Stress, coping strategies, perceived personal control and well-being at work of teachers

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Stress, coping strategies, perceived personal

control and well-being at work of teachers

V Marais-Opperman

orcid.org / 0000-0003-3465-0899

Thesis accepted for the degree Doctor of Philosophy in

Psychology at the North-West University

Promoter: Prof C van Eeden

Co-promoter: Prof S Rothmann

Graduation: May 2020

Student number: 12183687

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i Acknowledgements

I would like to express my utmost gratitude towards the following people and entities:  My Heavenly Father, for blessing me with the courage, abilities and determination to

complete this study,

 Prof. Chrizanne van Eeden, my supervisor and mentor. Without her encouragement, patience, and hard work this thesis would not have been possible. You are an inspiration and blessing to my life,

 My mother, for her love, faith and unconditional support in every venture I have ever undertaken.

 My loving husband and children, Hendrik, Hendri and Vasti for your continuous support, love, motivation and patience,

 My co-promoter, Prof. S. Rothmann, for his statistical expertise and guidance,

 Mr F. Van Eeden, for all the assistance in the data capturing and technical editing of my thesis, your contribution is highly appreciated,

 Elzané, for many hours of listening, laughing and words of motivation,

 To my dear friend Engela, for your help with data capturing, your interest and encouragement,

 Martie Esterhuizen, manager of information services at the NWU library (Vaal campus), for your unconditional support and help with the research,

 Mrs Linda Scott, for the language editing on such short notice,

 The research participants, for making the sacrifice to complete my questionnaires with enthusiasm,

 The Department of Education, the appropriate parties at the Sedibeng East District, as well as the participating schools, for their assistance, participation, and support.

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ii Declaration

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iii Permission of Supervisor

I, Chrizanne van Eeden, hereby give permission to Vasti Marais-Opperman to submit this document as a thesis for the qualification PhD in Psychology.

Furthermore, I confirm that this thesis has been written in the article format that is in line with the 2019 General Academic Rules (5.3.1.1) of the North-West University. In line with Academic Rules 5.3.2 and 5.10.5, research articles for future publication are included in this thesis.

Promoter: Prof. Chrizanne van Eeden October 2019

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iv Declaration by Language Editor

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v Summary

Teaching is a sophisticated profession of passion that extends beyond the academics of teacher and learner. The work of a teacher is complex and challenging as there is no limit to the ever-changing roles and responsibilities expected from a teacher. South African teachers are expected to manage various challenges and cope effectively with stressors such as poor learner discipline, administrative demands due to continuous changes made to curriculum and unrealistic learner performance expectations on teachers by the Educational Department.

The many uncertainties experienced, an inability to effectively cope with various demands forced upon teachers and the adapting to changes and challenges appear to contribute to undesirable, sometimes detrimental consequences on teaching and learning. An intensive review of relevant literature indicates that the teaching profession is an extremely stressful occupation. Exposure to these stressful conditions has psychological consequences for some teachers.

This study included 209 teachers from eight schools (primary, secondary and special education schools), under jurisdiction of the Gauteng Department of Education in the Vereeniging, Sedibeng East District in the Gauteng province. The data were obtained in two measurement sessions from the same group of participants (longitudinal) referred to as Time 1 and Time 2.

The study aimed to investigate whether teacher stress could be effectively managed through or positively influenced by adaptive coping strategies and a sense of personal control and whether these factors could enhance their psychosocial well-being at work. In relation to that, the study’s aims included the following objectives: (a) study the existing research findings in literature pertaining to the stated variables, (b) determine by means of structural equation modelling the statistical relationships between the stated variables at two occasions, four months apart, (c) determine direct and indirect effects between the variables, (d) identify latent profile (LPA) groups in participants for perceived stress and perceived personal control, (e) determine whether profile memberships could be predicted by and correlate with participants’ performance on the other variables used in the study, (f) determine whether, of the variables mentioned, could predict the intention to leave the profession and (g) investigate if a four months’ time interval had an effect on participants’ scores on the variables measured.

The comprehensive, critical literature review conceptualised the following concepts, their antecedents, consequences and influential relationships: perceived stress, coping and

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coping strategies, perceived personal control, flourishing at work, psychosocial well-being and intention to leave.

The findings of the study were amongst others, that it identified four latent stress profiles for teachers, namely stress resisters, manage stress, overloaded and highly stressed. Those identified as stress resisters and manage stress scored significantly lower on two coping strategies, namely denial and disengagement, and self-blame, than those who showed stress-overloaded and highly stressed profiles. Results further indicated two latent profiles of personal control, labelled as doubtful personal control and confident personal control. Mental health of teachers was predicted by low negative stress and active coping. Low mental health at work and high negative stress predicted the intention to leave the teaching profession. It appears that teachers who experience positive stress are more mentally healthy, experiencing higher emotional well-being, psychological well-being and social well-being at work over time.

Key terms: coping and coping strategies, flourishing at work, intention to leave, perceived personal control, psychosocial well-being, stress.

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vii Table of Contents

Acknowledgements ... i

Declaration ... ii

Permission of Supervisor ... iii

Declaration by Language Editor ... iv

Summary ... v

Table of Contents ... vii

Chapter 1 ... 1

Literature and methodological framework of the study ... 1

Introduction ... 2

Problem Statement and Research Rationale ... 2

Stress and Teachers’ Experiences thereof... 4

Stress ... 4

Figure 1. Transactional model of stress and coping adapted from Lazarus and Folkman (1984) ... 6

Teachers’ stress ... 7

Coping and Coping Strategies ... 8

Figure 2. The coping process adapted from Holahan (1996, p.27) ... 10

Coping strategies ... 11

Table 1 ... 13

Functional and dysfunctional coping strategies adapted from Zeidner and Endler (cited in Carr, 2011, p.216)... 13

A Sense of Perceived Control ... 14

Psychosocial Well-being ... 19

Intention to Leave the Teaching Profession... 21

Research Question and Objectives ... 22

Research Methodology ... 23

Literature study ... 23

Empirical study ... 23

Research design ... 23

Characteristics of the research design components ... 24

Participants in and procedure of the study ... 25

Data collection ... 26

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Ethical Principles for the Study ... 30

Proposed Structure of the Thesis ... 31

References ... 32

Chapter 2 ... 47

Manuscript 1 ... 47

Perceived Stress and Coping of Teachers: A Latent Profile Analysis ... 47

Abstract ... 48

The Stress Concept ... 49

Teachers’ perceived stress ... 50

Coping and Coping Strategies ... 51

Coping with educator stress ... 52

Aims of this Study ... 53

Method ... 53

Participants and procedures ... 54

Ethical considerations ... 55

Data analysis ... 55

Results ... 56

Latent profile analysis ... 56

Table 1 ... 57

Comparison of Different LPA Models ... 57

Figure 1. Latent stress profiles ... 58

Latent profiles and coping strategies ... 59

Table 2 ... 60

Equality Tests of Means Across Profiles Using Posterior Probability-Based Multiple Imputations with Three Degrees of Freedom for the Overall Test and One Degree of Freedom for the Pairwise Tests ... 60

