Analysing technical tertiary training and
education requirements for the South
African explosives industry
WF Verster
23000554
Mini-dissertation submitted in partial
fulfilment of the
requirements for the degree Magister
in
Business
Administration at the Potchefstroom Campus of the
North-West University
Supervisor:
Prof CA Bisschoff
ii
ABSTRACT
South Africa is one of the largest producers of explosives in the world. The production of explosives is driven by the mines’ need for explosives to produce the commodities needed by the economy. South Africa used to offer a diploma in explosives technology, but this qualification was discontinued in 1996. Currently some qualifications in explosives management are being presented, but these qualifications do not fulfil the industry's need for technical education in explosives. The South African explosives industry reports that they need technical education in explosives.
Because the explosives industry is relatively small in terms of personnel numbers, tertiary educational institutions are hesitant to establish a degree in explosives engineering or a similar qualification. The aim of the research conducted was to try and quantify this need as well as to give guidance to the structure of the explosives engineering qualifications. During the study representatives from all the role-players in the industry were interviewed. Further information was gathered by means of a questionnaire.
This data were combined and analysed and it was found that there is a definite need for a diploma in explosives engineering, an undergraduate degree in explosives engineering as well as post graduate qualifications in this discipline. The research has shown that there is a good possibility that these qualifications would be sustainable considering the growth in the South African explosives industry, as well as the growth in the African mining market.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER 1 ... 1
INTRODUCTION ... 1
1.1 Background ... 1
1.2 A historical view of the explosives technical training in South Africa... 2
1.3 The South African education system ... 6
1.4 Market growth indicators ... 6
1.4.1 Manufactures of explosives ... 6
1.4.2 Mining ... 7
1.4.3 Defence explosives industry ... 8
1.5 Research statement ... 9
1.6 Study objectives ... 10
1.6.1 Primary objective ... 10
1.6.2 Secondary objectives ... 10
1.6.3 Define the market ... 10
1.6.4 Determine the market growth ... 11
1.6.5 Determine the market demand... 11
1.7 Research design and methodology... 11
1.7.1 Scope of the research ... 11
1.7.2 Geographical distribution ... 11
1.7.3 Manufacturers ... 11
1.7.4 Users ... 12
1.7.5 Governance and support ... 12
1.7.6 Training providers ... 12 1.8 Research methodology ... 12 1.8.1 Literature study ... 13 1.8.2 Qualitative Research ... 13 1.8.3 Interviews ... 13 1.8.4 Use of questionnaires ... 14 1.8.5 Data Analysis ... 14
iv 1.9 Outcome ... 14 1.10 Limitations ... 14 1.11 Summary ... 15 CHAPTER 2 ... 17 THEORETICAL STUDY ... 17 2.1 Introduction ... 17 2.2 Orientation on explosives ... 18 2.2.1 What is an explosive? ... 18 2.2.2 Classification of explosives ... 18
2.2.2.1 High Explosives (HE) ... 18
2.2.2.2 Low explosives (LE) ... 19
2.2.3 Commercial and military high explosives ... 20
2.3 Description of the SA explosives industrial landscape ... 21
2.3.1 Explosives manufacturing ... 21
2.3.2 Users of explosives ... 22
2.3.3 Construction and commercial industries ... 24
2.3.4 Regulatory and enforcement agencies ... 24
2.3.5 Test facilities ... 25
2.3.6 Transportation and packaging ... 25
2.3.7 The training and educational institutions ... 26
2.3.7.1 University of South Africa (UNISA) ... 26
2.3.7.2 Other universities ... 26
2.3.7.3 BISRU ... 27
2.3.7.4 SANDF, Explosives training facilities ... 27
2.3.7.5 SAPS Explosives training section ... 27
2.3.7.6 Mechem ... 27
2.3.7.7 Rheinmetall Denel Munition – Ordnance Training Centre ... 28
2.3.7.8 Explosives manufacturers training services ... 28
2.3.7.9 Other training providers and consultants ... 28
2.3.8 Governmental institutions with and explosive interface ... 29
2.3.8.1 Armscor ... 29
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2.3.9 Explosives support service providers ... 29
2.3.10 Interdisciplinary organisations ... 30
2.3.10.1NIXT ... 30
2.3.10.2 SABO ... 30
2.3.10.3Chamber of Mines ... 31
2.4 Size of the explosives market ... 31
2.5 Market growth in the global commercial explosives industry ... 32
2.6 Market growth in the SA commercial explosives industry ... 34
2.7 The global mining industry ... 35
2.8 Sustainability ... 36
2.9 Growth in the SA mining sector ... 37
2.10 Technology management model ... 38
2.10.1 Critical systems exploration ... 40
2.10.2 Visionary technological aspirations ... 40
2.10.3 Insight and imagination synergistic with competitive strategies ... 40
2.10.4 Technological Algorithms ... 40
2.10.5 Core technological competencies ... 41
2.10.6 Technological capabilities to compete ... 41
2.10.7 Decision support and planning tools ... 41
2.10.8 Environment ... 41
2.10.9 Product development and product portfolio ... 41
2.11 International training structures ... 42
2.11.1 European Union ... 42
2.11.2 EUExcert ... 45
2.11.3 International providers of explosives related education ... 45
2.12 Department of Higher Education and Training ... 46
2.12.1 National Qualification Framework ... 47
2.12.2 SAQA ... 48
2.12.3 Council on Higher Education ... 48
2.12.4 SETA ... 50
2.12.5 The Quality Council for Trades and Occupations ... 51
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2.13.1 Explosives engineering ... 53
2.13.2 International recognition for explosives engineering ... 54
2.13.3 Benefits of ECSA recognition for explosives engineering ... 55
2.14 South African Council for Natural Scientific Professions ... 56
2.15 Terminology and standards ... 57
2.16 Summary ... 58
CHAPTER 3 ... 59
EMPIRICAL RESEARCH AND RESULTS ... 59
3.1 Introduction ... 59
3.2 Research methodology ... 59
3.3 Research model ... 59
3.3.1 Mapping the industry ... 60
3.3.1.1 Mining sector ... 60
3.3.1.2 Gun and rifle association ... 60
3.3.2 Constructing a research framework ... 61
3.4 Results ... 63
3.4.1 Data validity ... 63
3.4.2 Course content of the technical qualification ... 65
3.4.2.1 Short courses ... 66
3.4.2.2 Diploma in explosives engineering... 66
3.4.2.3 Undergraduate qualification ... 67
3.4.2.4 Post graduate qualification ... 70
3.4.3 Growth in mining volumes ... 72
3.4.4 Impact of technology ... 73
3.4.5 Sustainability ... 75
3.4.6 Establishment of an explosives technical qualification ... 79
3.4.7 Standards ... 79
3.4.8 Shortcomings of the research ... 80
3.5 Summary ... 81
CHAPTER 4 ... 83
RECOMMENDATIONS ... 83
vii 4.2 Conclusions ... 84 4.3 Recommendations ... 86 4.4 Further Research ... 88 4.5 Summary ... 89 REFERENCES ... 90 Annexure A ... 102 Annexure B ... 103 Annexure C ... 104 Annexure D ... 105 Annexure E ... 106 Annexure F ... 108 Annexure G ... 115
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LIST OF GRAPHS
Figure 2.1 The classification of groups of explosives. ... 20
Figure 2.2 The world’s consumption of commercial explosives for 2008. ... 33
Figure 2.3 Production volume of SA mines... 37
Figure 2.4 Visser’s Management of Technology Model ... 39 Figure 3.2 The age distribution of the people employed in the explosives value chain. . 78
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LIST OF TABLES
Table 2.1: Thirteen key roles for workers in the explosives sector. ... 43
Table 2.2: Types of explosives substances and articles (ESA) organisations in the United Kingdom ... 44
Table 3.1: The sectors that were identified in the SA explosives industry ... 61
Table 3.2: Statistics of the data inputs. ... 63
