Dharavi : informally included, formally excluded

Dharavi:(

Dharavi:(informally(included,(formally(excluded(

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( ( ( ( Abstract(–(Dharavi"is"a"slum"in"Mumbai,"India."It"is"over"a"hundred"years"old."It"is"the" place"of"a"burstling"informal"economy,"with"an"annual"turnover"around"650"million"US" dollars."Garments"and"leather"products"are"made"here"and"exported"all"over"the"world." At"the"same"time,"the"Dharavikars)marginalized"through"their"informal"housing" situation."This"paradox"of"informally"included"but"formally"excluded"will"be"examined." Theoretical"approaches"to"the"informal"economy"and"informality"in"urban"planning"in" India"will"be"used"to"understand"the"empirical"qualitative"data."Informality"is"the"raison) d’être"of"Dharavi."" Keywords(–(Dharavi,"informal"economy,"urban"poverty,"slums,"informality"in"urban" planning."" ( ( Margot"Wiggers"" Studentnumber:"6345786/10084657" margot.wiggers@student.uva.nl" 20Q6Q2014" " Supervisor:"Dr."D."Arnold"" Bachelor"thesisproject"734301370Y"" Afdeling"Sociale"Geografie,"Planologie"en"International"Development"Studies" Word"count:"10"084" Coverpage"was"designed"by"A."Wiggers"

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Acknowledgement(

This"project"has"given"me"to"research"one"of"my"biggest"interests,"India."I"got"the"chance" to"focus"on"development"studies,"slums"and"informal"economy."I"really"enjoyed"writing" this" thesis," mostly" because" it" is" a" process" that" asks" for" a" great" deal" of" independence." First" of" all," I" would" like" to" thank" my" supervisor" Dennis" Arnold" for" the" feedback" and" guidance."Second,"I"would"like"to"thank"my"sister"Annelies"for"making"such"a"beautiful" coverpage." " Third," I" would" like" to" thank" Jan" Nijman" and" Kalpana" Sharma" for" the" opportunity"to"interview"them."Fourth,"I"would"like"to"thank"Lisa"Weinstein"for"being"so" kind" to" send" me" her" book" in" PDF" format" because" the" official" release" date" of" the" book" was"later"than"the"due"date"of"this"thesis."Last"but"not"least,"I"would"like"to"thank"my" friends" who" were" all" in" the" library" or" abroad" for" not" giving" me" the" chance" to" get" distracted"because"they"were"also"busy"or"just"not"around."I"would"like"to"recommend" listening"to"the"song"Nagada"Sang"Dhol"from"the"movie"Goliyon"Ka"Rasleela"–"Ram"Leela" and"ordering"food"from"Tandoori"Express"in"Amsterdam"to"get"in"the"right"state"of"mind" before"reading"this"thesis.""

( Table(of(contents( 1."Introduction" " " " " " " 4" 2."Methodology" " " " " " " 8" 3."Theoretical"framework" " " " " " 9" " " 3.1"What"is"a"slum?" " " " " " 9" 3.2"Three"approaches"on"informality" " " 12" " " 3.2.1"Origin"of"informal"economy" " " 12" " " 3.2.2"ILO"and"Chen"on"informal"economy" " 13" " " 3.2.3"Davis"and"Breman"on"informal"economy" 16" " " 3.2.4"Roy"on"informality"in"planning" " 16" 4."Dharavi" " " " " " " " 19" " 4.1"The"economy"in"Dharavi"" " " " 19" " 4.2"The"redevelopment"of"Dharavi" " " " 25" 5."Analysis" " " " " " " " 29" 6."Conclusion"" " " " " " " 33" 7."Discussion" " " " " " " " 34" 8."References"" " " " " " " 35" 9."Appendix" " " " " " " " 38" " ( ( ( ( ( ( ( (

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1.(Introduction(

This" thesis" will" be" about" Dharavi," a" slum" in" Mumbai." Dharavi" is" a" very" old" part" of" Bombay,"it"is"more"than"a"hundred"years"old."Nowadays"it"is"considered"to"be"a"slum." This" slum," which" is" about" a" 4" square" kilometers," holds" an" estimated" population" of" between"0,5"million"and"1,5"million"people."It"is"therefore"a"very"densely"populated"area." It" holds" over" 40.000" household" units," 8000" shops" and" around" 5000" manufacturing" units." There" are" also" several" mosques," temples," social" services" etcetera." Of" all" people" living" in" Dharavi" 70%" also" works" in" Dharavi." There" are" people" from" 67" different" communities" living" in" Dharavi," all" different" castes" and" groups" (Nijman," 2009;" SaglioQ Yatzimirsky,"2013)."Dharavi"is"located"in"the"center"of"Mumbai"(see"figure"1"and"2)."" Figure"1:")Dharavi)in)India"(Nijman,"2014)" " " " " " " "

T-JUN CTION 60-FE ET R OA D 90-FE ET R OAD H_A R_B O_U R LIN E W E S TE R N R A IL W AY CENTR AL R AILW AY TO _B AN DR A S TA_TIO N

MAJOR ROADS KAMLA RAHEJA VIDYANIDHI INSTITUTE FOR ARCHITECTURE

" " " " " " " " " " " " " " Figure"2:"Picture)of)Dharavi"(Nijman,"2014)" Dharavi"used"to"be"an"old"fisher"tribe’s"town."As"the"city"grew,"Dharavi"grew."Dharavi," once" on" the" outskirts" of" Bombay," is" now" at" the" heart" of" Mumbai," as" the" city" is" now" officially"named."It"is"enclosed"by"three"different"railroads"(see"figure"2),"different"roads" run"through"Dharavi"and"it"is"neighbored"by"a"very"fancy"business"district"where"real" estate"prices"are"high."As"one"can"see,"the"land"were"Dharavi"is"based"is"considered"a" gold"mine"(Nijman,"2009;"Paul"&"Patel,"2010)."" SaglioQYatzimirsky"(2013,"p."297)"explains"why"Dharavi"is"an"atypical"slum:"" " " " " " " " “Dharavi"is"a"unique"slum,"…,"both"because"of"its"size"(‘one" million"individuals’),"its"central"location"(‘at"the"heart"of" Mumbai’),"its"diversity"(‘Little"India’)"and"because"it"is"a" gigantic"production"centre"with"an"original"mode"of" functioning"–"the"fruit"of"adaptation"of"traditional" organisational"structures"(hereditary"professions"and" caste"networks)"to"an"international"market."However,"this" does"not"prevent"it"from"being"a"potential"slum" development"model…’’!