Figure 2. Stress profiles and coping strategies ... 61

Discussion ... 62

Limitations and Recommended Future Research ... 65

Conclusion ... 65

References ... 66

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Manuscript 2 ... 74

Teachers’ Perceived Stress, Coping Strategies, Mental Health at Work and the Intention to Leave the Profession ... 74

Abstract ... 75

Stress ... 76

Teachers’ perceived stress ... 76

Coping Strategies ... 77

Mental Health and Well-being ... 79

Intention to Leave ... 80

Method ... 82

Participants in and procedures of the study ... 82

Ethical Considerations ... 85

Results ... 85

Testing the measurement model ... 85

Table 1 ... 86

Fit Statistics of Competing Measurement Models ... 86

Testing the structural model... 87

Table 2 ... 88

Estimated Reliability Coefficients and Correlation for the Latent Variables (N=209) ... 88

Table 3 ... 89

Standardized Path Coefficients ... 89

Indirect effects ... 89

Table 4 ... 90

Indirect Effects of Stress on Intention to Leave via Mental Health ... 90

Discussion ... 90

Limitations and Recommended Future Research ... 94

Conclusion ... 95

References ... 96

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Manuscript 3 ... 107

Teachers’ perceived stress, mental health, perceived personal control: the effects thereof on flourishing at work ... 107

Abstract ... 108

Perceived Stress ... 109

Mental Health... 110

Flourishing at Work ... 112

Perceived Personal Control ... 113

Method ... 115

Participants and procedures ... 115

Ethical considerations ... 118

Results ... 120

Results of phase 1 ... 120

Testing the measurement model ... 120

Table 1 ... 121

Descriptive Statistics, Reliabilities and Correlations ... 121

Table 2 ... 122

Standardised Path Coefficients ... 122

Table 3 ... 124

Comparison of Different Latent Profiles ... 124

Figure 1. Latent perceived personal control profiles ... 125

Profile 1: Doubtful personal control: ... 125

Profile 2: Confident personal control:... 125

Measurement invariance testing ... 126

Table 4 ... 126

Measurement Invariance of Profiles ... 126

Latent profiles and stress, mental health and flourishing at work ... 126

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Equality Tests of Means Across Profiles Using Posterior Probability-Based Multiple Imputations with Three Degrees of Freedom for the Overall Test and One Degree of

Freedom for the Pairwise Tests ... 127

Table 6 ... 128

Differences between the Regression Coefficients... 128

Table 7 ... 129

Confidence Intervals of Standardised Indirect Effects ... 129

Discussion ... 129

Limitations of and Recommendations from the Research ... 133

Conclusion ... 134

References ... 135

Chapter 5 ... 144

Research conclusions, limitations and recommendations ... 144

Introduction ... 145

Conclusions from the Literature Study ... 145

Conclusions from the Empirical Research ... 147

Perceived stress and coping of teachers: a latent profile analysis (Manuscript 1). ... 148

Teachers’ perceived stress, coping strategies, mental health at work and intention to leave the profession (Manuscript 2). ... 150

Teachers’ perceived stress, mental health, perceived personal control: the effects thereof on flourishing at work (Manuscript 3). ... 151

Limitations of and Related Recommendations from the Study ... 153

Contributions of the Study ... 154

Theoretical contributions ... 154

Practical contributions ... 155

Conclusion ... 156

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Chapter 1 Literature and methodological framework of the study

Key words: coping, coping strategies, intention to leave, perceived personal control, psycho-social well-being, stress

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2 Introduction

Teachers enter their profession with great optimism and excitement, having expectations for their chosen career. Unfortunately, their once clear vision for the future and determination towards their mission soon changes when confronted with seemingly continuous stressors in the educational environment. Various factors contributing to the stress that teachers experience may include overcrowding of classrooms due to a lack of qualified and experienced teachers, student misbehaviour, low self-motivation among learners and time constraints. These stressors can either motivate the teacher or result in discouragement, negativity, a sense of hopelessness or even burnout (Jackson, 2004). This study was conducted in the field of education, where teacher stress appears to be high and have a significant effect on adjustment, adaption to change and, as such, influences teachers’ psychosocial well-being and the quality of their work. It is generally assumed in this research, that a sense of perceived personal control and adaptive coping skills of teachers may decrease their stress experience and foster their psychosocial well-being.

This chapter serves as the theoretical and conceptual background of the study. The constructs investigated in this research and their theoretical frameworks are described, as well as the research question, aims and methodology used. Since the literature background of the research is given in this chapter, some duplication thereof may occur in other parts of the thesis. The problem statement pertaining to teacher stress that motivated this study is discussed below.

Problem Statement and Research Rationale

Rothmann (2015) states that educators are regarded as change agents in the conceptual age and thus valuable human capital for the South African educational society. Every effort should thus be made for them to feel and function well in the classroom.

However, the unstable nature of the local teaching profession demands from teachers to cope effectively and adequately with ongoing changes, demands and challenges, causing them to experience continuous pressure and stress (Jackson & Rothmann, 2005). According to Chan (2006), uncertainties experienced, an inability to effectively cope and adapt to changes and challenges, together with ongoing transformation and transition within the South African education system, can contribute to unproductive outcomes and may have detrimental consequences on teaching and learning and for teachers themselves. The seriousness of the situation was indicated in the local press (Marais, 2016) where it was

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reported that 5 000 South African teachers resigned in 2015 and that close to 30 000 teachers left the profession since 2011. In 2014, about 14 000 teachers resigned, of which nearly 4 600 teachers resigned from teaching in November 2014 (Nkosi, 2015). Approximately 410 000 South African teachers are employed by the Department of Basic Education, placed across nine provinces that are responsible for educating more than 12.9 million learners (Mhlanga & Maarten, 2018). Poor discipline, administrative demands due to the new curriculum, negative management and the pressure on teachers by the Department of Basic Education were reported as the causes of unbearable teacher stress.

