Liselore van Leeuwen, 6150179
Master’s Thesis
Graduate School of Communication
Master’s program Communication Science Youth and Media
Supervisor: Renske van Bronswijk
January 30, 2015
U n i v e r s i t y o f A m s t e r d a m
The smartphone: A love-hate relationshipA
qualitative exploration of emerging adults’
perceptions concerning smartphone use in social
settings in their daily lives
Abstract
Media are among the most powerful forces in young people’s lives today and emerging adults are in the middle of this non-stop connection due to the rise of the smartphone, which has become an essential part of their lives in the last couple of years. However, there is not much research available about this topic. The present study reports a qualitative exploration of the perceptions and behaviors of emerging adults in relation to smartphone use in their daily lives. Twenty-one participants aged between 18 and 25 years old took part in five focus group discussions. Data analysis focused on major themes during the discussions and the
perceptions of these themes. Smartphone use seems socially accepted in many social settings, and is seen as a handy tool to pass the time or to relax. It also appeared that emerging adults have difficulties dealing with certain conflicting situations the smartphone causes between online and offline social settings. The present study contributes to the knowledge about the perceptions and behaviors of emerging adults in relation to smartphone use, however further research is needed to extend the gained knowledge.
Table of contents
1. Introduction 7
2. Theoretical background 8
Emerging adults and social identity 9
Impression management 10
Online versus offline environments 11
Checking habit and need to answer 11
Absent presence theory 12
Fear of missing out 13
3. Method 14
Design 14
Participants 16
Procedure and material 16
Data analysis 17
4. Results 18
Perception of smartphone use and social inclusion 18 Perception of social control through smartphones 20 Perception of non-social aspects of smartphones 21
Perception of smartphone use by others 22
Perception of domino effect 23
Perception of social pressure to use or not use the smartphone 24 Perception of the divide between online and offline environments 25
5. Discussion 27
6. References 33
7. Appendices 36
Appendix 1: Interview guide 36
Appendix 2: Focus group results of session 2, mixed gender (in Dutch) 37
Growing up in the age of non-stop connection is not easy, especially for the so-called Generation Y, youngsters born after 1980. Media are among the most powerful forces in young people’s lives today and emerging adults are in the middle of this continuous
connection due to the rise of the smartphone (Malikhao & Servaes, 2011). Smartphones have become an essential part of our lives in the last couple of years. They give access to dozens of information sources, social networks and applications. The devices are popular amongst all age groups, which make the smartphone and the social etiquette concerning its use an interesting phenomenon to investigate (Coyne, Padilla-Walker & Howard, 2013). The
smartphone gives us the opportunity to connect with people all over the world and makes our online and offline social network bigger and wider. Youngsters especially use the smartphone on a daily basis to go online when they are not at home but on their way. In the Netherlands, seven out of ten twelve to 25 year olds use their smartphone to go online, most of them almost daily (CBS, 2013). So it is clear that mobile phone usage is nowhere more apparent than in the lives of young people (Campbell & Park, 2008; Coyne et al., 2013). Numerous studies have been conducted to examine cell phones and related topics such as dependency and addiction (Hall & Baym, 2011; Pourrazavi, Allahverdipour, Jafarabadi, & Matlabi, 2014; Walsh & White, 2006), cell phone cultures and behaviors (Campbell & Park, 2008; Oulasvirta, Rattenbury, Ma, Raita, 2012; Pielot, Oliveira, Kwak & Oliver, 2014) and cell phone etiquette (Lipscomb, Totten, Cook, & Lesch, 2007).
However, little research has been conducted to understand how young adults think about their own behavior when it comes to smartphone use in public spaces or social environments in relation to the behavior of others. Also, technical developments regarding smartphones have been very rapid and are still going on. Because of that, scientific research ages quickly. This indicates the importance of the present study. The aim of this study is to identify how emerging adults think about the social etiquette concerning smartphone use of
others’ and of themselves in social settings. Already in 2008, it was noted that young adults are known for their distinctive use of mobile phones to establish and maintain social
networks, which influences their social landscape (Campbell & Park, 2008). And according to Roks (2012), the online and offline social relations of emerging adults are strongly
intertwined because of the smartphone. For instance, the presence of a smartphone can interrupt a face-to-face conversation. Incoming messages can distract people when they are looking at their screen to see what some one texted. Situations like this happen more and more and could, in turn cause irritation in the offline social environment.
