco and Hassler-Forest have reasoned that the films offer a fantasy of overcoming the crises of agency of the postmodern man. The section shows that further research needs to be done to explore the connection between the two-sided individualism of the superhero character and the two opposing views on

individualism in contemporary society.

3.1 The selfish individual

In the years following 9/11, the discourse of neoliberalism has radically intensified in Western society. According to social-geographer David Harvey, neoliberalism holds that “human well-being can best be advanced by liberating individual entrepreneurial freedoms and skills within an institutional framework characterized by strong private property rights, free markets, and free trade” (2005: 2). In order to achieve this, it strives for deregulation, privatization and a minimal government. Since the Cold War, this system has become increasingly influential. In response to the attacks of 11 September 2001 and during the ensuing War on Terror, the neoconservative Bush administration further intensified deregulation, privatization and other

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neo-liberalist policies. The political and economical discourse of neoliberalism has become so all pervasive that it has become the only conceivable paradigm (Hassler-Forest 2012, 11, 28).

Since the credit crises started in 2008, the scientific validity of this paradigm has however been increasingly questioned. In his book De utopie van de vrije markt (the free-market utopia), Hans Achterhuis argues that neoliberalism is as much informed by utopian thought as the other –ism’s of the 20th century – socialism, communism and fascism.9 Neoliberalism promises a utopian world if its economical policies are followed. Achterhuis argues that this neoliberalist utopia is most clearly described in the 1957 book Atlas

Shrugged, written by philosopher Ayn Rand. Indeed, it is through the work of Rand and her

philosophy of objectivism that the underlying ideology of neoliberalism becomes clear (2012, 7).

The Ayn Rand Lexicon: Objectivism from A to Z, edited by Harry Binswanger, gives a

fascinating insight into the philosophy of Rand. With objectivism, she wanted to offer a philosophical system encompassing metaphysics, epistemology, ethics, esthetics and political philosophy. Rand believed in an objectively knowable reality that is understandable through human rationality. In this perspective, following one’s own interests is not a subjective choice, but objectively the most rational option – in contrast with altruism (Rand 1986, 657-659; Achterhuis 2012, 17).

Selfishness, to put one’s own interests above the interests of others, is the central concept in objectivism. All ethical systems in history consider altruism a virtue and selfishness a vice. Rand argues that exactly the opposite is the case. Altruism limits the potential of men and views them as “sacrificial animals and profiteers-on-sacrifice, as victims and parasites” (1986, 842). Selfishness holds that every man is an independent entity with an absolute right to his own life, derived from his nature as a rational being. Man can only be free if he follows his own interests, rather than following those of society. Any form of society can be achieved only through the recognition of these rights. Rand’s vision on individuality is personified in Howard Roarke, the protagonist of her 1943 book The

Fountainhead.10 Roarke is a brilliant young architect who relentlessly follows his own ideals

9_{This observation was originally made by John Gray in his book Black Mass. Gray shows that the project of} Milton Friedman and the Chicago Boys, the intellectuals of neoliberalism, had more to do with utopian thought than ‘pure’ science. According to Galt, the Chicago Boys aimed to restore the purity of free-market thinking with the system of neoliberalism, but did so in a fundamentalist manner, which ultimately led to a ‘modern parody’ of the classical economy (2012, 7).

10_{It is interesting to note that The Fountainhead was recently adapted to a play by Toneelgroep Amsterdam,} with much success. It is ironic that the theatre spectators – traditionally a group of people that have a leftist political persuasion – love watching Rand’s vision come to life.

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and desires, he is a loner who does not depend on anyone and holds the sole rights to what he created (i.e. a painter does not create his art for the masses, but does so because it is

essentially beautiful). Others do not make his original work; he will not take notice of their opinions or be dependent on them (1987, 848).

Technology plays an important part in Rand’s philosophy. Rand believes that intelligent, super-entrepreneurs drive societal progress and shape the course of history. Through the course of history these ‘Atlasses’ have provided food, taught other people to study nature in a rational way and how to develop technologies to subdue her (Achterhuis 2012, 19). These individuals often have a creative talent: they invent new technologies, built new architecture, write new work, and so on– they create. Atlas Shrugged emphasizes the importance of technological progress: Several new technologies and their advantages play an important part in the book. The book thus shows a utopia in which (individual) technological innovation propels society forwards (Achterhuis 2012, 68).

Rand also explicitly describes individuals who do not have the characteristics of the selfish individual. If an individual does not has the characteristics describe in the previous paragraphs, or depends on society or others to provide for him, he is depicted as cowardly and weak. Rand uses the term ‘second-handers’ to describe them. These are people who do not follow their ego but seek self-esteem through others. These people do not think, work or produce but give the impression of doing so. They live ‘second-hand’ (Binswanger 1987, 826).

This section has shown that the dominant political and economical paradigm in Western society is informed by an ideology that foregrounds the power of the individual. The influence of Rand’s work has been noticeable over the last decades; it is for instance seen in her pupil Alan Greenspan, who was the Chairman of the Federal Reserve Bank from 1986 until 2006. The monetary policies of this bank have a worldwide influence – and Greenspan’s refusal to intervene in the free markets has intensified the global credit crisis (Achterhuis 2012, 5). Rand’s utopian image of the individual can also be seen in the ideal of the make-able individual that Bregman describes. The idea that individuals are capmake-able of constructing their own lives, or responsible for failure to do so, is very objectivist in nature.

The next section will look at the second view on individualism, the problems that the ideal of the make-able individual causes. This can be most clearly explained by using insights from the philosophical movement of postmodernism, which sees contemporary individual freedom as a source of anxiety.

Genius, billionaire, playboy, philanthropist: The 21st Century Superhero in Film as an Expression of Contemporary Utopia