The effects of such work-related stress on teachers is becoming a great concern and a matter that seriously needs to be addressed (Kokkinos, 2007; Monyatsi, Kamper, & Steyn, 2006; Van Dick & Wagner, 2001; Willers, 2009; Yong & Yue, 2007). Yet, Folkman and Moskowitz (2004) state that in such a difficult situation, the question arises: why do some teachers apparently cope better with demanding conditions or stressful situations than others? Research done by Mearns and Cain (2003) found that not all teachers experience the stressors or perceive stressful situations usually associated with chronic stress, to such an extent that they feel powerless or inadequate. Studies indicate that these teachers are able to manage their stressful environment through utilising resources (Skinner & Zimmer-Gembeck, 2011) and applying adaptive coping strategies (Valle, Huebner, & Saldo, 2006). In this regard, Skinner et al. (2011) argue that a person’s sense of perceived control is a powerful resource when coping with stressful experiences. The authors state that research on perceived control reported the role thereof in supporting salutary mastery-orientated coping in most stressful life events, while indicating the vulnerabilities induced by a sense of helplessness and loss of control, as well as the effects of these feelings in undermining how people deal with challenges and difficulties. An impetus for the study came from Compas (2009, p. 96) who succinctly state,

The controllability of stress appears to be information that may be processed at an automatic and a conscious level and serves to shape and organise the ways that individuals mobilise their responses. However, change in the nature of perceptions of control and the ways in which the objective and perceived controllability shape coping responses across development is not known and is an important agenda for future research.

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This study aimed to investigate whether teacher stress could be effectively managed through or positively influenced by a sense of perceived control and by adaptive coping strategies and whether these factors could enhance their psychosocial well-being. The specific research question was, therefore, proposed as: what are the relationships between stress in the teaching context, coping strategies, a sense of perceived control, psychosocial well-being and flourishing at work, will these relationships change over a given time period and would these variables predict the intention of teachers to leave the profession? This research question will be further clarified in a following section by means of the aims of the research.

Stress and Teachers’ Experiences thereof

Stress and the perceptions thereof by teachers as part of their work context, will be described below.

Stress

Stress is a part of our daily lives that can be considered a modern-day societal dilemma due to its often-debilitating nature and this seems particularly true in the teaching profession (Chaaban & Du, 2017). Stress is an occurrence to be recognised and addressed in various professions and the teaching profession is no exception (Olivier & Venter, 2003). Various conceptualisations of stress exist in line with the theoretical approaches from which they stem. The General Adaptation Syndrome was Selye’s (1956) seminal model, which defined stress from a bio-homeostatic approach. The theory of Lazarus and Folkman (1984), however, indicates that stress is a wholly psychological rather than a physiological phenomenon in which psychological stressors have a greater impact on functioning. Recent views on stress either combine the bio-psychosocial aspects of experiencing stress or focus more on the psychological effects thereof, as the following conceptualisations will show.

According to Kassin, Fein, and Markus (2014), stress is an unpleasant state of arousal that arises when one perceives that the demands of a situation threaten the ability to cope with it effectively. This stimulus, generally, is called a stressor, which could be any factor that causes stress. Moss (2008) views stress as any objective condition or change in the work environment that is perceived as potentially harmful, threatening, challenging or frustrating, or any set of circumstances related to work that requires change in the individual’s ongoing life pattern. On the other hand, Chung (2001) argues that stress is a mental and physical strain that people experience when they pursue a goal, while Greenberg and Baron (2003) state that

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stress is the pattern of emotional states, cognitions and physiological reactions occurring in response to stressors.

Stress thus originates from various sources, has an impact on both the physical and mental states of the individual (Dougall & Baum, 2012) and occurs when the individual perceives a situation to be threatening or challenging, evoking a feeling of inability to meet demands or achieve goals (Steyn & Kamper, 2006). Moorhead and Griffin (2004) further view stress as being a person’s adaptive response to a stimulus that places excessive psychological or physical demands on the individual and state that the way in which an individual interprets, reacts to and manages stressors (perceived as positive or negative), can have an influence on their emotional, physical and/or mental state (also see Aldwin, 2011; Frazier, 2002; Frazier, Steward, & Mortensen, 2004; Torres & Pritchard, 2006).

The well-known and extensively researched transactional model of stress and coping of Lazarus and Folkman (1984, see Figure1), indicates individual differences in appraisals of stress, where these appraisals arise when the environmental demands exceed the individuals coping resources, especially in situations that are personally significant, such as the teaching context (Aldwin, 2011; Folkman, 2011; Lazarus & Folkman, 1984; Skinner & Zimmer-Gembeck, 2011). The transactional model can be defined as a dynamic stress process, with the focus on interpretation of stressors rather than on the stressful environment (Lazarus & Folkman, 1984; Smith & Baum, 2003). The appraisals of stress determine whether the environmental circumstances are stressful and are likely to be influenced by person-based factors in such a way that it will influence how an individual chooses to cope with the stressor (Pierre, 2013). Consequently, two types of appraisal are considered, namely primary and secondary appraisals (Endler & Parker, 2000; Folkman, Lazarus, Gruen, & DeLongis, 1986), in which primary appraisal concerns immediate action to negative experiences, while secondary appraisal relates to coping responses (Folkman et al., 1986; Lazarus & Folkman, 1984; Smith & Baum, 2003). Torres and Pritchard (2006) explain that the appraisal of stressful circumstances can affect the perception of having control over the stressor, which plays an integral role in effectively managing stress. The transactional model is depicted in Figure 1.

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Figure 1. Transactional model of stress and coping adapted from Lazarus and Folkman

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As indicated by the transactional model, stress could be either disruptive or adaptive. As far as the latter is concerned, Sapolsky (1996) states that the body’s stress response was designed to improve physical and mental functioning to meet life’s demands for the purpose of survival, while Lazarus (1974) notes that stress is an inevitable aspect of life that is crucial in the development of strengths needed by individuals to survive and flourish. Crum and Lyddy (2014) indicate how the adaptive nature of stress has been disregarded in recent times in favour of stress-is-debilitating belief systems or mindsets. The authors state that the effects of stress could be resourceful rather than toxic and are not pre-determined but vary, based on a complex set of factors. Therefore, stress could adaptively lead to bio-psychosocial thriving and/or stress-related growth. According to Crum and Lyddy (2014), the stress-is-debilitating mindset contrasts with a stress-is-enhancing mind-set that could lead to enhanced health, coping, performance and well-being. For the purpose of this research, one wonders whether a sense of personal control over the stress experienced and the stress outcomes could be part of such a stress-is-enhancing mindset.