People rely more and more on mobile phones to plan, contact others and share a lot of information. This makes the technical device really appealing. However, the device could also cause tensions, which Hall and Baym (2007) already found among mobile phone use years ago. The smartphone enables you to contact others at any given point of the day, which is one of the qualities of the device, however this also means that you are available for others to contact you continuously. This is one of the most disliked features of a mobile phone (Hall & Baym, 2007). Smartphone use can also create conflicts with other activities in the offline social environment, because people get distracted easily by their phone with all the different features it offers. This is a relatively new phenomenon and little is known about the
psychological underpinnings of young peoples’ mobile phone behavior and therefore important to examine (Walsh, White & Young, 2008). To understand how emerging adults think about all of these aspects, the following research question is formulated: How do emerging adults perceive their own smartphone use and the smartphone use of others in social settings in daily life?
Theoretical Background
Previous research about mobile phones and related topics has shown that mobile phone use plays an integral part in the lives of young adults (Campbell, 2005; Hakoama &
Hakoyama, 2012; Wals et al., 2008). Younger age groups are likely to appreciate them more and also be more dependent on them than older age groups (Hakoama & Hakoyama, 2011). According to Walsh, White & Young (2008) psychosocial motivations such as self-esteem enhancement and the need to belong may underlie young people’s mobile phone behavior. The smartphone has numerous functions in psychological and social aspects. It has succeeded to change social networks and could alter methods of human interaction (Pourrazavi et al. 2014). The popularity of mobile phone use amongst emerging adults is due, in part to social benefits arising from using a phone. Seven years ago Walsh et al. (2008) found that the use of a mobile phone increases social inclusion and connectedness. This is something that will only increase with the development of the smartphone, which gives access to the online world and dozens of features. A more recent study, conducted by Church and Oliveira (2013) reveals that the social influence of one’s environment is one of the main reasons for people to use smartphones and instant messaging applications like WhatsApp. In this chapter
developmental features of emerging adults will be discussed to give an insight into the needs they have in relation to smartphone use. Behavioral patterns of young adults in relation to mobile phone use will be discussed to display what is going on at the moment and what is already known about this topic.
Emerging Adults and Social Identity
Emerging adulthood has been defined as the period in life between 18 years old and the late 20s (Coyne et al., 2013). It is characterized as a period that is developmentally distinct from adolescence and adulthood. This stage in life has five distinctive features according to Arnett (2004), which he outlined as; a time of identity exploration, instability (in terms of residence changes), the feeling of being in-between (not feeling as an adolescent anymore but also not as an adult yet), being self-focused, and feeling very positive and optimistic about the future. Emerging adults are in a period of their life where they start to learn more about who
they are and what they want in their life. One of the most central features of emerging adults is the identity exploration they experience. They have become more independent and are looking for what they want in the present but also in the future (Arnett, 2004). When it comes to media, they are looking for content that suits their personal needs that will contribute to form their identity. This also means they are susceptible to trends that fit their social identity, which make them more willing to adopt new technological devices and certain behavioral characteristics (Hakoama & Hakoyama, 2011).
Impression Management
Emerging adults try to develop a favorable image and consider it important what others think about them because it contributes to their social value. Because the impressions people make on others have implications for how others perceive, evaluate and treat them, people sometimes behave in ways that create certain impressions in others’ eyes (Leary & Kowalski, 1990). Goffman (1959) describes this as the importance of having face. It is the basic motivation for human interaction. He distinguishes two faces: the positive and the negative face. The positive face is the value people attach to whether or not people are
positive about him or her. The negative face is about the importance of being independent and the freedom to say and do whatever you want (Goffman, 1959). When applying this theory to smartphone use, it brings about a couple of contradictions. Smartphone users are online and available 24/7, but this is not always what they want. They want others to respond to their messages as soon as possible, but they themselves cannot and do not always respond as soon as they can. So the positive face can be influenced when someone does not respond right away. When they are not participating in online conversations, people can form a negative image about that person. On the other hand, when in an offline environment, one is
influenced and turned into negative face because a distance is created between the interlocutors.