In" my" interview" (2014)" with" Jan" Nijman" " –" author" of" the" article" ‘A" Study" of" Space" in" Mumbai’s"Slums.’"and"author"of"an"upcoming"book"about"the"cultural"dimensions"of"the" economy"in"Dharavi"–"it"is"put"slightly"different."He"explains"that"because"Dharavi"is"a" very"old"slum,"it"entails"a"sort"of"economic"and"social"structure."And"if"slums"that"are" now" emerging" Q" which" are" usually" at" the" outskirts" of" a" city" and" do" not" facilitate" economic" opportunities" like" Dharavi" –" start" following" the" same" path" as" Dharavi" did," another"type"of"cities"could"be"emerging."In"his"article"(2009)"Nijman"calls"this"‘cities"of" slums’."

But"Dharavi"is"not"a"singular"example"of"a"consequence"of"rapid"urbanization."All"over" the" world" urbanization" is" occurring" at" astonishing" rates," creating" megacities." This" urbanization" is" mostly" taking" on" the" form" of" slums." This" urbanization" in" the" form" of" slums" in" causing" great" inequalities" within" and" between" cities" (Davis," 2006)." The" majority" of" the" underprivileged" population" of" these" cities" works" in" the" informal" economy."Although"the"informal"economy"can"be"a"means"to"survive,"it"maintains"this" inequality," causing" extreme" poverty" and" the" corresponding" social" problems." This" inequality"is"also"causing"spatial"inequality,"meaning"that"the"quality"of"the"housing"is" low,"the"population"density"is"high"and"services"and"provisions"are"non"existent"or"low" quality." Next" to" this," marginalization" is" also" a" consequence" (Bartlett" e.a.," 2012)." The" 2003" UNQHABITAT" report" Challenge) in) Slums) also) considers" this" marginalization" a" characteristic"of"slums.""This"marginalization"means"that"people"from"slums"are"outside" of"everyday"society."They"can"not"participate"fully"in"the"normal"economic,"political"and" social"society."" In"this"thesis,"the"informal"economy"in"Dharavi"and"the"housing"Dharavikars)(those"who" are"from"Dharavi)"will"be"examined."Dharavi’s"economy"is"mostly,"if"not"totally,"informal" (Nijman,"2009)."In"2007,"the"annual"turnover"of"Dharavi"was"estimated"at"650"million" dollars" (BBC" News," 2007)." However," most" Dharavikars" are" still" living" on" their" land" illegally" and" are" marginalized" through" their" lack" of" property" rights" or" official" registration"(interview"with"Sharma,"2014).""

In" this" thesis" I" will" argue" that" the" informal" economy" in" Dharavi" is" the" way" that"

Dharavikars)are"experiencing"inclusion."It"is"also"the"reason"for"Dharavi’s"success."“The"

residents" of" Dharavi," allegedly" Asia’s" biggest" slum," are" thriving" in" hardship.”" (The" economist," 2007)." The" informal" economy" is" the" only" economy" in" Dharavi." It" is" at" the" roots"of"international"and"national"production"chains"–"for"example"leather"bealts"that" are"exported"to"Wal"Mart"in"the"USA"(The"economist,"2007)."Following"Martha"Chen’s" line"of"reasoning"it"is"safe"to"say"that"the"economy"of"Dharavi"is"a"clear"example"of"the" informal" economy" being" the" base" of" the" economy," not" a" marginalized" segment" of" the" economy."So"through"the"economy,"Dharavikars)are"informally"included.""

This" is" however" in" contrast" with" the" informal" housing" situation" of" most" Dharavikars." Because"most"Dharavikars)are"informal"tenants"or"occupants"of"johnpri)–"huts"–,"chawls)Q" long"cement"buildings"with"three"floors"that"were"built"in"the"1950s"for"textile"workers"

–,"pakka)–"permanent"houses"–,"khopte)–"shelters"–,"etcetera"(SaglioQYatzimirsky,"2013)," they"are"not"registered."How"this"works"in"detail"will"be"explained"later."And"if"one"is"not" registered,"one"has"no"right"to"vote,"right"to"subsidised"food,"right"to"stay"put"or"receive" allocation"compensation"(Weinstein,"2014)."So"they"are"formally"excluded.""

This"paradox,"between"a"burstling"informal"economy"and"exclusion"through"the"lack"of" official" tenure" rights" and" registration" will" be" examined." Dharavikars) are" informally" included" but" formally" excluded." The" research" question" is:" How" could" this" paradox" be" explained"and"understood?"

In"order"to"answer"this"question,"first"will"be"explained"what"is"meant"by"a"slum."Then" the"informality"in"the"economy"and"in"the"housing"issue"will"be"discussed."After"this,"the" case" of" Dharavi" will" be" examined." An" overview" of" Dharavi" will" be" given," including" its" history,"informal"economy"and"redevelopment"schemes"in"Dharavi."Then"an"answer"to" the" research" question" will" be" given" in" the" analysis." The" thesis" will" be" finished" with" a" conclusion"and"discussion."But"before"all"that,"the"methods"used"will"be"discussed."" " ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( (

2.(Methodology( This"research"is"a"deskQbased"literature"review."To"be"exact,"it"will"be"a"narrative"review." The"research"design"is"a"case"study."Dharavi"is"an"exemplifying"case"of"a"slum"because"it" is"very"old."And"also,"Dharavi"is"also"a"unique"case"because"of"its"burstling"economy."It" can"be"an"example"for"the"rest"of"India"(Paul"and"Arputham,"2007"and"interview"with" Nijman,"2014)."

For" this" literature" review," several" books" and" articles" were" used." For" the" theoretical" framework" on" slums," the" United" Nations" report" on" urbanization" (2007)," Mike" Davis" book"on"slums"(2006)"and"the"UNQHABITAT"report"on"slums"(2003)"are"the"foundation." These"sources"were"chosen"because"they"provide"the"best"overview"on"the"concept"of" slums,"both"from"academic"and"nonQacademic"viewing"points."" For"the"theoretical"framework"on"the"informal"economy"opposing"views"were"selected" to"set"off"against"each"other."On"the"one"hand"there"is"the"view"on"informal"economy"by" Davis"(2006)"and"Breman"(2006)"and"in"contrast"is"the"view"on"informal"economy"by" Chen"(2007)"and"the"ILO"(2002)."It"is"a"helpful"method"to"put"these"views"as"opposing" because"it"provides"insight"in"the"shapes"and"forms"of"informality"in"Dharavi."To"gain"a" deeper" understanding" of" informality" in" planning," Ananya" Roy’s" article" on" informality" (2009)"is"used.""