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7 Teachers’ stress

The reality of the teaching context is that the demands on South African education and schools increase and evidently, so does the incidence of stress within the teaching profession. The question arises as to whether adequate resources and supportive measures are in place to ensure prevention and effective management of teacher stress, resulting from the significant transitions undergone in the South African educational system over the past two decades (Naidoo, Botha, & Bisschoff, 2013). Paulse (2005) emphasises that the South African education system has undergone fundamental changes due to political changes in the country and teachers have to adapt to the new reality. Teachers, thus, increasingly report that their work environment is stressful and that they are struggling to cope with daily job demands and challenges. Compared to research conducted on teacher stress in other countries, South African studies indicate that teachers are exposed to a variety of stressors and that they experience higher levels of stress than experienced in other occupations and teachers in other countries (Chang, 2009; Grenville-Cleave & Boniwell, 2012; Kokkinos, 2007; Kyriacou, 2001; Steyn & Kamper, 2006; Van Dick & Wagner, 2011). South African teachers are exposed to a wide variety of multi-dimensional stressors within the work environment, such as inadequate working conditions, role conflict and ambiguity, pupil misbehaviour, time pressures, the threat of burnout, work pressure, little involvement in decision making, stereotypes and discrimination, as well as inadequate remunerations (Jackson, Rothmann, & Van der Vijver, 2006). Kyriacou (2001) states that environmental stressors that teachers experience on a daily basis include working with unmotivated learners, poor discipline, time constraints, unfavourable working environment and heavy workload, while Grenville-Cleave and Boniwell (2012) identify poor socio-economic status, increasingly diverse learners, adverse working conditions and a lack of emotional and social support, as challenges that teachers confront. Teacher stress is a combination of negative emotions, such as anxiety, tension, anger and frustration in a stressful environment that may influence detrimentally their optimal functioning at both psychological and physical levels. This is alarming and is triggering a greater interest among researchers to examine this study field closely, while also giving rise to an increased recognition of the relationship between mental and physical health and work-related stress (Steyn & Kamper, 2006; Williams & Gersch, 2004). Psychological effects of teachers’ response to chronic stress are among other factors, reduced psychological well-being (Bach, 2000) and burnout (Jackson & Rothmann, 2005; Mearns & Cain, 2003).

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Stress appears to be a fundamental aspect of adjustment and adaptation to environmental change and challenge and, as such, it plays a critical role in human behaviour (Dougall & Baum, 2012). However, Chang (2009), Kyriacou (2001) and Van Wyk (1998) find that research done worldwide indicates that teachers' stress is becoming endemic, which could have serious implications for the physical and mental health of teachers. Illustrating this, studies by Smith (2009) and Van Wyk (1998) found that teachers in South Africa have more medical insurance claims than persons in other professions, have a four-year shorter life expectancy than the national average and often blame stress as the reason for sick leave from school. It was reported that more educators are seeking medical boarding, absenteeism has increased and educators resign due to a lack of job satisfaction (Naidoo et al., 2013). Naidoo et al. (2013) also indicated that more than 4 500 teachers resigned during 2007 and 2008, while 1 800 died and more than 500 were discharged because of ill health (Naidoo et al., 2013). It was further reported that 5 000 teachers resigned in 2015, that close to 30 000 teachers left the profession since 2011 and that most teachers resign and leave the profession before reaching the set retirement age of 65 (Marais, 2016). The impression that working as an educator may, due to negative experiences, result in illness and emotional burnout, is thus supported by much evidence (Van Dick & Wagner, 2001).

Despite the bleak picture painted above, stress remains a call toward adjustment and adaptation to environmental change and challenge and this is done by means of coping. Coping with stress is an ongoing process that develops over time and based on an evaluation of personal coping resources, individuals can adjust or modify their initial appraisals of a given situation (Aldwin, 2011). According to Lazarus and Folkman (1984, as mentioned in Aldwin, 2011; Kassin et al., 2014) the stress-and-coping process is an unceasing transaction between an individual and his or her immediate surroundings, which in this study refers to the teacher and the demanding educational context in which they have to operate. Engelbrecht, Swart, and Eloff (2001) state that the specific stressors at work, the appraisal of stressors and the teacher’s perceived coping ability have a significant influence on teachers stress level, while Compas (2009) and Skinner and Zimmer-Gembeck (2011) indicate the importance of a perceived sense of personal control and perceived controllability of the stressors to shape responses to the stress experienced and the ability to cope, which will be discussed below. Coping and Coping Strategies

Stress and its potential illness or wellness related outcomes was explained above. At the centre of the stress-illness/ wellness relationship, is the process of coping (Litt, Temen &

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Affleck, 2011), or “the cognitive and behavioural efforts used to regulate distress, manage the problem causing distress and sustain positive well-being during stressful situations” (Folkman, 2011, p.76). The coping construct stems from several different theoretical approaches, such as (1) The original psychodynamic theories that focused on defence mechanisms as means by which the ego unconsciously dealt with the anxiety of stress situations. The theoretical debate on whether coping is conscious and voluntary or unconscious and involuntary is still present in current coping theory; (2) The coping styles approaches that focused on typical ways of dealing with problems and claiming that coping is rooted in personality; (3) The dual process model, which argues that individuals seem to alternate between several dichotomies in a situation such as positive and negative appraisals, approach and avoidance coping, etcetera. Coping tends to be a complex set of different strategies that may be directed at various aspects of the stressor and that show changes over time; (4) the cognitive or process theories that focus on specific strategies in given situations. Such strategies are thought to be guided by the appraisals of the situation, are conscious, flexible and responsive to situations and contextual factors (Aldwin, 2011; Ironson & Kremer, 2011).

From the various theoretical approaches flowed a myriad of coping descriptions, such as coping refers to how individuals mobilise, coordinate, manage and direct their actions and behaviour during challenging conditions, threat or loss (Aldwin, 2011); coping are efforts of self-regulation in times of duress (Carver & Scheier, 1999); coping is an ongoing process between the individual and the situation where the perceived ability of the individual will determine how effective the stressor is managed (Meehan, Peirson, & Fridjhon, 2007); and coping is to diminish the physical, emotional and psychological strain that is associated with stressful circumstances (Cronje, Temane, & Wissing, 2011; Tuncay, Musabak, Gok, & Kutlu, 2008).

Furthermore, conceptual frameworks or models of coping abound, such as the dual process model of Stroebe (2011); the hedonic adaptation to positive and negative events of Lyubomirsky (2011); the meaning making model of Park (2011); the five steps model of positive coping of Aspinwall and Taylor (Aspinwall, 2011); the functional components model of Ironson and Kremer (2011); and the multi-level, multivariate model of Litt et al. (2011). A few of the older models were the stress resistance model of Holahan and Moos (1990) and the conservation of resources model of Hobfoll (1989; 2011). An example of a conceptualisation of the coping process is that of Holahan and Moos (1994), as depicted in Figure 2. The

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authors identify factors within the individual’s environmental system, which are prominent social supports and resources, as well as in their personal system, which includes psychological traits and demographic attributes, all of which are relatively stable and influence life circumstances (Carr, 2011). These factors affect both health and well-being directly and indirectly by means of appraisal and coping processes. The central function of coping is depicted by its position in the schematic outline, with the bi-directional pathways indicating the possibility of reciprocal feedback occurring at any stage of the stress and coping process (Holahan & Moos, 1994).