Online Versus Offline Environments
It is apparent that emerging adults' online and offline worlds are strongly intertwined. According to Subrahmanyam, Reich, Waechter and Espinoza (2008), they use the Internet on smartphones to solidify their offline identity. Also, they use their online virtual communities to sustain their real communities that exist offline, such as using online tools to plan social events with their offline friends. Smartphones give emerging adults the opportunity to satisfy needs for social interaction in online and offline environments. This makes them part of different groups like WhatsApp groups, study groups or events that are organized on Facebook, but also the groups of people that use smartphones and social media in general. This phenomenon can be related to the Social Identity Theory by Tajfel (1974) in which he states that social interaction leads to interdependence among people that belong to a group. These groups with individuals should then develop shared social norms and values, which will regulate their opinions and behavior in matters of common interest. This theory can still be applied to new ways of communication in the present. When applied to mobile phone use it becomes clear that young people, who are easily influenced by the behavior of other group members, are sensitive to the in-group norms and mobile phone behavior in that group. Mobile phones provide constant connection to others, which potentially increases the
psychological relationship that people have with their friends and peers, according to Walsh et al. (2008). This constant connection that the smartphone provides has positive and negative sides, which will be discussed in the following sections.
Checking Habit and Need to Answer
They socialize in new ways and they perform tasks in new ways, often switching between tasks while having conversations on WhatsApp. People share and gather information in a different way and behavior among groups is being modified. An appearance that comes with these new ways of communicating is the checking habit; a brief, repetitive inspection of constantly changing content that is quickly accessible on the smartphone (Oulasvirta et al., 2012). This goes hand in hand with the need to answer; the pressure people feel to respond to messages. With the rise of messaging applications on smartphones like WhatsApp or
Facebook Messenger, costs of texting are reduced to zero. Therefore, these apps are used increasingly as mobile instant messaging instead of normal texting for which costs are included. An extra feature of this new way of text messaging with smartphones is however, that they display whether or not a message is read or not, which causes the expectation of a response to a message within a few minutes. The intense reliance on mobile phones to organize, share, inform, and communicate with friends establishes strong obligations to be responsive to one another (Hall & Baym, 2011). These expectations and obligations are problematic for both the sender and receiver (Pielot et al., 2014). The receiver feels the pressure to respond to the messages that he or she receives during the day and the sender has expectations about when the receiver will reply. When the receiver is not able to respond right away, it could damage the expectations of the sender, which can lead to tensions in the
relationship (Pielot et al., 2014). These situations need to get more attention and distinct understandings for each medium and shared norms for their use are necessary.
Absent Presence Theory
Another phenomenon that is related to the checking habit is the Absence Presence Theory by Gergen (2002). This theory states that a physical presence is no longer a
requirement for social inclusion, because the presence of a smartphone can interrupt a face-to-face conversation, which reduces the intimacy of the conversation (Walsh & White, 2006).
When looking around in a waiting room at the dentist, in a subway, on a train or in a
restaurant, people are absorbed in their smartphone. They are physically present, but absorbed by a technologically mediated world of elsewhere. They are sending selfies, posting photos of their meals or drinks on Instagram, reading the news or checking their Facebook timeline. These actions can be experienced as disturbing or disruptive by their surroundings, because it can give the impression that others are not as interesting as the smartphone.
Fear of Missing Out
Przybylski, Murayama, DeHaan, and Gladwell (2013) examined the concept of Fear of Missing Out (FoMO) in relation to mobile phone use. FoMO characterizes the desire to stay connected constantly to others. This is because others might be having interesting conversations or rewarding experiences from which one is absent when not checking their phone or responding to messages. This could cause social exclusion, which no one wants to experience so it encourages people to check in with their smartphone constantly. Emerging adults are prone for the checking habit and FoMO, because they want to be included in groups in their social environment. This causes them to want to be available online at all times. This can be brought back to the Social Identity Theory by Tajfel (1979), discussed earlier, in the sense that social interaction leads to interdependence among people that belong to a group. However, when someone uses the freedom to not respond to a message because the offline environment demands attention, that person excludes him or herself from the ‘online group’, which is in conflict with the feeling of caring about what others think. Additionally, in that way that person excludes itself from the online social group (Goffman, 1959).