Table 3.3: Organisations that provided inputs for the research ... 64
Table 3.4: List of subjects added by different respondents ... 65
Table 3.5: The twenty most preferred subjects to be included in the diploma of an explosives engineering qualification ... 67
Table 3.6: The 20 most preferred subjects to be included in the undergraduate program for explosives engineers. ... 70
Table 3.7: The subjects for the post graduate degree in explosives engineering with the lowest scores ... 71
Table 3.8: Sustainability indicators for an explosives engineering qualification in the South African explosives industry. ... 75
Table 3.9: Sustainability indicators for an explosives engineering qualification in the South African military explosives industry. ... 76
Table 3.10: Sustainability indicators for an explosives engineering qualification in the South African Commercial explosives industry. ... 76
ABBREVIATIONS
AEL MS: AEL Mining Services Limited BME: Bulk Mining Explosives (Pty) Ltd
CIE: Chief Inspector of Explosives of the SAPS CIS: Commonwealth of Independent States CHE: Council on Higher Education
CSIR: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research DMR: Department of Minerals Resources
DOL: Department of Labour
ECSA: Engineering Council of South Africa
ECVET: European Credit system for Vocational Education and Training (EU)
EOD: Explosives Ordnance Disposal EU: European Union
FET: Further Education and Training HE: High Explosives
HEQC: Higher Education Quality Committee
HEQSF: Higher Education Qualifications Sub-Framework LE: Low Explosives
NIXT: National Institute of Explosives Technology NOS: National Operating Standards (UK)
NQF: National Qualification Framework NVQ: National Vocational Qualifications (UK) OHS: Occupational Health and Safety
OJT: On the Job Training OTR: Overberg Test Range PGM: Platinum Group Metals PMP: Pretoria Metal Pressings PWC: PricewaterhouseCoopers QF: Quick Fire
RDM: Rheinmetall Denel Munition RSA: Republic of South Africa
SABO: South African Ballistics Organisation
SACNASP: South African Council for Natural Scientific Professions SAGA: South African Gun Association
SAQA: South African Qualifications Authority SAPS: South African Police Service
SADF: South African Defence Force
SANDF: South African National Defence Force
SEMTA: Science, Engineering and Manufacturing Technologies (UK) SSB: Standards Setting Body (UK)
TUT: Tshwane University of Technology UNISA: University of South Africa
UK: United Kingdom
CHAPTER 1
1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background
Explosives are an indispensible component of industry and life in modern society. Explosives are diverse tools and their applications can range from being employed peacefully, to extracting vital minerals from the earth, or being the destructive tool of war. Explosives can even be employed in rescue- and other situations as an instrument to save lives, or as a source of entertainment. Explosives are chemical substances, which contain their own oxygen and have the ability to release its energy in a very short time, or create a physical effect. Fickett and Davis (2000:1) explain that during detonation process the explosives material is consumed 103 to 108 times faster than in a burning process. They continue to mention that the total amount of solar energy intercepted by the earth at a specific moment is 4 x 1016 watts which is comparable to a 20 m2 detonation wave that propagates through an explosive. The explosives scientists, engineers and technicians have the knowledge and skills, and sometimes the art, to utilise and apply the release of this energy. It will become evident during the course of this document, that there is a small group of people in South Africa who intimately understand explosives and can harvest the energy from this tool of modern industry.
Training and development are important as it improves the knowledge and skills of employees. It also improves safety and efficiencies, as well as motivates employees to perform. Having trained and educated employees can give a company a competitive advantage in the market.
The captains of the South African explosives industry obtained their explosives engineering knowledge mainly through attending internal company courses supported by on the job training (OJT), or through experience. There are a number of candidates who attended the Diploma in Explosives Technology course. However, the breadth of the technical tertiary
education in explosives has been eroded with the discontinuation of the Diploma at the Cape Technikon and the demise and closure of the Department of Explosives Technology at the TUT in 1996 (Coutts: 2013). Explosives related technical training is now done via company in-house training and various private training institutions providing niche training courses in specific disciplines of the explosives knowledge portfolio. It is needless to say that, because of this, there could be a difference in standards and terminology. According to UNISA (2014) explosives management qualifications are presented by UNISA.
1.2 A historical view of the explosives technical training in South Africa
The Republic of South Africa’s explosives history can be traced back to the arrival of the Dutch under Jan van Riebeek in 1652. He had to defend the settlement against intruders by the use of cannons and muskets. The explosives industry was limited to the use and storage of the gunpowder in the Castle of Good Hope. According to Liebenberg (2013:8), one Willem Willemsz, the constable of the Castle, declared on 16 March 1747 that a quantity of eight thousand pounds of gunpowder were found in the Company’s cellars, but due to the long time that the gunpowder was stored, the sulphur and saltpetre had gradually poured out. He also declared that the gunpowder was still reusable, but had to be sent to Batavia to be reground. Up to the mid nineteenth century gunpowder was the workhorse of the industry and the military.
The modern explosives era broke with the discovery of Nitro Glycerine by Sobrero in 1847. According to Hellberg and Jansson (1986:16), Alfred Nobel, a friend of Sobrero can be considered as the father of modern blasting explosives. Nobel was obsessed with research and not only continued to do research throughout his life, but ensured continued research by instructing in his will the creation of prizes for the discovery or inventions in physics/chemistry, medicine/physiology, as well as literature and peace (Hellberg & Jansson, 1986:130). This is today known as the Nobel Prize. Nobel can therefore be considered as one of the fathers of explosives training and education in the modern explosives era.
One of the earliest records of explosives manufacturing in South Africa dates back to President Paul Kruger who, in 1895, initiated the establishment of the “Zuid Afrikaansche
Fabrieken voor Ontplofbare Stoffen Beperk” at Modderfontein (AEL, 2012). This was the foundation of the modern explosives industry and the establishment of a pool of explosive knowledge in South Africa. The Modderfontein factory served the explosives needs of the gold mining industry. In 1906 Cecil John Rhodes was tasked by the De Beers Company to establish an explosives manufacturing company that could serve the needs of the diamond mining sector (Playne, 1910-1911). The Cape Explosives Company was established in Somerset West in the Cape and according to De Vos and Haaroff (1984:21), the first batch of 40 cases were shipped to Kimberley. Mr. K.B. Quinan, an American born, self taught chemical engineer who settled in South Africa to build the Cape Explosives Company, contributed significantly to the knowledge base of the South African explosive industry through his designs and by building efficient explosives factories (Cocroft, 2004:10).