Figure 2. The coping process adapted from Holahan (1996, p.27)

Coping, furthermore, has been called a process of adaptation and a stabilising factor that maintains psychosocial functioning during stress (Moos & Schaefer, 1993), as well as individuals’ use of adaptive strengths and capacity for resiliency and constructive action in the face of challenge (Holahan & Moos, 1994). According to Aldwin (2011) coping is an adaptive process that potentially mediates the effects of risk or adversity during the development of competence (Aldwin, 2011). Effective coping enables individuals to resolve

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problems, relieve emotional distress, strive to succeed and accomplish goals (Brown, Westbrook & Challagalla, 2005). Adaptive coping has also been referred to as positive coping (Compton, 2005), constructive coping (Weiten, 2013) and problem solving coping (Heppner & Lee, 2009), while Carver (1997) identifies venting, positive reframing, proactive coping and active problem solving, as adaptive coping skills that individuals most frequently use in their efforts to manage stress. Weiten (2013) proposes the following features of constructive or adaptive coping based on research, namely it involves confronting problems directly, is task relevant and action-orientated; it is based on realistic appraisals of the stress and available coping resources, in which some short lived self-deception may be adaptive; and it entails the recognition and regulation of potentially disruptive emotional reactions to stress. According to Chesney, Neilands, Chambers, Taylor, and Folkman (2006) adaptive coping refers to situations in which there is a fit between the perceived controllability of the stressor and the choice of coping strategy to be utilised, given a specific situation. Such coping strategies are described below.

Coping strategies

Previously in this chapter, the stressors inherent in the teaching context were indicated and again the question emerges of, given the fact that all educators face similar stressful conditions, in the educational environment, why do some apparently function well and are able to cope, while others do not? The answer may be found in the nature of coping strategies applied by teachers. Coping strategies are cognitive, emotional or behavioural ways that people use to adjust in effective ways to challenges and to build resources for further positive coping (Compton, 2005). Coping actions or strategies are determined by people’s attributes, knowledge of coping options and subjective beliefs about the usefulness of options (Ebersöhn, 2007). Ebersöhn and her colleagues found that effective coping strategies of teachers decrease the effects of stress, enhance the development of skills and competencies to meet the demands of teaching and assist in identifying and understanding the sources of stress (Ebersöhn & Eloff, 2002; Ferreira, 2013; Ferreira & Ebersöhn, 2012). The effectiveness of coping strategies also depends on the characteristics of the particular situation, the appropriateness of the strategy and the skill with which it is carried out, according to Passer, Smith, Holt, Bremner, Sutherland, and Vliek (2009), who further stated that “people are likely to adapt well to the stresses of life if they have mastered a variety of coping techniques and know how and where to apply them most effectively” (Passer et al., 2009, p.740). After a review of numerous coping strategies, Skinner, Edge, Altman and Sherwood (2003)

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concluded that there are five types of strategies, namely problem solving, support seeking, avoidance, distraction and positive cognitive restructuring.

Coping, however, has traditionally been divided into two main responsive strategy categories that include thoughts and actions that individuals use in stressful situations (Folkman, 2011; Lam, Alvarado, & Lee, 2014; Lazarus & Folkman, 1984; Zambianchi & Bitti, 2013), namely problem-focused coping, referring to those responses that are directed at utilising cognitive and behavioural strategies in order to diminish stress by overcoming the source of the problem, thus managing the problem itself (Chesney et al., 2006; Folkman, 2011; Kassin et al., 2014). Problem-focused coping addresses the perceived stressor in order to manage and/or modify the actual problem, using strategies such as planning, active coping and suppressing competing activities (Lam et al., 2014; Mayordomo-Rodríguez, Meléndez-Moral, Viguer-Sengui, & Sales-Galan, 2014). Problem-focused coping strategies attempt to confront and deal directly with the demand of the situation or to change the situation so that it is no longer stressful. It seems that creativity, wisdom and conscientiousness are individual qualities that are important for facilitating problem-focused coping strategies.

Emotion-focused coping, referring to responses concentrating on the regulation of emotion

generated by the stress appraisal process, such as anger, sadness, anxiety, fear, eagerness and excitement (Folkman, 2011; Lam et al., 2014). Emotion-focused coping attempts to decrease the duress caused by the stressor; it involves strategies such as seeking emotional support, acceptance, denial and positive reinterpretation (Lam et al., 2014). Some forms of emotion-focused coping involve appraising the situation in a manner that minimises its emotional impact, while other forms involve either avoidance or acceptance of the stressful situation (Passer et al., 2009). Emotion-focused coping strategies have in the past been regarded as less favourable and/or effective, but Stanton (2011) clearly indicates how these views have been disproved and that aspects of regulating emotions during stress, such as emotional processing and expression are crucial to effective coping.

According to Mayordomo-Rodríguez et al. (2014), both problem- and emotion-focused coping can facilitate each other, although individuals use both coping strategies when needed, problem-focused coping strategies are mostly employed and more often associated with favourable adjustments to stressors (Passer et al., 2009). Furthermore, for all the coping styles a distinction may be made between functional and dysfunctional strategies (Carr, 2011) as shown in Table 1.

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Functional and dysfunctional coping strategies adapted from Zeidner and Endler (cited in Carr, 2011, p.216)

Type Aim Functional Dysfunctional

Problem-focused

Problem solving

 Accepting responsibility for solving the problem

 Seeking accurate information  Seeking dependable advice

and help

 Developing a realistic action plan

 Following through on the plan

 Postponing competing activities

 Maintaining an optimistic view on one’s capacity to solve a problem

 Taking little

responsibility for solving the problem  Seeking inaccurate information  Seeking questionable advice  Developing unrealistic plans

 Not following through on plans

 Procrastination  Holding a pessimistic

view of one’s capacity to solve the problem

Emotion-focused

Mood regulation

 Making and maintaining socially supportive and empathic friendships

 Seeking meaningful spiritual support

 Catharsis and emotional processing

 Reframing and cognitive restructuring

 Seeing the stress in a humorous way  Relaxation routines  Physical exercise

 Making and maintaining destructive relationships  Seeking meaningless spiritual support  Unproductive wishful thinking  Long-term denial  Taking the stress

seriously

 Drug and alcohol abuse  Aggression Avoidance-focused Avoiding source of stress  Temporarily mentally disengaging from the problem  Temporarily engaging in distracting activities  Temporarily engaging in distracting relationships  Mentally disengaging from the problem for the long term

 Long-term engagement in distracting activities  Long-term engagement in

distracting relationships

According to Carr (2011), dysfunctional coping strategies may result in short-term relief, but in the long run, it seems ineffective to resolve stress-related problems. In situations where stress is uncontrollable, emotion-focused coping strategies, such as maintaining socially

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supportive friendships are appropriate and internal working models of such relationships (attachment bonds) are essential for developing of this skill.