This conflict, between online and offline worlds, is difficult to understand.While the smartphone provides many conveniences, emerging adults’ smartphone use and social manners have rapidly become a great concern (Hakoama & Hakoyama, 2012). This could be due to a gap in scientific research about this matter. The social etiquette among smartphone
use of the self and behavior of others in social settings is a relatively overlooked research area and therefore important to examine, because there are still questions about the online and offline social environments of emerging adults and how one relates to the other
(Subrahmanyam et al. 2008). Online communication gives a lot of opportunities to interact with people. There are so many different groups to communicate with, that it is difficult to choose (Valkenburg & Peter, 2011). Few research studies have explored how relational maintenance and expectations are developed in the context of new media. One of the studies has been conducted by Lipscomb, Totten, Cook and Lesch (2007), who examined cell phone use among college students in the United States to better understand their perceptions about smartphone use. They concluded that college students find it inappropriate to use cellphones in settings where it could be disruptive or disturbing to others. However, when it is disruptive or disturbing to others is something everyone will have a different opinion about. Where to draw the line is difficult and the aim of this research is to give an insight into that matter. In this study, theperception of emerging adults’ own smartphone use are put against perceptions emerging adults have of other peoples’ smartphone use in social settings. Finding out how emerging adults think about this matter will help contribute to the existing research about smartphone use in general.
Method Design
The present qualitative research focused on the perception of mobile phone use in emerging adult’s daily lives. Qualitative research is the most suitable method to examine the research question of the present study, because it is important to get to know the underlying thoughts, feelings, experiences and opinions of the participants about the research topic (Bryman, 2008). Focus group discussions were conducted to collect data for this research because they allow participants to discuss about different topics. Focus groups provide a
social context and group dynamic in which interaction between participants takes place (Bryman, 2008). They create a social context in which the subject of the study is experienced and they display a way in which context can shape people’s views through conversation with others. This social context also helps to display differences between participants and create opportunities for different opinions and views to be discussed directly (Ritchie, Lewis, Nicholls & Ormston, 2013). Also, the perspective of participants is less influenced by
interaction with the researcher than it might be in an interview with one person. This is useful for the present study because it is about smartphones and perceptions of behavior. Focus groups give participants the opportunity to think about their opinions and perceptions of behavior. Participants can modify their answers by listening to arguments and opinions of others, which will make them think about certain topics in a different way. This is in contrast to individual interviews, where the questions and answers are more structured (Bryman, 2008). However, there are some limitations of focus groups. They are difficult to organize and the recordings are more time consuming to transcribe than similar recordings of individual interviews. This is because of the need to take in to account of who says what (Bryman, 2008).
The findings of the focus groups will help formulate an answer to the research question of this study and contribute to more insights in how emerging adults think about smartphone use these days. To bring more structure in the data that comes from the focus groups, the following sensitizing concept is formulated; perceptions of one’s own behavior concerning smartphone use towards the perception of emerging adults of other people’s smartphone use. It is important to understand how emerging adults think about this sensitizing concept in order to find an answer to the research question of the present study.
Participants
Twenty-one participants (14 females, 7 males) aged between 18 and 25 years old were recruited by using a snowballing method. Contacts of the researcher contacted their networks, resulting in 21 participants. Some of the participants knew each other in advance and some of them did not. The ones who knew each other in advance were recruited by each other. This was due to the short amount of time there was available to recruit participants. Selection criteria for participants were that they were aged between 18 and 25 years old and owned a smartphone which they used daily. The researcher did not know the participants personally. In total, five focus group sessions ranging from three to five participants were conducted. Three groups were females only, one group comprised males only and one group comprised mixed genders. Participant’s occupations varied widely. Full time students, office workers,
restaurant workers, graduates, interns and some unemployed. This variety amongst the participants represent a big part of emerging adults in The Netherlands, which contributes to the reliability of the present study.
Procedure and Material
To sustain reliability, the same procedure was used for each group, providing a similar experience across the groups. All group sessions took place in a familiar setting for the
participants. The atmosphere during the sessions was relaxed, participants were laughing a lot when hearing each other’s anecdotes and experiences. The researcher moderated the focus group sessions, which all lasted between 45 minutes and one hour. All focus groups were audio taped with participant’s permission and they signed an informed consent form before participating. To maintain validity, a focus group guide was composed prior to the beginning of the sessions, with help of the sensitizing concepts to make certain that different topics were discussed in order to get an answer to the research question. The different topics on the guide were general discussion points, which made it possible to discuss new topics and concepts
during the sessions. The interview guide can be found in Appendix 1 of the present study. At the beginning of each session, the researcher placed cards on the table with different
situations in which a smartphone can be used so participants got an idea of what the topics would be during the session. A couple of empty cards were included as well, so participants could write down situations or settings that they thought were important to discuss during the session, but were not included with the rest of the cards. A remarkable finding was that towards the end of the sessions, participants really got into the topic. Even when the
researcher indicated that the session was over, many participants continued talking about their experiences and opinions that were closely related to the topics discussed during the focus group session. Afterwards, the participants indicated that they were made to think about smartphone use and got more conscious about their own behavior.