Then"the"empirical"chapters"are"based"on"articles"and"books."The"three"books"used"are"" by"Sharma"(2000),"SaglioQYatzimirsky"(2013)"and"Weinstein"(2014)."These"are"all"books" that" are" based" on" extensive" fieldwork" in" Dharavi" and" interviews" with" Dharavikars.) Other"empirical"articles"have"been"used,"for"example"Jan"Nijman’s"article"and"articles"by" NGO’s"that"are"working"in"Dharavi.""

In"addition"to"the"literature"review,"two"interviews"have"been"conducted."The"one"with" Kalpana"Sharma"was"via"eQmail,"due"to"time"differences"and"geographical"barriers."She" is" the" author" of" the" widely" known" book" ‘Rediscovering" Dharavi." Stories" from" Asia’s" Largest"Slum.’"She"is"known"for"her"work"as"a"journalist"at"the"Hindu,"Times"of"India"and" Indian" Express." She" teaches" at" the" University" of" California" in" Berkely." The" other" interview" was" conducted" with" Jan" Nijman." Besides" his" writings" on" Dharavi" he" is" also" Professor"of"Urban"Studies"and"director"of"the"Centre"of"Urban"Studies"at"the"University" of" Amsterdam." The" interviews" were" semiQstructured." They" can" be" found" in" the" appendix."" ( ( ( ( (

3.(Theoretical(framework(( 3.1(What(is(a(slum?(

Like" many" other" scholars" (Davis," 2006;" Nijman," 2009;" Breman," 2006)" I" would" like" to" start"with"the"UNQHABITAT"definition."It"holds"the"most"common"understanding"of"what" a" slum" is" (Nijman," 2009)." The" UNQHABITAT" (2003," p." 12)" report" gives" the" working" definition"that"the"UNQHABITAT"convention"in"Nairobi"in"2002"produced:"" " " " " " " " " UNQHABITAT"reviewed"several"other"definitions"and"came"up"with"some"characteristics" these"definitions"share:"‘’1)"Lack"of"basic"services;"2)"Substandard"housing"or"illegal"and" inadequate"building"structures;"3)"Overcrowding"and"high"density;"4)"Unhealthy"living" conditions" and" hazardous" locations;" 5)" insecure" tenure;" irregular" or" informal" settlements;" 6)" Poverty" and" social" exclusion" and" 7)" Minimum" settlement" size" (UNQ HABITAT,"2003,"p."11)."" But"why"do"these"slums"emerge?" Urbanization"rates"are"astonishingly"high"in"this"era"(see"figure"3)."Cities"are"currently" housing"twoQthirds"of"the"population"growth"since"1950"(Davis,"2006).""In"2050"cities" will"house"all"of"the"population"growth"occurring"in"the"lessQdeveloped"regions"(United" Nations,"2008)."“By"midQcentury,"the"world’s"urban"population"will"likely"be"the"same" size"as"the"world’s"total"population"in"2004.’’(United"Nations,"2008,"p."2)."" ) ) ) ) ) ) “…"Define"a"slum"as"an"area"that"combines,"to"various"extents,"the" following"characteristics"(restricted"to"the"physical"and"legal" characteristics"of"the"settlement,"and"excluding"the"more"difficult" social"dimensions):" Qinadequate"access"to"safe"water;" Q"inadequate"access"to"sanitation"and"other"infrastructure;" Q"poor"structural"quality"of"housing;" Q"overcrowding;" Q"insecure"residential"status.’’" !

Figure"3:)Urban)and)rural)populations,)by)development)group,)1950G2050.)United"Nations,"2008.") This"rapid"urbanization"is"mostly"taking"shape"in"the"form"of"slums."Davis"(2006,"p."19):"" " " " " “Thus,"the"cities"of"the"future,"rather"than"being"made"out"of"glass" and"steel"as"envisioned"by"earlier"generations"of"urbanists,"are" instead"largely"constructed"out"of"crude"brick,"straw,"recycled" plastic,"cement"blocks"and"scrap"wood."Instead"of"cities"of"light" soaring"toward"heaven,"much"of"the"twentyQfirstQcentury"urban" world"squats"in"squalor,"surrounded"by"pollution,"excrement,"and" decay.”"" !

Above" is" shown" the" explanation" for" these" high" rates" of" urbanization," but" it" is" not" yet" explained" why" slums" in" particular" emerge," and" not" some" other" form" of" urban" settlements." UNQHABITAT" notes" that" the" combination" of" poor" people" and" lack" of" adequate"housing"forces"people"to"build"their"own"houses"on"vacant"pieces"of"land"(see" figure" 4)" Sharma" (2000)," Weinstein" (2014)," Nijman" (2009)" and" SaglioQYatzimirsky" (2013)"align"with"this"argument.""

Figure"4:)Inequality,)poverty)and)slum)formation)(UNQHABITAT,"2003)"

Slums"dwellers"are"often"not"able"to"obtain"a"job"in"the"formal"economy,"making"slums" hubs"of"informal"economy."Slum"dwellers"are"often"not"able"to"obtain"a"job"in"the"formal" economy" because" they" lack" social" capital" Q" skills," education" Q" and" are" excluded" from" other" parts" of" society." Furthermore," slum" dwellers" are" illegal" occupants" of" the" lands" they" live" on." This" excludes" them" from" the" several" services" for" example" education," healthcare"and"other"formal"institutions"providing"services"(UNQHABITAT,"2003)."They" are"excluded"because"they"do"not"have"an"official"place"to"live."These"two"aspects"will"be" further"examined"in"the"next"chapters."" " " " ( (