Donnelly and Amaya-Jackson (2002) argue that ways in which an individual handles stress is an endless changeable process, shaped by the context from which the stress is generated. This means that coping is influenced by situational factors and events that individuals are daily faced with. Aldwin (2011) is of the opinion that coping is responsive to situational demands and is influenced by both personality and situational characteristics. Such an interactive coping process generally results in change which can be either positive, negative or sometimes a combination of both. According to the Coping Consortium (as cited in Aldwin, 2011), research that focuses on actual stressful interactions and the resulting coping processes, could promote knowledge regarding the ways individuals – specifically teachers – manage to cope with stress and can be valuable with regard to the development of positive resources.

In this study, the relationship of stress, coping strategies, perceived personal control and psychosocial well-being will be investigated, as well as the mediation/moderation value of coping in the relationship between stress and indicators of psychosocial health (Litt et al., 2011). Litt et al. furthermore, state that “ the individual at any given moment in response to stressors can feed back to alter these environmental stressors, as well as one’s internal state and in turn alter appraisals and the choice of subsequent coping responses” (2011, p. 387). Thus, the teachers’ stress, perceived personal control, coping and psychosocial well-being will be assessed on two occasions in this research, in order to investigate the changeability of responses as was assumed by Litt et al. (2011).

As was indicated before, perceived personal control or controllability of the stressor, are variables seen by various researchers as resources in the coping process. These variables will be discussed below.

A Sense of Perceived Control

Teachers are continuously confronted with events, situations and adversities that are emotionally, cognitively and physically challenging and that influence their ability to function well within their given work environment. Many teachers however, find ways to cope by turning to internal strategies, actions and processes, which assist them in making sense of the stressful context they find themselves in and in managing stressors, which challenge their ability to maintain control over given situations (Fishman, 2014). It is

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generally assumed that circumstances perceived as overwhelming are more distressing than those situations perceived as somewhat more personally manageable (Frazier, 2002).

Perceived personal control was traditionally defined as the beliefs or perceptions that one has the ability, resources or opportunity to influence one’s environment in order to achieve positive or more favourable outcomes or to avoid negative effects through one’s own actions (Fishman, 2014; Kassin et al., 2014; Liu & Yussen, 2005; Thompson & Schlehofer, 2008; Wallston, Wallston, Strudler, Smith, & Dobbins, 1987). Regulatory beliefs launch and guide coping behaviour and such beliefs that regulate actions are control beliefs, or the sense that I can do it, referring to an expectation that the individual can produce desired outcomes by having a sense of control over the challenge (Aldwin, 2011). Much of the literature that examines and describes how individuals who experience perceived personal control act during stressful encounters, ties in well with research on coping that examines acquired personal and social resources, different kinds of coping and how coping contribute towards an individual’s physical, psychological and social functioning (Aldwin, 2011; Folkman & Moskowitz, 2004; Skinner & Zimmer-Gembeck, 2011). Effective coping and problem-solving skills, presumably, reinforce a sense of perceived personal control that in turn will decrease anxiety and stress (Hogendoorn et al., 2014). Perceived personal control is considered an influential personal resource, which an individual can utilise when faced with challenging or daunting circumstances (Skinner & Zimmer-Gembeck, 2011).

Perceived personal control (PPC) has been conceptualised in different ways. Averill (1979) introduced a tripartite structure of PPC that includes three dimensions, namely behavioural control, decisional control and cognitive control. Behavioural control refers to the belief that action can be taken to change the situation, decisional control refers to the belief that there are different courses of action that could be chosen to change a situation and cognitive control refers to understanding and finding meaning in a situation and to using patterns of thinking that can reduce the stressfulness of a situation (McAllister, Wood, Dunn, Shiloh, & Todd, 2012).

Thompsons’ (1981) typology distinguished between behavioural and cognitive control and emphasise that the perception of control is more significant than the actual control (Berkenstadt, Shiloh, Barkai, Katznelson, & Goldman, 1999, Thompson, 1981). The perceived ability to avoid negative outcomes may result from personal beliefs that one has control over adverse events, whilst the perceived ability to cope with negative outcomes may stem from beliefs about direct or indirect coping strategies that one uses to reduce distress

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(Bryant, 1989; Thompson, 1981). Thompson accounts for the time dimension by adding the category of retrospective control referring to beliefs about the causes of a past event, to the control typology.

The two-process model, as proposed by Rothbaum, Weisz, and Snyder (1982), distinguished between primary control and secondary control. The two-process model focused exclusively on an individual’s judgement about control over negative events and control over feelings in response to negative events. Primary control involves taking action to achieve desired outcomes, whereas secondary control refers to changing oneself to adapt to the environment or accepting one’s circumstances as they are (Bryant, 1989; Thompson, 2011; Thompson & Schlehofer, 2008). According to Bryant and Thompson, acceptance increases a sense of control and reduces the discrepancy between desired and achieved outcomes. Thompson and Schlehofer (2008) stated that this approach to personal control suggests that direct action in the environment and adjusting to the environment are both valuable sources of perceived personal control. The two-process model emphases the important role of control strategies that individuals use to get desired outcomes or handle stressful situations and identifies sources of personal control enhancement that may strengthen the sense of personal control that is necessary for behaviour change (Thompson & Schlehofer, 2008).

Bryant’s (1989) four-factor model of perceived control evaluate a person’s perceived ability to avoid negative events (primary negative control); cope with negative events (secondary negative control); obtain positive events (primary positive control), and savour positive events (secondary positive control). This four-factor model explains an individual’s self-evaluation of perceived control and distinguishes between perceived primary control (over events) and secondary control (feelings) separately in relation to positive and negative experiences (Bryant, 1989).

Thompson and Schlehofer (2008) suggest that perceived control consists of two dimensions, namely locus of control, referring to beliefs of either internal or external motivation and reinforcement; and self-efficacy, the belief of acquired personal ability to enact effective response. Internal locus of control is defined as the degree to which an individual expects important sources of reinforcement to be within his or her control and not influenced by external factors such as chance and fate (Carr, 2011). Internal locus of control refers to personal beliefs about the locus of reinforcements and whether individuals, in general, can obtain positive outcomes and goal achievement through their own action

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(Bandura, 1997). Self-efficacy is viewed as an individual belief that one is capable of the specific behaviour required to produce the desired outcome in a given situation; it is regarded as a state of mind that varies from one specific task and situation to another (Kassin et al., 2014). Kassin et al. stated that self-efficacy guides our lives since we generally pursue courses of action which we believe will lead to desired outcomes and have little incentive to act in ways which we believe involve failure. The authors further held that the efficacy beliefs and expectations of certain consequences determine our behavioural performance that leads to specific outcomes.