The commercial explosives industry, driven by the mines’ demand for explosives, grew to where it is today, having four major bulk explosives manufacturers and various small scale explosives manufacturers. Very little is known about the training of explosives plant personnel. The training in explosives for military purposes and the commercial industry were mainly done in-house till the mid 1970’s.
The history of military explosives and ammunition technical training is not sufficiently documented. De Vos and Haaroff (1984:21) reported that Quinan was appointed during the World War 1 (WW1) as a consultant to build explosives factories worldwide on behalf of Britain. He used the knowledge and experienced gained in South Africa to build these factories. After the war, he resettled in South Africa where he continued to work.
Stocks of explosives manufactured at the Modderfontein, Somerset West and Umbogotwini plants, were stored at Lenz between WW1 and WW2. In 1936, the SA Army established the 3 SAI Bn at Lenz. The civilian explosives magazine masters known as “magasynbediendes”, were militarised in 1916 according to Bredenkamp (s.a.:71). He continues to state that only “in diens”, translated as “in service” training, was provided and that no formal technical training was conducted between 1923 and 1939.
With WW2 on the horison, the SA Government requested the industry “ICI - Modderfontein” to prepare for the production of ammunition. Although various studies were done, no
significant ammunition production took place. De Vos and Haaroff (1984:24) reported that the Graf Spee and the German submarine threat around the Cape sea routes changed the threat situation in South Africa with threats to destroy the Somerset West factory. This was supported by Bredenkamp (s.a.:72), who reported that the Union of South Africa’s armament production program had to be expanded as a matter of priority after the fall of France. In 1940 a handful of explosives specialists were sent from the UK to work with local engineers to establish the ammunition manufacturing capabilities. The knowledge to manufacture ammunition was brought to South Africa by these pioneers.
According to the Union of South Africa (1942:4), ammunition was manufactured in South Africa by factories situated at Modderfontein, Somerset West, Lentz and the South African Mint Loading Fields, with test facilities under the Director of Explosives, being the Small Arms Proofing Range in Pretoria, Q.F. Range Pretoria, Skurweberg Range to the west of Pretoria and the Potchefstroom Range. It is obvious that the military employees who operated these ranges and proofing facilities must have had explosives training due to the complexity of the tests that were done, such as the Abel Heat Test for the stability of propellants, pressure and velocity tests, to name but a few (Union of South Africa, 1942:14). Unfortunately no reference of training is made.
In 1967 the SA Army commenced with the recruitment of officers to be trained as Technical Munitions Officers. These officers were to be trained at the Pretoria Technical College (South African Defence Force, 1967a). This was a three year training course of which four and a half months would have been spent at the Pretoria Technical College studying general scientific subjects. This is the first record of explosives related technical training provided by a higher educational training institution in South Africa. The document lists subject that would be followed, training programme and salary structures for the recruits. The names of the first 19 candidates who attended this course are listed in the document. They subsequently became the leaders of the soon to be established SA Ammunition Core of the SA Army (South African Defence Force, 1967b).
Bredenkamp (s.a.:73) inferred that artisans were working at Ammunition Depots. He reports that the “SA Ammunisie Korps” was established on 1 April 1973. The SA Ammunition Core is to date staffed by highly trained Technical Munitions Officers and
Ammunition Fitters. It was under the leadership of these officers that the formal tertiary training in explosives was established.
According to Coutts (2013), a group of SADF Officers was sent to the Royal Military College of Science, Shrivenham, England, in the early 1970’s to receive training. Due to the arms embargo the SADF was not allowed to send more students. The SADF approached Technikon Pretoria’s (subsequently renamed to TUT) Chemistry Department in the mid 1970’s to create a Diploma in Explosives Technology. The diploma course increased in popularity. In approximately 1985 Technikon Pretoria established the Department of Explosives Technology. However, due to the transformation of the SADF to the SANDF in 1994, the defence force’s need for explosives technical training diminished. In 1995/96 the Department of Explosives Technology was closed down and the qualification was discontinued due to a lack of demand, as the demand for training was mainly driven by the military.
The closure left a void and in the late 1990’s, the Technikon RSA was approached by the commercial explosives industry to create a qualification that would meet the demand for tertiary explosives training. The Diploma in Explosives Management was established at the Technikon RSA and further developed to a B Tech Degree in Explosives Management (UNISA, 2014). With the integration of the Technikon RSA into UNISA, this qualification was hence forth presented by the College of Economic and Management Sciences. This qualification serves a valuable market sector such as the management of the explosives discipline, but falls short in serving the market need for technical explosives training and education.
In Europe Wallace et al. (2006:1), supported by Akhavan (2005), reported human failure as the main cause of explosives accidents and incidents in the UK and EU. They continued to attribute the human failure to the lack of competencies, skills and adequate training of employees. Akhavan (2005) stated that the UK, as well as the EU law relies on competent people to make decisions regarding the use and the safety of explosives. Akhavan (2005) continued that the pool of explosives expertise diminished substantially since the employees that entered the labour market in the 1960’s and 1970’s, are reaching retirement age. The end of the Cold War reduced the need for explosives workers, leading
to a decline in recruitment and training of new blood. The same trend was observed in the SA explosives industry, which lead to the demise of the educational qualifications at the Technikon Pretoria, as reported earlier.
1.3 The South African education system
The South African education system comprise of three bands of education referred to as General Education, Further Education and Training, and Higher Education (National Qualifications Framework Act, No. 67 of 2008). Firstly, General Education is the first nine years of school education. Secondly, Further Education and Training, or referred to as “post school” education, comprises of vocational and occupational education and training offered at colleges. It also includes the last three years of general school education. Finally, Higher Education is education offered by Universities and Universities of Technology. The levels of description for the training is classed from level 1 to 10 with level 10 being the most advance level attainable, being a Doctorate degree.
1.4 Market growth indicators
In the event that the South African explosives industry decides that a technical qualification in explosives is required, such a course will have to be established at a tertiary educational institution. It must be economically viable for such an institution to offer this qualification. Alternatively, the state could fully subsidise the costs of such a qualification, provided that the industry could convince the state that it is in the national interest of the country to have such a qualification. This is an unlikely event. In an effort to help establish an indication of the sustainability of such a qualification, a metric had to be found during the research. The growth of the explosives volumes and technology were used as indicators to determine the demand for training.
1.4.1 Manufactures of explosives
According to Flak and Motsoeneng (2013) and AECI (2013:6), AECI, AEL’s mother company’s earnings declined by 24% in 2012, due to the unrest in the mining industry. This interrupted a steady growth that has been maintained for the previous three years.
Despite the decline in earning though, there has been a steady growth in the technology and in volumes. This growth in volumes and technology could be used as an indicator for the necessity for training.