3.2(Three(approaches(on(informality(

Besides"the"question,"“what"is"informal"economy?”"the"question"“why"is"there"informal" economy?”"is"also"relevant"for"this"thesis"because"it"helps"understands"the"persistence" and" success" of" the" economy" of" Dharavi" Q" this" will" be" further" explained" in" the" chapter" about" Dharavi" Q" UNQHABITAT" (2003)" describe" five" different" theories" that" answer" the" question:"“why"is"there"informal"economy?”:"1)"Lack"of"growth."This"theory"is"assuming" that" the" formal" economy" increases" when" the" GDP" per" worker" increases." So" when" workers"are"poor,"they"are"handed"to"the"informal"economy;"2)"Jobless"growth."Due"to" technological"enhancement"and"the"privatization"of"industries"jobs"either"disappear"or" become" informal;" 3)" Growth" from" below." SmallQscale" enterprises" are" growing" faster" than" formal" companies" sometimes;" 4)" Period" of" adjustment" theory." When" structural" adjustments"are"made"to"an"economy,"there"is"a"shift"from"the"formal"to"the"informal" economy."For"example"when"India"liberalized"its"trade"in"the"1990s"(SaglioQYatzimirsky," 2013)"and"5)"Institutional"costs."Regulating"an"economy"requires"money"and"informal" entrepreneurs"do"not"have"that"kind"of"money.( In"the"next"section,"first"the"origin"of"the"concept"of"informal"economy"will"be"explained." Then"the"opposing"views"of"Davis"and"Breman"on"the"one"hand"and"Chen"and"the"ILO"on" the"other"hand"will"be"explained."" 3.2.1(Origin(of(informal(economy(

The" precursor" of" the" informal" economy" concept" was" founded" in" 1954" by" W." Arthur" Lewis,"in"a"paper"called"‘Economic"Development"with"Unlimited"Surplus"of"Labor’."His" theory" describes" the" transition" from" traditional" agricultural" economy" to" a" manufacturing"economy"in"developing"economies."It"is"assumed"that"this"paper"was"the" Lewis’"major"contribution"to"winning"the"Nobel"Prize"in"1979"(Fields,"2004)."""

Lewis" divided" the" economy" in" a" dual" structure," the" subsistence" economy" and" the" capitalist"economy,"or"the"informal"and"the"formal"economy."The"capitalist"economy"is" able"to"reproduce"capital"and"the"subsistence"economy"is"not."In"other"words,"capitalists" control" the" capital" and" hire" laborers." Lewis" recognizes" that" there" are" capitalized" industries," such" as" mining" and" electric" power," existing" side" by" side" with" primitive" industries."People"are"living"in"other"worlds"(Lewis,"1954)."The"agricultural"labor"and" urban"informal"labor"fall"under"subsistence"economy."Lewis"assumed"that"in"developing" economies," there" is" a" surplus" of" agricultural" labor" and" when" the" capitalist" economy" expands," laborers" are" drawn" to" the" manufacturing" economy" and" drawn" out" of" the" agricultural"economy."The"wages"of"the"workers"depend"on"which"part"of"the"economy" they"work"in"(Fields,"2004)."There"is"a"gap"between"the"wages"in"the"capitalist"economy" and"the"subsistence"economy."This"is"because"of"several"reasons"according"to"Lewis."It"is" because" unskilled" laborers" are" paid" less" than" skilled" laborers." " It" is" also" because" capitalist"workers"are"accompanied"by"a"social"prestige"that"is"reflected"in"their"wages." And"according"to"Lewis,"part"of"this"gap"is"illusory"because"it"is"more"expensive"to"live"in" the"capitalist"world"(Lewis,"1954"and"Fields,"2004)."Lewis"was"one"of"the"first"to"reject"

the" notions" of" the" full" control" of" the" government" over" an" economy," fullQtime" employment," perfect" competition" to" the" world" market" and" market" clearance." Lewis’" theory" was" a" major" contribution" to" transition" thinking" in" economic" growth" (Ranis," 2004).""

Around" the" 1970s" an" alternative" explanation" of" the" informal" sector" concept" came" up." Keith" Hart," an" anthropologist," described" it" for" the" first" time" in" 1973" in" his" study" on" Ghana." He" described" the" dual" structure" of" wageQemployment" and" selfQemployed" labor" (Portes" &" Halles," 2005)." In" 1972," the" International" Labor" Organization" (ILO)" gave" a" definition" to" the" informal" sector:" ‘’The" informal" economy" was" taken" to" refer" to" an" ‘’urban" way" of" doing" things’’" characterized" by" (1)" low" entry" barriers" in" terms" of" skill," capital" and" organization;" (2)" family" ownership" of" enterprises;" (3)" small" scale" of" operation;" (4)" laborQintensive" production" with" outdated" technology;" and" (5)" unregulated" and" competitive" markets.”" (Portes" &" Halles," 2005," p." 404)." The" informal" sector"was"also"known"for"its"lack"of"capacity"to"accumulate"capital"and"employment"in" the" informal" economy" was" seen" as" underemployment." At" the" end" of" the" 1980s" the" concept"of"informal"sector"received"a"more"positive"connotation"from"Hernando"de"Soto." It"was"now"also"seen"as"an"uprising"of"classic"capitalism"and"market"forces"that"could" break"through"state"regulation"and"mercantilism"(Portes"&"Halles,"2005)"De"Soto"saw"a" fairly" simple" solution" for" the" poverty" existing" in" informal" sector." He" pointed" out" that" market" forces" could" change" poverty" into" capital" by" eliminating" the" state" and" unions," handing"out"microQcredit"to"small"entrepreneurs"and"give"land"ownership"rights"to"the" squatters"(Davis,"2006)."Alejandro"Portes"and"Kelly"Hoffman"add"to"this"assumption"of" De" Soto" that" there" is" a" distinction" between" informal) petty) bourgeoisie) and" informal)

proletariat." The" informal) petty) bourgeoisie) are" those" who" own" microenterprises" and"

employ" less" than" 5" workers" and" selfQemployed" professionals" and" technicians." The"

informal) proletariat" consists" of" those" who" work" in" the" previously" mentioned"

microenterprises," domestic" servants" and" selfQemployed" workers" (except" professionals" and" technicians)." The" ones" that" are" part" of" the" informal) petty) bourgeoisie) are" usually" laidQoff"skilled"workers"or"publicQsector"professionals"(Portes"and"Hoffman,"2003)."" During"the"1990s"the"concept"became"well"known"and"nowadays"it"is"still"a"widely"used" concept." In" this" period" globalization" also" took" off." This" caused" an" impulse" in" informal" labor." Companies" who" are" participating" in" this" global" market" hire" labor" at" the" lowest" possible" wages" in" any" part" of" the" world" (ILO," 2002)." Thus" the" question" that" needs" answering,"what"is"a"contemporary"notion"of"the"informal"economy?"