According to Skinner et al. (2011), the core of control is the experience of exerting efforts to obtain desired outcomes. The perception that one has the ability, resource and opportunity to exercise personal control, has been a pervasive idea in psychological research and theory that involves overlapping constructs, such as self-determination, specifically the autonomy factor; self-regulation and self-control; self-efficacy, as briefly discussed above; internal locus of control, also indicated above; manageability as in a sense of coherence (Antonovsky, 1979); and mastery, as in the work of Jahoda (as cited in Compton, 2005) and Ryff (1995).

While personal control refers to the extent to which an individual has a sense of control over the outcome of a current perceived stressful situation, self-determination or autonomy refers to an individual’s sense that one’s actions and decisions are freely chosen and expressive of one’s true self (Ryan & Deci, 2000).

It seems that the degree to which individuals exercise self-control over behaviour and emotions during stressful situations are influenced by internalised beliefs about the individual’s ability to exercise self-control. To be in control of your life or to be able to change aspects of your life implies regulating and directing specific actions in order to obtain self-defined goals or outcomes (Baumgardner & Crothers, 2010). The ability that one has to change by controlling and regulating feelings, thoughts, emotions and actions to achieve personally significant outcomes and enhance well-being, is known as self-regulation. Self-control and self-regulation both involve the personal ability an individual has that enables him or her to achieve desired future goals (Baumgardner & Crothers, 2010).

Compton (2005) defines mastery as a successful adaptation to situational demands and expectations. To experience mastery, a person must feel that a situation can be controlled or changed and that he or she has the skills and ability to influence the situation (Full Frame

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Initiative, FFI, 2013). Environmental mastery was deemed by both Johoda (as cited in Compton, 2005) and Ryff (1995) as essential for mental health and seen as a sense of competence and the ability to choose and influence situations and environments that are conducive to meet personal goals. An individual who feels little or no control over, or ability to change his or her life or situation, will likely have difficulty accomplishing goals and be facing challenges in various areas including relationships and work environment (FFI, 2013). Mastery can be seen as a motivator for perseverance and personal change.

Manageability is defined as “the extent to which an individual perceives that the

resources at one’s disposal are adequate to meet the demands posed by the various stimuli that bombard one” (Antonovsky, 1984, p. 118). Resources at their disposal may refer to resources under the individual’s (teacher’s) own control or resources offered by others, such as friends, family, colleagues, local education department, or anyone upon whom the teacher can count and trust. A teacher with a perceived sense of manageability will not feel that their life is out of control; instead he or she will, by their resources or with the support of legitimate others, feel that they are able to cope (Antonovsky, 1984).

A surprising element of perceived control is that some individuals seem able to maintain a degree of control even within circumstances that seem to leave little opportunity to achieve desired outcomes. Having a sense of control has adaptive effects and is associated with emotional well-being, reduced impact of stressors and increased the ability to cope with daily stress (Greenaway, Haslam, Cruwys, Branscombe, & Ysseldyk, 2015; Thompson & Schlehofer, 2008; Thompson & Spacapan, 1991).

A sense of perceived control is a valuable asset as it motivates individuals to take action and avoid stressful situations; it also encourages problem-solving and focuses attention to solutions; hence, preparing the individual for future successes (Thompson, 2011). A perceived lack of control can result in the development of anxiety disorders (Hogendoorn et al., 2014) and according to Thompson and Schlehofer (2008), individuals presenting low personal control are more likely to choose a passive approach, tending to develop the need to want others to act on behalf of them.

The personal control construct has been mostly researched and applied in the field of health psychology, especially regarding coping with health threats and adapting to a broad range of health problems (McAllister, Wood, Dunn, Shiloh & Todd, 2012). The role of PPC in the stress-illness/ wellness relationship has also been investigated with findings that feeling

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in control can reduce the experience of stress during difficult times (Taylor, 2011) and that perceived personal control over stressful events is associated with emotional well-being, effective coping, behaviour change towards good health and a salutary lifestyle (Little, Snyder, & Wehmeyer, 2006). The lack of research in other fields, however, has prompted Thompson (2008) to call for research focusing on the practical, effective ways to enhance personal control in a variety of settings, such as schools, worksites and communities, according to the tenets of positive psychology.

In this study, PPC will be conceptualised and measured along the lines of Averill’s (1973) and Bryant’s (1989) models that have both been operationalised. Furthermore, in line with the arguments of Skinner and Zimmer-Gembeck (2011) about the powerful influence of a sense of perceived personal control on primary coping of individuals, but also on other variables in the stress-health and well-being relationship, this study will investigate the relationship of PPC with stress, coping and psychosocial well-being, the latter being discussed below.

Psychosocial Well-being

The teaching environment presents many social and emotional challenges that can have an impact on the overall well-being of teachers. Well-being entails physical, cognitive, emotional, social and spiritual wellness dimensions, which can be viewed as a broad state of positive health (Diener & Lucas, 1999). Furthermore, well-being is regarded as a dynamic process that includes all that is positive, desirable and good for a person, namely a meaningful social role, being happy and hopeful, living according to good values, effective coping, positive social relationships and support, and security (Diener & Lucas, 1999; Peterson, 2006). Psychological well-being, however, implies a comprehensive and more detailed concept of well-being (Linley & Joseph, 2004) and refers to how an individual engages with life and its various challenges (Keyes, Shmotkin, & Ryff, 2002), personal growth (Linley & Joseph, 2004) and the use of personal strengths and capabilities (Wissing & Van Eeden, 2002). The source of psychological well-being is intrinsic and personal (Linley & Joseph, 2004).

According to the Anderson and Mendenhall (2005) and Koen, Van Eeden, and Rothmann (2013) the term psychosocial refers to the integrated experience or connection between people’s psychological aspects (thoughts, emotions and behaviour) and social experiences (relationships, traditions, culture). The term psychosocial, therefore, implies a

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situation in which the person’s psychological and social factors interact (Reber & Reber, 2001) and, thus, psychosocial being focusses on the location of psychological well-being, accentuating the “context of the individual within community and culture, rather than the individual in isolation” (Linley & Joseph, 2004, p.721). Seifert (2005) and Baumgardner and Crothers (2010) refer to psychosocial well-being as a dynamic concept that includes the individual’s psychological, social and emotional dimensions together with health-related behaviour. The World Health Organization (2004) conceptualised psychosocial well-being as a state of well-being in which the individual recognises his or her abilities that enable him or her to cope with daily stressors, without influencing work efficiency and allowing him or her to contribute towards the community.