The Omnia Group reported an increase of 24% in earnings per share on 31 March 2012 (Omnia, 2012:4). The mining group of Omnia, represented by BME and Protea Chemical, reported a growth in revenue of 45.8% from 2011 to 2012. According to BME this was mainly due to growth in the West African operations. Considering the growth in technology, BME reported that its specialist blast consultancy services, software and the sales of electronic detonators, added value to its customers (Omnia, 2012:76).
The SASOL group reported in their annual report a 25% increase in headline earnings per share (SASOL, 2012:16). Through further analysis of SASOL (2012:113), SASOL Nitro Explosives reported a decrease in the sales volumes of the explosives business, due to safety stoppages and the strikes in the mining sector. They increased the supply of explosive accessories to Western Africa, invested in a third detonator production line and new automated production facilities of water-gel packaged explosives which contributed to the increase in sales volumes.
Maxam Dantex is a private company and no business information is available to the public. During the interview with Steyn (2013), it was reported that Maxam identified and is expanding into the greater African market.
It is therefore concluded that the increase in volumes and the investment in technology will be considered as an indicator for the need for explosives training.
1.4.2 Mining
The global mining sector will be influenced by changes in social, economic and political trends according to Deloitte and Touch (2012:3). Mines cannot only invest in plants and operations. They must invest in the local communities as well, namely providing railways, houses and education (Deloitte & Touch, 2012:4). Deloitte and Touch (2012:5) continue that cost reduction measures like automation and a reliance on technology to lower labour
cost, will play an important role in future mining operations. The report states that the industry has an acute shortage of skilled people to cope with the expansion required from a growing consumer demand (Deloitte &Touch, 2012:14).
Deloitte and Touch (2012:25) emphasise the role that carbon emission control will have on the mining industry. It is the author’s opinion that the explosives industry can play a leading role to reduce their own, and thus reducing the mining industry’s carbon footprint.
1.4.3 Defence explosives industry
Rheinmetall AG reported that the global defence spending for 2012 remains virtually unchanged from 2011 in the region of USD 1,590 billion calculated for 2012 (Rheinmetall, 2013a:12). Rheinmetall (2013a:13) reports figures from IHS Jane’s report, supported by Dowedy and Taylor (2013:2), indicating that the US and most European countries’ defence budgets were cut due to their withdrawal from Iraq and Afghanistan. However, their basic spending increased due to the need for the rejuvenation of defence material requirements. Dowedy and Taylor (2013: 2) reported significant increases in the Middle Eastern countries’ defence budgets. The Middle East is one of the major markets for the South African armament industry. IHS Jane’s report (as quoted by Rheinmetall, 2013b:76), stated that the top 65 of the world’s largest defence budgets will increase by 7% until 2015, with the procurement sector of the budget as high as 12%. Rheinmetall (2013b: 84) predicts a sharp increase in defence spending after 2015 due to the need to rejuvenate aging systems.
Rheinmetall Denel Munition (RDM), an associate of Denel is responsible for the manufacturing of ammunition and energetic materials. The company reported an increase in revenue of R332 million to R1295 Million for 2012 (Denel, 2013:51).
Denel (2013:37) reported a net profit of R71 million for 2013. Some major weapon related achievements were the signing of a missile contract worth R1.2 billion over 5 years, with a series of successful trials on the A-Darter missile program as well as an order for
PMP, a business unit of Denel (2013:48) which manufactures small and medium calibre ammunition, had a revenue increase of R32 million for 2012. The company invested in new-technology manufacturing equipment. An amount of R18 million was spent in 2011 on the rejuvenation to a state-of-the-art modern primary explosives facility. Mechem a business unit of Denel Land Systems that specialises in clearing up the remnants of war, canine services, related skills development, landmine and ballistic protected vehicle design and manufacturing, amongst others, reported a turnover of R302 million. This is double the turnover achieved in 2011 (Denel, 2012:36). Denel Overberg Test Range (OTR) provides a testing capability for various weapon systems. The test range is situated on the coast in the Southern Cape. OTR experienced a decrease of R17 million in turnover for 2012 (Denel, 2013:50).
In summary, it can be said that the mining industry in South Africa is under pressure, however there are promising growth opportunities in the African mining sector for South African explosive products and intellectual capital. The military markets show a good growth despite the easing of tensions in conflict zones and a slowing in defence expenditures.
1.5 Research statement
There are no formal explosives technical/engineering qualifications presented at higher education training institutions in South Africa. The explosives industry made efforts under the patron ship of NIXT and UNISA to re-establish a technical tertiary qualification. The demand has not been satisfied and there is still a need for technical explosives training in the explosives industry. Companies now intend to develop their own internal courses to provide training for their employees. The NIXT meeting (NIXT, 2013) aims to address the need for training for military explosives specialists.
Every organisation trains the people in accordance with their internal needs. This leads to a disparity in course content and standards. Therefore must uncertainties be clarified such as course content and the National Qualification Framework (NQF) levels at which the training must be presented.
In summary, the increasing demand from the consumers of explosives is reflected in the demand of the producers of explosives. Technology and trained people are required to satisfy the demand. The ability to train people in the explosives industry is limited and because training is fragmented, the quality and standards of training differ.
1.6 Study objectives
The objectives of the research were to define the South African explosives industry’s need for “Explosives Engineering” qualifications and to make recommendations for the structure and contents of this education.
1.6.1 Primary objective
The primary objective was to analyse the need for explosives engineering education in the SA explosives industry.
1.6.2 Secondary objectives
The primary objective was accomplished by the following secondary objectives:
1.6.3 Define the market
The role-players and stakeholders in the industry were identified. This included
Manufacturers; the Users; the Government agencies; Training providers and other stakeholders.
Once the stakeholders were identified, the functional usage profile/requirement for explosives training and education was analysed.
1.6.4 Determine the market growth
The study aimed to explore the potential market growth for explosives. This information was used as a leading indicator to determine the growth in the future demand and type of explosives training required.
1.6.5 Determine the market demand
The information that was gathered was analysed to determine the demand for explosives engineering education. The market demand as well as the growth in the market demand was used as an indicator to the sustainability of explosives engineering qualifications.
1.7 Research design and methodology
1.7.1 Scope of the research
The focus of the research was constructed using the attributes mentioned below.
1.7.2 Geographical distribution
The study focused on the South African explosives market. However, the Sub-Saharan African countries were also considered due to the influence of the South African explosives manufacturers in these markets.
1.7.3 Manufacturers
There are four major commercial explosives manufacturers and various smaller manufacturers in the RSA as well as two military explosives manufacturers. The major role-players had been the prime focus, but the smaller suppliers were also considered.
1.7.4 Users
The three sectors of industry that are users of explosives are the Mining Industry, the Construction Industry and the Security services. All three of these sectors have been included in the research.
1.7.5 Governance and support
The role-, impact- , and training requirements of the Government have been included in the study.
1.7.6 Training providers
The study identified and considered the roles and functions of the existing training providers, considering the National Qualification Framework.