3.2.2(The(ILO(and(Chen(on(informal(economy""

The" ILO" (2002)" produces" a" useful" and" comprehensible" note" on" what" the" informal" economy," yet" it" is" a" very" broad" definition." With" this" definition," the" ILO" stepped" away" from" the" word" sector) and" start" using" the" word" economy.) With" this" transition," the" informal" economy" now" also" includes" informal" labor" in" both" the" formal" and" informal" sector" instead" of" merely" the" informal" sector" (Arnold" and" Bongiovi," 2012)." The" ILO"

(2002,"p."12)"characterize"the"informal"economy"as"follows:"‘’…"informal"employment"is" understood" to" include" all" remunerative" work" –" both" selfQemployment" and" wage" employment" –" that" is" not" recognized," regulated," or" protected" by" existing" legal" or" regulatory" frameworks" and" nonQremunerative" work" undertaken" in" an" incomeQ producing"enterprise.’’"Due"to"this,"wages"and"earnings"are"usually"lower"in"the"informal" economy." However," this" is" does" not" mean" that" it" is" impossible" to" earn" much" in" the" informal" economy" (Chen," 2007)." The" criminal" economy," the" formal" economy" and" the" care" economy" (unpaid" domestic" work)" all" are" not" part" of" the" informal" economy" (ILO," 2002)." A" detailed" framework" of" what" the" informal" economy" actually" entails," is" shown" below"(figure"5).""

Figure"5:")A)Conceptual)Framework:)The)Informal)Economy)(International"Labour"Organization,"2002)."""

The"ILO"(2002)"describes"three"key"features"of"the"informal"economy:"1)"the"informal" economy" is" growing," it" is" not" just" a" temporary" phenomenon" and" it" is" a" symptom" of" globalized" capitalism;" 2)" the" distinction" between" formal" and" informal" economy" is" not" black"and"white,"there"is"a"great"grey"area"between"these"two."Workers"move"between" the" two" or" work" simultaneously" at" these" two" sides" of" the" same" coin;" 3)" The" informal" economy"is"really"segmented,"there"are"a"lot"of"different"type"of"informal"jobs.""

Martha"Chen"refined"this"new"notion"of"informal"economy"in"2007."She"underlines"the" importance" of" the" informal" economy," stating" it" is" the" base" of" the" total" economy." She" recognizes"three"different"types"of"production"systems"that"link"the"informal"economy" to" the" formal" economy:" 1)" Through" individual" transactions." These" are" just" informal" enterprises"that"sell"products"to"formal"enterprises;"2)"Through"subQsectors."These"are" networks"of"informal"enterprises"that"are"prone"to"the"dominant"firm"in"that"network," this"firm"dictates"the"market;"3)"Through"value"chains."The"big"national"(usually"formal)" companies"subQcontract"work"to"is"usually"also"formal"and"the"smaller"companies"they" subcontract" work" to" are" usually" informal" (Chen," 2007)." Chen" also" notes" that" formal" companies" can" engage" the" informal" economy" through" their" labor" relations." These" workers"do"not"have"any"legal"recognition"or"protection.""

So"as"we"can"see"above,"the"notion"of"what"informal"economy"is"shifted."An"overview"of" this"shift"is"shown"in"figure"6"(see"below).""

The"old"view" The"new"view"

The" informal" economy" sector" is" the" traditional"economy"that"will"wither"away" and"die"with"modern,"industrial"growth.""

The"informal"economy"is"‘here"to"stay’"and" expanding"with"modern,"industrial"growth.""

It"is"only"marginally"productive" It" is" a" major" provider" of" employment," goods" and" services" for" lowerQincome" grouops." It" contributes" a" significant" share" of"GDP.""

It" exists" separately" from" the" formal"

economy."" It" is" linked" to" the" formal" economy" –" it"produces" for," trades" with," distributes" for" and" provides" services" to" the" formal" economy.""

It" represents" a" reserve" pool" of" surplus"

labour." Much" of" the" recent" rise" in" informal"employment"is"due"to"the"decline"in"formal" employment" or" to" the" informalisation" of"

previously" formal" employment"

relationships."" It" is" comprised" mostly" of" street" traders"

and"very"smallQscale"producers."" It" is" made" up" of" a" wide" range" of" informal"occupations" –" both" ‘resilient" old" forms’" such" as" casual" day" labour" in" construction" and" agriculture" as" well" as" ‘emerging" new" ones’" such" as" temporary" and" partQtime" jobs" plus" homework" for" high" tech" industries.""

Most" of" those" in" the" sector" are" entrepreneurs" who" run" illegal" and" unregistered"enterprises"in"order"to"avoid" regulation"and"taxation.""

It" is" made" up" of" nonQstandard" wage" workers"as"well"as"entrepreneurs"and"selfQ employed" persons" producing" legal" goods" and" services," albeit" through" irregular" or" unregulated" means." Most" entrepreneurs" and" the" selfQemployed" are" amenable" to," and" would" welcome," efforts" to" reduce" barriers" to" registration" and" related"

transaction" costs" and" to" increase" benefits" from" regulation;" and" most" informal" wage" workers"would"welcome"more"stable"jobs" and"workers’"rights.""

Work" in" the" informal" economy" is" comprised"mostly"of"survival"activities"and" thus"is"not"a"subject"for"economic"policy.""

Informal" enterprise," include" not" only" survival" activities" but" also" stable"

enterprises" and" dynamic" growing"

businesses," and" informal" employment" includes"not"only"selfQemployment"but"also" wage" employment." All" forms" of" informal" employment" are" affected" by" most" (if" not" all)"economic"policies."" Figure"6:)Old)and)new)views)of)the)informal)economy)(Chen,"2007,"p."5)."" 3.2.3(Davis(and(Breman(on(informal(economy( Let"us"now"turn"to"the"other"point"of"view."Arguing"against"the"upwards"mobility"that" the"informal"economy"in"the"view"of"Chen"and"the"ILO"can"facilitate"and"that"De"Soto" describes"are"Davis"(2006)"and"Breman"(2006)."Mike"Davis"(2006)"firmly"argues"against" the" upwards" mobility" that" sometimes" is" assigned" to" the" informal" economy." He" argues" especially"hard"against"De"Soto’s"glorification"of"the"microentrepreneurs"in"the"informal" economy." " He" points" out" that" the" informal" economy" is" most" of" all" an" economy" of" depletion,"caused"by"neoliberal"globalization."Work"is"often"broken"down"to"the"smallest" pieces"possible"in"a"production"chain,"multiple"persons"do"jobs"that"could"be"done"by"a" single" person." This" fragmentation" is" increasing" competition." Davis" states:" “Increasing" competition" within" the" informal" sector" depletes" social" capital" and" dissolve" selfQhelp" networks"and"solidarities"essential"to"the"survival"of"the"very"poor"…"‘’"(Davis,"2006,"p." 184).""