Based on the Keyes’ (2005) model of complete mental health, with features of subjective being (Diener, 2000) integrated with the markers of high psychological well-being, as indicated by Ryff (1989) and with Keyes’ (2002) concepts of social well-well-being, Baumgardner and Crothers (2010) describe psychosocial well-being as a global combination of emotional, psychological and social well-being. Keyes’ (2004, 2005 & 2007) model of optimal mental health indicates that emotional well-being, psychological well-being and social well-being contribute in equal measures to the mental health of an individual and Keyes (1998, 2002, 2005), defines mental health as the presence of sufficient levels of emotional, psychological and social well-being and the absence of psychopathology. The Keyes model could also be seen as a model of psychosocial well-being, in which emotional well-being comprises individual happiness or subjective wellness, life satisfaction and mostly positive emotions. Psychological well-being includes features of well-being identified by Ryff (1989) as self-acceptance, personal growth, purpose in life, autonomy, positive relations with others and environmental mastery and social well-being involves social acceptance, social actualisation, social contribution, social coherence and social integration, as proposed by Keyes and Lopez (2002). The Keyes model of complete mental health is considered as the most inclusive, comprehensive and multi-faceted framework for understanding psychosocial well-being (Keyes, 2002, 2013; Keyes, Wissing, Potgieter, Temane, Kruger, & Van Rooy, 2008). Within this model, Keyes refers to the positive end of the well-being spectrum as positive mental health or flourishing and the negative pole of the continuum as low mental health or languishing (Joshanloo, Wissing, Khumalo, & Lamers, 2013). Positive mental health is conceptualised by a combination of hedonic or pleasure related (emotional well-being) and eudaimonic- or actualisation-related (social and psychological well-well-being)

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dimensions (Kok, 2013). Mental illness and well-being are not the opposite ends of a single continuum, but fit into the two-continuum multilateral model of well-being as developed by Keyes (2009, 2011, 2013), in which emotional well-being indicates states of positive feeling; whereas, psychological and social well-being, in turn, indicate positive functioning.

This model of positive mental health has been applied by both Keyes (2005) and Rothmann (2013) in the workplace, where better work-related outcomes were found among those who were flourishing. Positive mental health is therefore associated with better general and work functioning, with those individuals who are flourishing reporting lower absenteeism from work, high morale, job satisfaction, engagement and other indicators (Keyes, 2002). However, the stress and high work demands experienced by teachers have been found to impact negatively on their psychosocial well-being (Kittel & Leynen, 2003).

In this study, psychosocial well-being is conceptualised as the manifestation of emotional, psychological and social well-being using the Keyes model (2009, 2011), as well as the Rothmann (2013) adapted version of the Keyes model, namely flourishing at work. The relationships between psychosocial well-being, stress, perceived sense of control and coping strategies were investigated. As mentioned before and in line with the work of Keyes (2009), Litt et al. (2011) and Skinner et al. (2011), psychosocial well-being of teachers was assessed on two occasions (with the other variables) to examine its variability over time. Intention to Leave the Teaching Profession

South Africa is currently experiencing an alarming situation where teachers are resigning from the profession in droves (Marais, 2016). In 2014, about 14 000 teachers resigned, of which nearly 4 600 teachers resigned from teaching in November 2014 (Nkosi, 2015). Approximately 410 000 South African teachers are employed by the Department of Basic Education, placed across nine provinces that are responsible for educating more than 12.9 million learners (Mhlanga & Maarten, 2018).

The unstable nature of the South African teaching profession demands from teachers to cope effectively and adequately with ongoing changes, demands and challenges, causing them to experience continuous pressure and stress (Jackson & Rothmann, 2005). Uncertainties experienced, an inability to effectively cope and adapt to changes and challenges, together with ongoing transformation and transition within the South African education system, can contribute to unproductive outcomes and may have detrimental

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consequences on teaching and learning and for teachers themselves (Chan, 2006; Steyn & Kamper, 2006).

In a work context, such as the one for teachers depicted above, one can expect that apart from teachers that have left the teaching profession, many have an intention to leave. Intention to leave refers to a teacher’s conscious and intentional frame of mind to part ways with the educational institution where they are employed (Tett & Meyer, 1993). Kahumuza and Schlechter (2008) viewed intention to leave as the strength of an employee’s viewpoint that he or she no longer wants to work for his or her organisation. Park and Kim (2009) added that intention to leave the profession is considered as the final cognitive decision making process, whereby employees/teachers actively search for alternative employment opportunities.

Although a teacher’s intention to leave may not translate into actual behaviour, intention to leave a profession is regarded as an antecedent to actual career change (Griffeth, Hom, & Gaertner, 2000). According to Darling-Hammond (2010), teachers typically leave a school for two main reasons: to leave the profession (attrition) or to leave one school for another (migration within the profession). Work stress was found to be one of the clearest predictors of teacher attrition (Borman & Dowling, 2008; Brownell, Smith, McNellis, & Miller, 1997). Teachers’ stress and the great number of teachers exiting from the educational context are alarming, threatening quality education and subsequent student performance (Steinhardt, Smith Jaggars, Faulk, & Gloria, 2011).

Research Question and Objectives

Based on the above exposition of the literature about teacher stress in the South African teaching context, as well as positive psychological variables, such as perceived personal control, adaptive coping strategies and psychosocial well-being that may have a salutary influence on teachers’ stress levels, the research questions that came to mind was: Would there be beneficial or any other relationships between teachers’ perceived stress levels, their coping strategies, their perceived sense of personal control, psychosocial well-being and their flourishing at work? Would their levels of stress, coping strategy, perceived personal control, psychosocial well-being and flourishing at work show significant variations after an interval of four months and would the variables mentioned predict teachers’ intention to leave the profession?

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 Study the existing research findings in literature pertaining to the stated variables;  Determine by means of structural equation modelling the statistical relationships

between the stated variables at two occasions, four months apart;  Determine direct and indirect effects between the variables;

 Identify latent profile (LPA) groups in participants for perceived stress and perceived personal control;

 Determine whether profile memberships could be depicted by or correlate with participants’ performance on the other variables used in the study;

 Investigate whether variables used in this study would influence the intention to leave the profession.

 Determine whether a four months’ time interval had an effect on participants’ scores on the variables measured.

The research design and methods will be explicated next. Research Methodology

Research methodology is concerned with how the research design is implemented and how the research is carried out. The methodology specifies when and how often to collect data; construction of data collection measures; identification of the sample or test population; choice of strategy; selection of statistical tools; and presentation of findings (Creswell, 2009; Y520, nd). In this study, a literature review as well as empirical research were conducted. Literature study

The literature study will conceptualise the following concepts, their antecedents, consequences and possible relationships: stress, coping and coping strategies, perceived personal control, flourishing at work, psychosocial well-being and intention to leave.

Empirical study

The research design, methodology and procedures of this quantitative study, will be described below.

Research design

The research design was a pre-experimental research design with a combination of cross sectional and time series one group designs, which means that a cross sectional survey was