1.8 Research methodology
The diverse nature of the explosives industry and the limited number of participants in the different groups warranted a qualitative research approach to be followed. The total explosives industry was divided into the various disciplines, such as manufacturing, regulatory, and training providers.
An analysis was done on the information required from the participants to determine their training needs in terms of the type of training required and the quantity of trainees to be trained. The analysis determined the structure and content of the questions put to participants. The profiles of the participants were chosen to be representative of the organisation.
Unstructured interviews were arranged with the selected participants in the different disciplines. The interviews were recorded and analysed. The data were then interpreted and used to make recommendations. During the interviews it became apparent that not all
the intended participants would be interviewed due to the availability of key personnel and the geographical distribution of the organisations.
The research was structured utilising the process mentioned below.
1.8.1 Literature study
The literature searches showed that very little has been published on training and education in the explosives industry. However, the available literature was used to explore the concepts of training and to investigate international training in explosives. The literature study was used to identify the various role-players in the industry and to provide the information to be used during the interviews with the representatives.
1.8.2 Qualitative Research
The composition and nature of the explosives industry is such that it did not warrant a quantitative research approach. With four major commercial explosives manufacturers, two military explosives manufacturers, a limited amount of mining houses and commercial blasting firms, it was decided that a qualitative approach should be used for the research.
Statistical techniques were used to analyse data where applicable. A factor that had to be considered was that training needs are normally defined and coordinated centrally in the large companies.
1.8.3 Interviews
Unstructured interviews were done with key role-players in the industry. A list of the interviewees are shown in annexure G. A framework of questions was constructed in preparation for the different organisations in the different sectors. This framework is shown at annexure E. The first part of the framework assisted to gather general information on the interviewee and the organisation. The following section served as a guide to explore the type of qualification that the employees possess. This section also served as a guideline to explore the organisations requirement for training in terms of the area of training and
quantity of people that would require training. The last section of the framework was used to determine the production and growth of the organisation. Care has been taken to ensure that similar questions have been asked to different role-players in the same sector to obtain data that are comparable or synergistic.
1.8.4 Use of questionnaires
After it became apparent that not all the participants would be interviewed, a questionnaire was constructed and distributed to organisations where it was not practicable to conduct an interview. The questionnaire shown at annexure F is a derivative of the questioning framework used during the interviews and was designed to gather comparable data captured during the interviews. The list of organisations that were requested to complete the questionnaires can be found in annexure G.
1.8.5 Data Analysis
The data gathered during the interviews and the questionnaires have been interpreted and grouped. The data were studied and conclusions were made where applicable. The conclusions have been reported and recommendations made.
1.9 Outcome
The objectives were: firstly, to define the requirements for explosives engineering training, and the education needs of the industry; secondly, to indentify the type and structure of explosives engineering education required; thirdly, to provide guidelines for the content of the training and education; and fourthly to establish an indication of the sustainability of this qualification.
1.10 Limitations
The explosives industry in South Africa, with reference to training, is diverse. It ranges from scientific research in the explosives applications at universities, to the training of ammunition fitter and miners in the use of explosives. The users of explosive knowledge
range from scientists to Bisley shotists and from law enforcement officers to designers of control systems for explosives plants. Therefore due to the diversity of the need for explosives knowledge, the research focused on core explosives related engineering training and education, which could, or should be presented at tertiary training providers, such as universities or universities of technology.
The research has not focused on pedagogical models of current training.
A limiting factor was the willingness of companies to make information which may compromise their market position or strategies available.
1.11 Summary
South Africa has a well-developed explosives industry and its roots can be traced back to the beginning of the last century. Throughout its history training has been done in-house at the various explosives manufacturers. The establishment of the Diploma in Explosives Technology was driven by the military’s needs for explosives specialists. The attendance of this diploma boomed in the late 1980s but was discontinued in the mid-1990s due to a decrease in demand. Qualifications in explosives management were established at UNISA which partially satisfied the industry’s need for explosives training. However the need for explosives engineering or technical training had been lacking since the mid-1990s.
During the problem analysis process of the research problem a mind map of the industry was constructed which served as a very powerful tool that directed the approach and scope of the research. The mind map showed the extent and diversity of the explosives industry and it assisted in pegging the boundaries for the scope and depth of the research. A realisation of the scope of the industry and the scarcity of published information were the driving factors that influenced the decision to take a holistic approach to the research instead of a detailed analysis of a specific parameter.
The non availability of accurate explosives production data was the reason why alternative mechanisms had to be found to get an indication of the sustainability of training requirements in the explosives industry. The two main sectors in the industry namely the
commercial explosives and military explosives industry’s client’s production figures were interrogated. Analysis of the trends, such as the change in mineral production growth and changes in technology, were used as a typical indicator of the sustainability of an explosives engineering qualification. It was also reasoned that the age profile of the employees in the explosives industry could be used as an indicator for the sustainability of an explosives engineering degree.
The non availability of technical training in explosives at tertiary training institutions forced companies to conduct in house training for employees. This and the non existence of a independent body charged with the responsibility to set and regulate training standards for the explosives discipline raised a question to the standards and quality of the decentralised training in industry.
CHAPTER 2
2
THEORETICAL STUDY
2.1 Introduction
During the initial research it was observed that very little has been written about the training and education in the South African explosives industry. Some work has been done by Wallace, Akhavan and others (Wallace et al., 2006) and Akhavan (2005), on the development of the explosives training in Europe. Although this work is relevant, it is not applicable to the South African training educational environment.
It was necessary to follow a different approach. The remainder of this chapter will be dedicated to describing the aspects and functionalities that were required to conduct the research. This chapter will thus describe the context and environment in which the research was conducted, as well as to orientate the reader to understand the context of the research and the results that will be reported.
Considering the term “explosives engineer”, there are concepts which should be considered. The first that comes to mind is what the meaning of the term is. Once this has been determined, the attributes that this discipline requires should be considered. It is important to not only consider the educational program required to qualify explosives engineers, but also the sustainability of such a program.
It was required that the trends in the growth of the SA Explosives Industry, which includes both the commercial and military industries, be measured and compared to the other international explosives industries. To be able to interface with the international community, the SA Explosives industry must work from a basis that is recognised and understood by the international community. Two aspects that have a significant influence, are the terminology and the standards, with specific reference to the standards of training.
2.2 Orientation on explosives
The aim of this explanation is to orientate the reader in the classification of explosives used in the market. The explanation is not intended to educate the reader in the technical and scientific details of explosives, but to create a basic understanding of the differences in the characteristics of explosives, and how they are classified.
2.2.1 What is an explosive?
Broadly defined and adapted from Meyer et al. (2007:131), an “explosive” is a substance that contains its own fuel and oxidiser, which will react to produce a large amount of energy in the form of gas, heat and noise, when suitably ignited. The substance can be a homogeneous substance or a mixture of two or more substances. The decomposition rate, or reaction rate, of the explosion reaction is normally very fast - in the region of thousands of meters per second.