This" notion" that" the" informal" economy" is" not" the" holy" grail" of" upwards" mobility" resonates"Jan"Breman’s"view:"“It"is"a"Baron"von"Münchhausen"model"of"selfQupliftment.’’" (Breman,"2006,"p."146)."Breman"points"out"that"workers"in"the"informal"economy"often" experience"harsh"working"conditions."He"states"that"these"workers"are"a"reserve"pool"of" labour,"coinciding"with"what"Chen"(2007)"calls"the"‘old"view’.""This"ensures"that"workers" are"not"in"a"position"to"negotiate,"since"there"are"more"workers"than"there"is"work."He" also" points" out" that" it" is" often" women" and" children" who" are" suffering" the" most" in" the" informal" economy." The" inequality" caused" by" the" informal" economy" is" mostly" felt" at" home,"were"women"and"children"do"the"hardest"work."(Breman,"2006).""In"this"thesis,"it" will"be"shown"that"this"does"not"wholly"apply"to"Dharavi.""""

3.2.4(Roy(on(informality(in(planning(

This" same" informality" that" characterizes" the" economy" also" characterizes" the" housing" and"planning"in"Dharavi."As"said"before,"slums"emerge"as"a"result"of"high"urbanization" rates."The"government"or"market"failed"to"provide"adequate"cheap"housing"(Weinstein," 2014;" Sharma," 2000)." Hand" in" hand" with" this" lack" of" adequate" housing" goes" a" lack" of"

adequate"services."Thus,"this"lack"of"adequate"housing"and"services"pushes"these"slums" into"informality."UNQHABITAT"(2003,"p."6):"“The"urban"poor"are"trapped"in"an"informal" and"‘illegal’"world"in"slums"that"are"not"reflected"on"maps,"where"waste"is"not"collected," where"taxes"are"not"paid"and"where"public"services"are"not"provided."Officially,"they"do" not"exist.”"Settlements"are"often"illegal,"semiQlegal,"quasiQlegal."These"slums"exists"by"the" grace"of"an"informal"network"of"residents,"community"leaders,"government"officials"and" slumlords" (Weinstein," 2014)." Why" are" slums" often" illegal," semiQlegal" or" quasiQlegal?" Why"are"slums"and"its"inhabitants"not"recognized"and"registered?"

The" UNQHABITAT" (2003)" report" states" that" slums" are" a" product" of" the" failure" of" governments"to"plan"their"cities."They"note"that"policies"on"all"levels"–"global,"national" and"local"–"have"failed."Global"policies"are"weakening"states.1_{"National"policies"failed"to"} distribute"opportunities"and"support"sustainable"economic"growth."Local"policies"failed" to"cope"with"the"astonishing"rates"of"urbanization"(Davis,"2006)."" The"narrative"described"above"answer"the"question:"‘Why"are"slums"often"illegal,"semiQ legal"or"quasiQlegal?"Why"are"slums"and"its"inhabitants"not"recognized"and"registered?”" with"a"pointed"finger"towards"government"failure."Ananya"Roy"is"not"agreeing"with"this" narratives."She"distinguishes"three"dominant"narratives"on"urban"planning"in"the"Global" South:" 1)" The" incapability" of" governments" to" plan" its" cities;" 2)" The" structural" underestimation"of"the"needs"of"the"cities"or"3)"The"failure"of"private"developers"to"take" the"needs"of"the"urban"poor"into"account"(Roy,"2009).""

Instead" of" these" narratives" that" policies" and" governments" failed," Roy" (2009)" offers" a" different" narrative" in" her" article" “Why" India" cannot" Plan" its" Cities:" Informality," Insurgence" and" the" Idiom" of" Urbanization.”" She" argues" that" informality" is" part" of" the" idiom" of" urbanization" in" India." She" gives" the" following" definition" for" informality:" “by" informality"I"mean"a"state"of"deregulation,"one"where"the"ownership,"use,"and"purpose" of"land"cannot"be"fixed"and"mapped"according"to"any"prescribed"set"of"regulations"or" the"law.”"(Roy,"2009,"p."80)."This"informality"is"actualized"in"two"ways."First,"informality" is"the"diffusion"between"what"is"legal"and"illegal."This"diffusion"is"where"the"state"uses" its" power" and" sometimes" violence." The" state" can" also" use" this" diffusion" in" its" own" advantage."The"other"actualization"of"informality"is"the"unmapping"of"cities."This"is"the" deregulation"of"areas,"which"gives"the"state"high"flexibility"to"develop"a"piece"of"land"the" way"it"wants"to."This"territorialized)flexibility)can"also"work"in"the"state’s"disadvantage." It"gives"room"for"all"sorts"of"actors"to"put"a"claim"on"a"piece"of"land,"leading"to"all"sorts"of" arguments."In"this"thesis,"it"will"be"argued"that"Ananya"Roy’s"argument"is"also"true"for" the"case"of"Dharavi."" !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 1_{!For"example"the"Structural"Adjustment"Program"by"the"IMF"which"devaluated,"privatized,"removed"} import"controls"and"food"subsidies"and"downsized"the"public"sector"while"simultaneously"cutting" subsidies"on"small"rural"entrepreneurs,"forcing"them"to"join"the"global"agribusiness"dominated"by"the" First"World."The"SAP’s"transferred"power"from"the"Third"World"nations"to"Bretton"Woods"institutions,"to" put"it"bluntly"(Davis,"2006)."Bretton"Woods"institutions"are"institutions"that"were"set"up"by"the"United" Nations"conference"about"rebuilding"the"international"economic"system"after"World"War"II."The"IMF"and" the"precursor"of"the"World"Bank"were"set"up"at"this"conference"(Adams,"2009).""!