Data Analysis
When all focus group sessions were completed, the researcher first transcribed the audiotape discussions. The focus group sessions were held in Dutch and the transcript of one of them can be found in Appendix 2. Later, the results were translated to English. Second, all data was analysed using a qualitative software analysis programme, called ‘Atlas.ti’. By coding all the transcripts with the help of the sensitizing concept, repeated subjects and points of discussions that emerged in the different focus groups were marked, returning subjects were identified as major themes and attention was paid to different perceptions of these themes. Third, transcripts were re-coded until no new themes emerged. Finally, the seven major themes were identified as seven dimensions in a concept indicator model with each two or three endings and one citation from one of the participants. The concept indicator model, which can be found in Appendix 3 of this study, serves as a guidance to report the results.
It is believed that the findings of this study could be repeated if another sample with emerging adults was studied. This is because there was a great common opinion about the
major topics during the focus groups, the same procedure was used for all focus group sessions, all sessions took place in a familiar setting for the participants and all data was analysed with the same method (Ritchie et al. 2013). To improve the internal validity of the study, a thick description of the findings is reported in the result section.
Results
The main focus of the present study is how emerging adults perceive smartphones in their daily lives and how they feel about the social etiquette concerning smartphone use. Five focus groups with 21 participants aged between 18 and 25 years old were conducted for this research. The findings of the focus groups may contribute to a better understanding of how young people experience the smartphone as a part of their daily life. There was a relaxed atmosphere during all focus groups. Some of the participants knew each other in advance because some participants were recruited by each other, due to the short amount of time available to recruit participants. Participants told each other anecdotes and indicated that they got inspired by each other. They were very open about their irritations concerning smartphone use but also about their own behavior. All groups were enthusiastic about the subject. After all interviews the discussions went on, sometimes leading to even more interesting remarks and discussions, closely related to what had already been said. These discussions were audiotaped as well and included in the data analysing process.
The results chapter is divided in seven sections, of which each of the seven major themes that emerged during the focus group sessions will be discussed. These seven themes are divided in subcategories, explained by examples of quotes from participants.
Perception of Smartphone Use And Social Inclusion
Most of the participants do not feel like they are missing out at times that they are not able to look at their phone for a certain amount of time. However some of them report that
they are curios to see if they received new messages. When they are on their bike or in the car, they report that they use their phones to see what is going on, but they try not to because they think it is dangerous. Some of them only check their phone from time to time to see who texted them and what is going on. However, they do not respond right away because that is something that can wait until later when they are not on the way.
On my bike…Well, I check my phone once a while, but I don’t respond to any messages. I hear it go off and then I get curious. So I have a quick look. (Lowi, 25)
When talking about the pros and cons of WhatsApp groups and Facebook group chats, almost all participants report that one of the major reasons to participate in group chats, is that it gives them the feeling that they do not miss out on anything. The group chats gives them the feeling that they are a part of a social group in which subjects are discussed that are of their interest. Work chats where they can ask colleagues to work for them, sorority chats, where house dinners are planned, family chats that are used to make an appointment to have dinner together, sports chats to talk about matches that are coming up, or chats with friends that are seen as social networks. The group chats seem important to these participants, because they indicate that these chats give them the feeling that they belong to a group and are socially included in a network of people around them.
Maybe that’s the only time that I have the FoMo; I can’t leave the group cause I am afraid I will miss something. You simply can’t leave that group cause you need to know certain information. (Melissa, 23)
But I think…that with group WhatsApp’s..those give you really a feeling that you don’t miss out on anything. That is super chill about group WhatsApps. (Lowi, 25)
Even though some emerging adults indicate that they like group chats and feel like they do not miss out on anything because of them, others indicate that they are annoyed by those chats some times. When asked why they did not just delete the group chat, most of them agreed that it is rude and not clever to do that. It could cause negative reactions from a group of friends in a chat because when someone leaves an online group, it gives the others the feeling that that
person is leaving the group offline too. On top of that, important information could be missed when leaving a group chat. According to most of the participants it is really difficult to leave a group chat because of that reason. Their solution: turn off all the notifications and look at the chats whenever they want or whenever they have time.