2.2.2 Classification of explosives
Explosions are classified in three main categories, namely chemical explosions caused by explosives substances, physical explosions (rupture of a steam vessel) and nuclear explosions, as shown in Figure 2.1. This document will only consider explosions caused by an explosives chemical substance.
Figure 2.1 is the authors own visual presentation of the classification of explosives which is an adaption of Akhavan (2008:25) and Meyer et al. (2007). Explosives are categorised in two main categories, being High explosives (HE) and Low Explosives (LE).
2.2.2.1 High Explosives (HE)
High Explosives are the workhorse of the mining industry and the military explosives. An explosive substance is classified as a high explosive when its decomposition reaction rate exceeds the speed of sound in that substance. The reaction is known as a detonation
reaction. According to Fickett and Davis (2000:1) detonation is normally associated with a shock wave (detonation wave) which breaks the chemical structure of the explosives. The subsequent decomposition of the explosives causes large amounts of gas, heat and noise to be released very rapidly. This effect is commonly referred to as the explosive blast.
High explosives are categorised as primary high explosives, secondary high explosives and tertiary high explosives. Primary high explosives are sensitive to specific stimuli such as heat, friction, impact, etc and will detonate upon being exposed to the stimuli (Meyer et
al., 2007: 265; Akhavan, 2008:24). It is manufactured in small quantities and handled with
extreme care. It is normally used as ignition systems for secondary and tertiary high explosives. Secondary high explosives are the workhorse of the explosives industry. It is less sensitive than primary high explosives. It can be moulded, pressed and worked with ease (Meyer et al., 2007: 277; Akhavan, 2008:26). Finally, according to Meyer et al. (2007: 277) tertiary high explosives are insensitive high explosives that require substantial stimuli to detonate; examples are ammonium nitrate and ammonium perchlorate.
2.2.2.2 Low explosives (LE)
Low explosives are mainly propellants, pyrotechnics and gunpowder (Akhavan, 2008:27). As mentioned above, a low explosive burns or deflagrates to produce gas and heat to do the work; for example, propel a projectile down a barrel, or a rocket motor for propelling a vehicle into space.
Pyrotechnics are low explosives which are designed to produce a specific effect, for example, a delayed element, coloured smoke, and fireworks, amongst others (Akhavan, 2008:157).
Low explosives are characterised by deflagration or a burning reaction that takes place on the surface of the substance after ignition by a heat source. Although the products of a low explosive can also produce large volumes of gas, heat and noise, the speed of the decomposition reaction is relatively slow, for instance less than the speed of sound in that medium.
Figure 2.1 The classification of groups of explosives.
Source: Authors own adaption from Akhavan (2008:25)
2.2.3 Commercial and military high explosives
High explosives are broadly classified as commercial high explosives or military high explosives. Commercial high explosives tend to have a lower velocity of detonation, and are designed to generate large volumes of gas, in order to give a heaving effect in the rock. Military high explosives have high velocities of detonation, which have a larger shattering effect. Military high explosives are more expensive than commercial high explosives, and are designed to have a much longer shelf life than commercial explosives. Chemically, the main difference between military and commercial explosives is that the military explosives are a homogeneous explosive, where the oxygen and the fuel form an integral part of the molecule. With commercial high explosives the oxidiser and fuel are contained in two
different particles which are mixed together; an example is ammonium nitrate salt and fuel oil commonly referred to as ANFO (Akhavan, 2008:141).
2.3 Description of the SA explosives industrial landscape
The South African explosives market consists of various elements that will be described hereafter. The elements described are working with explosives, or have a direct role to play in the explosives industry. The aim is not to list every company or organisation, but to describe the industry so as to get a grasp of the size of the industry, as this industry will be the feeding grounds of future explosives qualifications.
2.3.1 Explosives manufacturing
The first to analyse are the manufacturers of explosives and explosive filled products. The explosives manufacturers are divided into two main categories, namely commercial explosives manufacturers and military explosives and ammunition manufacturers. There are four main commercial explosives manufacturers and two military explosives manufactures according to Coutinho (2013) and Ramabulana (2013). The four commercial explosives manufactures in alphabetical order, are AEL MS, BME Omnia, Maxam Dantex and Sasol Mining Services. Ramabulana (2013) mentioned that there are also a number of smaller producers of explosive components and products, serving niche markets, such as Eco Break, Green Break Technologies and Nxco, to name a few.
The military manufacturers are Rheinmetall Denel Munitions, PMP, Fuchs Electronics and Denel Dynamics. These companies either produce explosives or integrate explosives into ammunition components.
It is important to note that not all bulk explosives are manufactured in South Africa. Although there are explosives manufacturing plants that produce Ammonium Nitrate (AN), PETN and RDX, other explosives such as TNT are imported due to market conditions.
Commercial pyrotechnics for fireworks displays are imported by specialist companies. Smith (2013) reported that there are approximately 13,000 fireworks dealers registered in South Africa.
2.3.2 Users of explosives
The users of explosives range from the occasional hunter, the motor vehicle industry, the aviation industry and individuals using fireworks, to the mining and military industries. The two main users can be classified as being the Government and the commercial industry.
The Governmental users are the SANDF and the security forces, such as the SAPS and Correctional services according to Smith (2013). With the exception of the SAPS, the remainder of the security services and Governmental departments use small arms ammunition. These departments will not be considered further in this study due to the insignificant volumes of ammunition and explosives used.
Although the SANDF is structured across four Arms of Services and the Special Forces component, only the SA Army, SA Air Force, SA Navy and Special Forces are users of ammunition and explosives. According to Cronje (2013) and Steyn (2013) the SANDF has elaborate ammunition and explosives support structures that are staffed by well trained and competent personnel. The SANDF plays an important role in the SA explosives industry as a user and driver of technology. According to Apollis (2013) the School of Ammunition is the chief ammunition and explosives training facility, situated at De Aar in the Northern Cape Province, followed by the SA Engineering Core’s School of Engineering situated in Kroonstad (Manser, 2013).
The majority of SAPS members carry side arms and make use of small arms ammunition and pyrotechnics. The SAPS has two distinctive roles related to explosives: firstly as a user of ammunition, and secondly as a regulatory enforcer of the law. According to Smith (2013) the users of ammunition and explosives in the SAPS Bomb Disposal teams require an in-depth knowledge of ammunition and explosives. The SAPS Special task force is a highly trained unit that employs explosives to execute their functions. The SAPS forensic unit
requires in-depth knowledge of ammunition and explosives as to successfully conduct forensic investigations. Smith (2013) reports that all explosives related training of the SAPS, is done centrally by the explosives section under the Forensic Services.
The SA mining industry is the largest consumer of explosives in South Africa. Distinction is made between the use of explosives for underground mining, and that used for surface mining, due to the differences in mining techniques. There is an important difference between the explosives used in fiery mines, such as coal mines, and non-fiery mines, like gold or platinum mines, due to the risk of secondary explosions caused by gas captured in the minerals being mined.