4.(Dharavi(

4.1(The(economy(in(Dharavi(

At"first,"Dharavi"was"a"Koliwada,"an"area"where"the"fishermen’s"tribe"of"the"Koli’s)lives." There"lived"about"1000"people"in"this"Koliwada.)Then,"in"colonial"times"a"bubonic"plague" swept"through"Bombay,"especially"the"segregated"part"where"the"native"Indians"lived." To" prevent" the" plague" from" spreading" further," polluting" industries" such" as" tanneries" were"banned"to"the"outskirts"of"the"city,"for"example"the"Koliwada"that"is"now"the"place" of"Dharavi."The"first"tannery"was"set"up"in"1887."Muslim"tanners"from"Tamil"followed" and" set" up" their" tanneries" in" 1890" (Nijman," 2009)." Tanners" from" Tirunelvelli" and" Azamgarh" in" Uttar" Pradesh" followed." There" was" a" big" abattoir" located" conveniently" nearby" in" Bandra," creating" an" extra" pull" factor" for" tanners." However," in" 1971" this" abattoir"was"banned"from"Dharavi"and"in"the"1980s"so"were"the"big"tanneries."The"small" ones"are"still"in"Dharavi"(Sharma,"2000)."Because"the"big"tanneries"were"banned"from" Dharavi," the" leather" industry" rest" nowadays" on" the" manufacturing" of" leather" goods" instead" of" tanning" and" skinning." These" are" for" example" belts," wallets," shoes" and" bags" (Paul"&"Patel,"2010)."The"other"polluting"industry"that"was"banned"from"the"city"center" was" the" pottery" industry." The" first" potters" to" settle" were" the" Kumbars) from" Gujarat" (Nijman," 2009)." During" the" period" when" liquor" was" prohibited" –" 1948" untill" 1950" –" there"was"also"a"flourishing"liquor"industry"in"Dharavi."Migrants"from"Kerala"and"Tamil" Nadu" dominated," in" 1951" they" made" up" 10%" of" the" population" of" Bombay" (SaglioQ Yatzimirsky,"2013).""

"

The"population"of"Bombay"grew"a"lot"in"the"1940s"–"from"1.5"to"2.3"million."One"reason" for" this" was" the" push" from" the" rural" areas" where" people" could" no" longer" make" ends" meet" and" the" pull" from" Bombay" where" all" the" opportunities" for" a" better" life" lay." The" other" reason" was" the" partition." Pakistan" and" India" had" just" split" and" families" were" displaced"and"impoverished."They"were"in"need"for"a"job."In"1944,"16.500"people"lived" in" Dharavi" and" tanning" was" the" biggest" industry." New" immigrants" were" attracted" through" casteQnetworks" (SaglioQYatzimirsky," 2013)." This" is" why" certain" villages" are" overrepresented" in" Dharavi" (Sharma," 2000)." Because" of" the" constant" influx" of" immigrants," manpower" was" cheap" and" flexible." Most" production" took" place" in" small" units."Other"small"units"had"other"places"in"the"leather"production"chains"also"emerged" –"i.e."recycling"activities"and"supplies"sale."All"these"small"units"and"the"cheap"manpower" made" the" leather" industry" really" flexible" and" capable" in" making" adaptations" to" fluctuating" demands." These" small" units" were" informal" of" character" and" the" flexibility" they" offered" was" something" the" formal" sector" could" not" easily" offer." This" of" course," caused" an" expansion" of" the" informal" leather" sector." This" development" did" not" stood" alone,"it"attracted"all"kinds"of"other"jobs,"such"as"merchants,"contractors"and"artisans." Dharavi" developed" from" a" dirty" swampy" town" on" the" periphery" of" Bombay" to" an" economic"hub"in"the"center"(SaglioQYatzimirsky,"2013).""

"

During"the"1980s"a"lot"of"textile"mills"closed"in"Bombay."This"pushed"a"lot"of"workers"in" the" informal" economy," which" accounted" for" 65%" of" the" total" economy" of" Bombay" in" 1991." Besides" this" push," a" lot" of" immigration" from" the" rural" areas" occurred." Next" to" migration" based" on" casteQnetworks," people" with" no" acquaintances" moved" to" Dharavi" because" of" the" opportunities." The" economic" diversification" pulled" a" lot" of" other" immigrants"into"Dharavi."So"nowadays,"it"is"not"just"the"leather"and"pottery"industries,"

but" also" garments," food," recycling," surgical" thread," jewelry," kites" and" printing" (SaglioQ Yatzimirsky,"2013"and"Paul"&"Patel,"2010)"(see"also"figures"8"through"12).""

"

Dharavi" is" bursting" with" economic" activity" (Sharma," 2000;" SaglioQYatzimirsky," 2013;" Nijman,"2009;"Weinstein,"2014;"Paul"&"Patel,"2010;"Patel"&"Arputham;"2007)."Sharma" (2000," p." 79)" says" the" following" about" the" abundant" economic" activity" (see" figure" 8" through"12)":"" " " " " " " " " " " " There"is"a"lack"of"up"to"date"and"eloborate"data"on"Dharavi."In"1986"a"survey"was"done" by"the"National"Slum"Dwellers"Foundation"(NSDF)."They"counted"1100"producing"units" (Paul"&"Patel,"2010)."In"2008"the"Center"for"Environmental"Planning"and"Technology," the" KRVIA" and" Maharashtra" Social" Housing" and" Action" League" (Mashal)" completed" a" baseline"socioeconomic"survey"(BSES)"for"the"Dharavi"Redevelopment"Plan"(DRP)"(SDI," 2009)."They"counted"a"total"of"4902"producing"units"(see"figure"7).""" " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " Figure"7:)Producing)units)in)Dharavi,)percentages.)) )

Most" businesses" are" family" run" businesses" from" home." All" jobs" are" linked" to" castes" (Sharma,"2000;"Nijman,"2009;"SaglioQYatzimirsky,"2013)"(see"intermezzo)."For"example" the" Valmikis," a" community" of" untouchables," are" mostly" sweepers." Or" the" Kolis," the" original"inhabitants"of"Dharavi."They"used"to"be"fishermen,"but"in"the"1960s"the"Mahim" Creek"got"so"polluted"that"the"fish"smelled"of"kerosene"and"could"not"be"sold"anymore." textile"units;"21,69" pottery"units;" 19,01" leather" units;"11,57" recycling"units;" 9,75" embroidey" "stitching," 10.15" other"small" units;"4,97" printing"presses;" 1,02" bakeries;"0,05" other"food" units;"3,10" restaurants;"2,26" unspecipied;" 16,43" ‘’If"you"want"to"eat"the"best"gulab"jamuns"in"town,"buy"the"best" chiki,"acquire"an"export"quality"leather"handbag,"order"World" Health"Organization"(WHO)"certified"sutures"for"surgery,"see"the" latest"design"in"readyQmade"garments"being"manufactured"for" export,"get"a"new"suitcase"or"an"old"one"repaired,"taste"food"from" the"north"and"the"south,"see"traditional"south"Indian"gold" jewelleryQthere"are"few"better"places"in"all"of"Mumbai"than" Dharavi.’’""