The Department of Mineral Resources has 1,704 mining licenses registered at the department in 2013 (DMR, 2013). It is estimated that approximately 23%, equating to 384, of these mining license holders use explosives for their daily mining operations. The mining licenses vary from gold and chrome mining operations, to salt and sand mining as well as surface processing plants. The reason for the inaccuracy of the figure of (23%) is the following:
It was not possible to determine which coal mines make exclusive use of continuous mining techniques. It was also assumed that all shale, brick making clay, dimension stone, feldspar, fire clay and gypsum, salt, silica sand and aggregate mines as well as alluvial diamond mines do not make use of explosives on a continuous basis for their mining operations. A total amount of 77 surface works processing plants also hold mining licenses but do not use any explosives in their operations.
Smith (2013) mentions that production volumes in the manufacturing of detonators are estimated to be in excess of 2 million detonators per day. This need is driven by the introduction of shock tube initiating systems that replaced old capped fuse initiating systems used in the mines.
The blasting firms that work in the construction industry are also considered as a user of explosives during the study. The users of explosives are numerous. Smith (2013) reports
that the registered amount of users of high explosives in South Africa exceed 22,000 in number.
2.3.3 Construction and commercial industries
The last group of explosives users in South Africa is the construction blasting firms, that number in excess of 22,000, according to Smith (2013). Their usages of explosives are twofold, firstly for construction blasting, such as cutting of mountain passes, and secondly for demolition of civil structures, which is a specialised field in the demolition industry.
The motor vehicle industry installs air bags in vehicles. The air bags are explosives gas generation units which are imported from foreign manufacturers and fitted to vehicles in the RSA. Because these industries import the units and fit it, they will be grouped with the pyrotechnicians and fireworks importers and sellers, who mainly trade with the products. According to van Staaden (2013b) the fireworks dealers number in the region of 13,000 dealers, with a further 1,000 users of blank cartridges, and 25 companies registered to use gunpowder.
2.3.4 Regulatory and enforcement agencies
According to van Staaden (2103b), the SAPS’s Chief Inspector of Explosives (CIE) is the regulatory enforcing body, which controls the movement and storage above ground and usage of explosives in the commercial explosives industry, in accordance with the regulation. Their conduct is governed by the Explosives Act (No. 15 of 2003) and its regulations.
The enforcement of the Explosives Regulations to the Occupational Health and Safety Act (No. 85 of 1993), is the duty of the Department of Labour (DOL), that regulates the manufacturing of explosives and ammunition in South Africa. Ramabulana (2013) states that the DOL as a regulatory function, has unique training needs.
The Department of Mineral Resources (DMR) is the custodian of the Mining Act and the mining safety regulations contained in the Mine Health and Safety Act (No. 29 of 1996). These regulations govern the storage, handling, use and destruction of explosives in the mines (Coutinho, 2013).
2.3.5 Test facilities
All explosives manufacturers have their own test facilities at the manufacturing sites. The test facilities mentioned here are facilities that specialise only in the testing of explosives, ammunition, weapons or systems. The three main test ranges of ammunition and explosives are owned by Armscor (Alkantpan Test Range), Denel (Overberg Test Range,) CSIR (PDS test facility) at the Paardefontein range, and DMR test facility (Kloppersbos) that conducts safety tests in fiery mines.
Van Vuuren, (2013) reports that explosives are used and tested on these ranges and that the range’s management and personnel must have knowledge of the use, danger and regulation pertaining to explosives. The test ranges facilitate the execution of tests and trials. The user of the ranges is responsible for the test design. The user, assisted by the specialists from the test range, conducts the trials. The test facility takes the various measurements and records the data. The data are then provided to the user for further analysis.
It must be noted that the majority of manufacturers of explosives and ammunition have their own production related testing- and destruction facilities on site. These facilities are used for quality control purposes during the production processes as well as product development and optimisation.
2.3.6 Transportation and packaging
The majority of the explosives manufacturers have the capability to transport explosives. However, there are companies that specialise in the packaging and transportation of dangerous goods, with specific reference to explosives. Furthermore, there are companies
that conduct testing and qualification of ammunition and explosives packaging to ensure that it complies with the IMDG code, according to Van Vuuren (2013).
2.3.7 The training and educational institutions
The institutions that provide ammunition-, explosives-, and related training and education, are listed below.
2.3.7.1 University of South Africa (UNISA)
The School of Management at UNISA presents a National Diploma and a BTech Degree in Explosives Management, as well as various short learning programs, which can articulate into qualifications in explosives management at the Centre for Blended Learning, under the custodianship of the School of Management, according to Schenk et al. (2013). According to de Beer et al. (2005:123) the UNISA programmes combine the explosives sciences with operational management. The aim of the programmes is to provide the African sector with sufficient technological and managerial knowledge to make safe technical and managerial decisions in the explosives work related environment.
2.3.7.2 Other universities
Degrees in mining engineering and applied sciences are presented at the University of Pretoria, (De Graaf, 2013), the University of the Witwatersrand and the University of Johannesburg (Prout, 2013). All these qualifications encompass a single module on mining explosives or blast design, with the exception of the University of Pretoria who present a subject in explosives engineering. According to De Graaf (2013) the subjects are structured to focus on mining activities such as drilling and blasting operations, and limited explosives specific work is covered.
2.3.7.3 BISRU
The BISRU is an institute at the University of Cape Town that does post graduate research in the field of blast protection and the response of structure to blast loading (Nurick, 2013). The unit can fire small scale charges in their research facilities.
2.3.7.4 SANDF, Explosives training facilities
The SANDF have various facilities where the soldiers are trained in the use and maintenance of explosives. According to Apollis (2013), the School of Ammunition presents explosives, ammunition and related training to the SANDF and security forces’ personnel. The majority of military ammunition technical specialists are trained at this school. The School of Ammunition is in the process of accrediting their training courses. This school presents the foundation courses applicable to ammunition and explosives. Furthermore, specialised training in underwater demolitions is done at the SA Navy Diving School in Simon's Town according to Steyn (2013b), and at the School of Engineers situated in Kroonstad (Manser, 2013). The South African Special Forces have their own training institutions where demolition training, amongst others, is presented.
2.3.7.5 SAPS Explosives training section
This section of the SAPS trains all the explosives function for the SAPS, for example the Bomb Disposal squad, Explosives Inspectors, Crime scene investigators and the Special Task Force to name a few (Smith, 2013). The SAPS explosives training section is situated in Pretoria but uses various facilities throughout the country to present the training.
2.3.7.6 Mechem
According to Taljaard (2013), Mechem is a Denel affiliate which specialises in the construction of landmine protected vehicles, demining and the clearance of explosive remnants. Mechem presents accredited training to any person involved in mine clearance, EOD, explosives detection dog training, and other related training.
2.3.7.7 Rheinmetall Denel Munition – Ordnance Training Centre
The Ordnance Training Centre (OTC) at RDM presents explosives and ammunition training to foreign trainees. The OTC is situated at the RDM Boskop site in Potchefstroom. The OTC is co-located on the ammunition manufacturing facility. This allows them to provide high quality theoretical training in the explosives and ammunition disciplines on various subjects, supported by practical training in the plants and on the test ranges available at the RDM facilities, which are located at Boskop, Somerset West, Wellington and Boksburg.
2.3.7.8 Explosives manufacturers training services
Explosives manufacturers provide training for their own personnel in the manufacturing of explosives. Tose (2013) reports that AEL MS presents an orientation program for middle management, an explosives handler’s course, and an internal explosives engineering course, with the duration of approximately one month. AEL MS offers some of the modules of the explosives engineering course to external clients.
According to Schalkwyk (2013), BME also provides accredited training to their own personnel.
2.3.7.9 Other training providers and consultants
According to MQA (2013) there are 129 registered training providers at the DMR, of which at least 48 are registered to provide at least one course in the mining training sector that involves training in the use of explosives in mines.
A comment on “blaster” trainee programs: There are no formal tertiary training courses available that will qualify an aspirant commercial blaster as a blaster. The training for blasters is prescribed in the Explosives Act. The summarised process according to van Staaden (2013a) is that a trainee blaster must first register at the SAPS, where the candidate writes an exam. After having passed the exam, the candidate has to work a
number of shifts under a qualified blaster. Hereafter the candidate is evaluated by the SAPS and certified competent, if considered so by the SAPS.
2.3.8 Governmental institutions with and explosive interface
2.3.8.1 Armscor
Armscor is the acquisition agency of the SANDF. Its mission is to meet the acquisition, maintenance and disposal needs for defence material of the South African Department of Defence (Armscor: 2013). Armscor has specialist divisions under the name of Armscor Defence Institutes, which are involved with research and development, shipping and support of ammunition and explosives, equipment disposal and other functions, on behalf of the SANDF.
2.3.8.2 CSIR DPS
The Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR) have various units that conduct research. It is reported by Engels and Lotter (2013) that the Landwards research group (DPS) does research for military purposes, where various highly respected explosives researchers work on a variety of projects. The Paardefontein test facilities are managed and used by DPS for various explosives related research tasks.
2.3.9 Explosives support service providers
The industry requires the capability to monitor the effects of blasting operations, as well as the design of blasting operations to ensure compliance with the law and avoid expensive lawsuits. There are a number of companies that provide services from blast design to environmental monitoring services.
There are various other consultants and service providers, of which Blast Management & Consulting, Du Preez Munition Services and Detnet are but three examples of specialists and businesses that have niche skills, serving specific sectors in the industry.
2.3.10 Interdisciplinary organisations
2.3.10.1 NIXT
The National Institute of Explosives Technology is an organisation with the aim to foster the interests of the commercial-, arms manufacturing-, military-, mining-, structural engineering- and educational sectors as well as other organisations related to the South African explosives and related industries (NIXT, 2010). Membership to the organisation is voluntary, but the organisation has proven since its inception in the 1980s that it adds value to the South African explosives industry, by serving as a communication forum for like-minded subject matter experts.
The National Institute of Explosives Technology (NIXT, 2013) is a non-profit organisation with the mission “To further the cause of the explosives industry in general, and its members in particular” (NIXT, 2013). One of the various aims of NIXT is to “assist with training actions”. The membership of NIXT is across the company as well as the commercial and military sectors, according to Tough (2013). NIXT provides access for its members to the international blasting organisations such as SAFEX.
NIXT established an advisory forum for training, to advise the industry on mechanisms and solutions to breach the gap in explosives and related training. The forum consists of representatives of industry, military and the Government.
2.3.10.2 SABO
The South African Ballistics Organisation (SABO) is a non-profit organisation with the aim to promote the interest of ballistics and the ballistic sciences in South Africa. As with NIXT, the membership is open to ballisticians and companies interested in ballistics, and thus not limited to a specific company. Van Niekerk (2013b) reported that SABO also enables access for its members to the International Ballistics Organisation and international conferences.
2.3.10.3 Chamber of Mines
The Chamber of Mines plays a pivotal role in the structure and policies of the mines. Kruger (2013) reports that the Chamber of Mines is a lobbying organisation that seeks to promote the interests of its members through interaction with the role-players in industry and in Government.
2.4 Size of the explosives market
The two industries in the world that use the most explosives are the military and commercial/mining industries. Other industries such as the entertainment industry, vehicle industry, construction industry and space industry, to name but a few, also use explosives. However, in volume terms their usage is low.
It is difficult to find metrics that accurately report the annual consumption of explosives globally, or in South Africa. No production data of the quantities of military explosives or ammunition could be found. However, an order estimate on the relative size of the military explosives industry in relation to a sector of the commercial explosives industry, is done below.
Considering the 1991 Iraqi War, an estimated amount of 84,200 tons of bombs were dropped, and a further 120,000 tons of ammunition were used by the coalition forces over a period of 43 days (Sadiq & Mc Cain, 1993:75). Based on the characteristics, a fair estimate of the explosives weight as a percentage of an aircraft bomb’s weight is that it makes up approximately 50% of the bomb’s weight. This implies that an estimated 42,100 tons of explosives were deployed by aircraft. Applying the same ratio (although landward and naval ammunition have different explosives weight to ammunition weight ratios, the 50% ratio was chosen to demonstrate the point) to the rest of the ammunition, a further 60,000 tons of explosives were deployed during the conflict. This summates to a total of 102,100 tons of military explosives used during only this one intensive conflict.
During the Second World War an amount of 3.4 million tons of bombs were dropped by the allied forces for the entire war. Applying the 50% explosives to bomb weight ratio this equates to 1.7 million tons of explosives (Factmonsters, 2103).
In comparison to the commercial mining industry, 2 570 000 metric tons of commercial explosives were used in mines in the United States of America alone in the year 2000 (US Bureau of Mines, 2001:15).
Resultantly, it is clear from the comparison that the world’s commercial explosives industry is considerably larger than the military explosives industry. This is an important fact when considering the market and hence the production of explosives volumes.
2.5 Market growth in the global commercial explosives industry
The EU issued a Council Directive (93/15/EEC) in 1993, with the aim to regulate the civil explosives market in the EU (GHK Technopolis, 2007:5). The directive’s purpose is to develop a single market in explosives in Europe and enhance the security in the industry. The purpose of the report has little application to this study, however, the following facts are applicable: GHK Technopolis (2007:6) as well as Wallace et al. (2006:1) and Akhavan (2005) report that there have been a series of incidents at explosives factories leading to fatalities. Interestingly, the majority of them have been caused by either human error or plant equipment failures.
GHK Technopolis (2007:15) reports that the consumption of commercial explosives in the US has been 68% by the coal mines, quarrying and non-metals 13%, with metal mining 8%, construction 8%, while other industrial use has been 3%. GHK Technopolis (2007:16) states that in 2001 the continent of North America consumed 2.5 million tonnes of explosives. This is 39% of the world’s consumption. Africa consumed 9% of the world’s use and Europe 8%, equating to 524,000 tonnes in the same year. It must be noted that the confidence in any of the explosives production data are low due to the scarcity of accurate data on explosives production volumes.