Nowadays," the" Kolis" brew" alcohol." And" the" Thevars," a" Tamil" community" from" Ramnathpuram." They" belong" to" the" Other" Backward" Castes" and" are" mostly" in" white" collar"jobs"(Sharma,"2000)."" " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " Intermezzo:)the)caste)system) The"Hindu"society"is"divided"in"four"classes"(or"varnas)."At"the"top"are"the" Brahmans,"the"priests,"next"come"the"Kshatriyas,)the"warriors,"then"the" vaishyas,"the"merchants"and"at"last"the"shudras,)the"servants."The"untouchables" are"outside"of"this"system."They"are"excluded."All"these"varnas"are"divided"in" different"jatis,)or"castes."Traditionally,"all"jobs"that"involved"handling"dead" animals"were"jobs"of"the"untouchables."It"was"believed"that"untouchables"could" spread"diseases"they"got"from"the"dead"animals,"hence"the"term"untouchable." So"for"example,"the"caste"of"the"untouchables"that"work"with"leather"is"divided" in"other"several"casts;"the"Mahar,)the"Mang,)the"Dhor)and"the"Chambhar.)"They" all"take"up"different"spots"in"the"leather"production"chain."The"Mahar)and"Mang) are"the"ones"that"remove"the"carcasses"and"remove"the"skin."Because"of"the" direct"contact"they"have"with"a"dead"animal,"they"are"the"lowest"in"the" hierarchy."Next"come"the"Dhor"who"are"the"tanners"and"the"curriers."At"the"top" are"the"Chambhar,)who"make"the"leather"products."Of"course,"this"system"is"not" everywhere"the"same"and"differs"from"place"to"place."One"can"see"that"the"caste" system"is"very"complex"and"ramified."" In"1989,"the"government"installed"the"Scheduled"Caste"and"the"Scheduled"Tribe" Act."This"has"promoted"the"upward"mobility"of"several"casts"by"setting"quotas" for"them"by"in"education,"public"sector"jobs"and"political"representation."In" 1990,"the"Other"Backward"Classes"(OBC’s)"were"added"to"these"quotas."This" had"a"significant"impact"on"the"communities"living"in"Dharavi"(SaglioQ Yatzimirsky,"2013)."" Nowadays"in"urban"areas,"the"meaning"of"caste"has"shifted"somewhat."Where"in" rural"areas"people"from"lower"castes"do"not"interact"with"people"from"higher" castes,"in"urban"areas"these"separation"is"a"little"bit"less"strict"(Boo,"2012)."Also," social"upwards"mobility"is"possible"in"urban"regions."For"example,"people"who" are"originally"from"lower"castes"are"working"in"the"leather"industry"in"Dharavi." However,"people"from"different"castes"are"not"marrying"each"other"(SaglioQ Yatzimirsky,"2013).""" To"conclude:"“The"channels"of"upward"social"mobility,"denied"to"untouchables"a" few"decades"ago,"have"opened"up"in"Dharavi"(SaglioQYatzimirsky,"2013,"p."212Q 213)."" " !

In"2007,"the"estimated"turnover"per"year"is"somewhere"around"650"million"US"dollars" (BBC," 2007)." The" economy" of" Dharavi" is" of" big" importance" for" Mumbai." There" is" no" specific" data" on" the" contribution" (Nijman," 2009;" SaglioQYatzimirsky," 2013;" Sharma," 2000)."There"are"lots"of"success"stories"from"Dharavi"entrepreneurs"who"came"to"slum" as"workers"paid"by"the"day"or"by"piece"and"somehow"managed"to"develop"themselves" and"start"their"own"businesses."There"is"for"example"the"story"of"mr."Kadam,"who"has"a" thriving"business"in"Dharavi"and"exported"25"000"belts"to"WalQMart"in"the"USA"in"2006" (The"economist,"2007)."Or"for"example"mr."Damodar"Ramachandra"Kamble,"owner"of"a" shoe"workshop"where"the"upper"part"of"a"shoe"is"made."The"sole"is"added"in"another" workshop"and"then"the"shoes"are"exported"to"Australia"and"Japan."And"mr."Baqua,"who" learned" to" make" sutures" from" a" friend" and" started" his" own" factory." He" now" sells" to" Johnson" and" Johnson." Or" mr." Mustaqeem," who" sells" his" readyQmade" garments" to" retailers" in" the" USA" where" they" are" resold" to" WalQMart" and" Kmart." And" the" Punjabi)

Ghasitaram)Halwai)Karachiwala"factory,"where"sweets"are"made"that"are"sold"all"over"

Mumbai"and"where"200"people"work"(Sharma,"2000)."There"are"a"lot"of"stories"like"this," but"there"are"no"exact"numbers"on"export."

"

This"however"does"not"mean"that"Dharavi"is"a"place"where"everybody"gets"rich"after"a" period" of" time." Not" everybody" in" Dharavi" has" solid" economic" opportunities." For" some" people,"Dharavi"turned"out"really"well"and"they"have"found"their"economic"niche."There" is"however"a"large"group"of"people"who"are"working"for"wages"paid"per"day"or"per"piece" and"are"struggling"to"get"by""(interview"with"Nijman,"2014)."" " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " Figure"8:"Leather)workers)in)Dharavi)(Paul"&"Patel,"2010)." " " " " "

" " " " " " "" " " " " " " " " Figure"9:"Garment)workers)in)Dharavi"(Paul"&"Patel,"2010)."" " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " Figure"10:"Recycling)in)Dharavi"(Paul"&"Patel,"2010)."" " "

" " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " Figure"11:"Sutures)company)in)Dharavi)(Paul"&"Patel,"2010).)) " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " Figure"12:"Potter)in)Dharavi)(Paul"&"Patel,"2010).""