Yeah that’s just like when I leave the group chat of my sorority, it is like you leave your sorority in real life. You just can’t. You have to stay in it, you can’t leave because then you don’t like your sorority apparently and you don’t think it is important or something. Because in those chats, appointments are made for dinner plans or for drinks. (Evelijn, 25)
Yes, that is right. I left a group chat one time and all my friends were outraged! (Timm, 24)
Perception of Social Control Through Smartphones
The ‘last seen status’ that indicates the last time someone was online on WhatsApp, is experienced as really annoying by almost all participants. However, that status can be
switched of so it is not really a problem. Some find it a useful tool, which helps them decide to text someone or not. When they see that a person was online in the middle of the night, they think twice before sending a message at seven o’clock in the morning, because there is a chance they will not get a reply because that person is probably still a sleep.
Yes, but on the other side, it is something you can use to take into account when you are texting someone. Because if I want to ask, are we going to the gym tonight? And I saw you were online at 1.30AM, it will keep me from texting you early in the morning. Because then I think: she hasn’t been online yet so she is probably still asleep and you were online till really late. I always consider that this way or another. (Eva, 25)
The bigger issue is the blue check mark that occurs when someone read a text message. This gives the person who sent the message information about if and when the message is read. No excuses can be told about why a message was not replied to.
Yes, but now with the blue check marks, then they can see that you read the message and with important questions they expect a response right away. Like; “Evelijn read it, please reply because we need to make a decision”. (Evelijn, 25)
Something almost all participants agreed on, is that dealing with a smartphone is about what you give and what you take. Expecting something from another person should relate to that
person’s expectations from you. If someone always responds within five minutes, a quick answer can be expected, but that person can not expect the same, unless the other person also responds within five minutes, every time.
It's kind of give and take. I think it does anyway with the rules for social media ... you should be a bit like…. What you give, you have to accept also a little from the other. Cause you also say; that other people see that you've read something but do not answer that should ... should go both ways. “When you do it then I can too.” You know what I mean? (Eva, 25)
Perception of Non-Social Aspects of Smartphones
A notable finding is that practically all participants use their smartphone most frequently when they have to wait. They use their phone as a way to pass the time. The emerging adults see those moments as the perfect time to chat with friends, check the news, Instagram and Facebook. They could not think of something else to do at that time, except for staring in front of them, which is not fun at all.
But for example I see 'waiting' on the table and if I have to wait for something then I'm really IN my phone. If you're somewhere and you are waiting for the train or in the train. All my friends know that I'm going to stalk them while I'm waiting for something. (Hester, 24).
Also, these moments are seen as the perfect time to update their social network. Either they do nothing when they are cycling to work, which is a waste of time according to a couple of participants, or they can send a couple of friends a text message in that period of time.
Well at a given time, if you cycle to work, it’s 10 minutes by bike..so you can do nothing or you can just throw some stuff out. (Dennis, 25)
The smartphone is not only a nice, handy tool to pass the time when they have to wait, it also provides a shield when they feel uncomfortable when they are alone, waiting, in social settings. When they have to wait for a friend in a café or restaurant, their smartphone is there to keep them ‘busy’ until their appointment shows up. This provides a feeling of safety and comfort.
Yes, and also what many people do when they feel a little uncomfortable when they have to wait somewhere and then: uh yeah well I'll just look at my phone. No text messages received? Checked my email already? Than just look one more time? (Lindsay, 23)
Exactly…You're always with your phone. Yes, I quite often find that people use their phone when they are like; oh shit I am alone and can’t talk to someone, I'm going to check on my phone. A kind of attitude you know? (Mickey, 24)
Another non-social aspect for which smartphones are used, are moments for relaxation. It is a moment to themselves, when they can check the news, play a game or watch funny videos. Participants describe those moments as relaxing and sometimes necessary to escape from their busy lives. This finding is in contrast with the earlier finding, that doing ‘nothing’ is a waste of time so a good moment to do things on your smartphone.
I think it's also a kind of relaxation or something. One moment of just nothing. (Jetske, 24)
Perception of Smartphone Use by Others
Almost all emerging adults agreed that a face-to-face social setting asks for attention from both sides. A smartphone is not part of that and therefore not desired. They agreed that it is rude and disrespectful to use a smartphone when they are with one other person, though they acknowledge that they themselves do it to sometimes but they try not to. In the case that they really have to reply a message or check their phone for something important, they communicate that with the person they are with, sometimes they even apologise.
Sometimes I have people, then it's super fun and then you're on a terrace and then the person is just hmhm ... and then she's on her phone all the time chatting with her boyfriend while she just came from him. And we had not seen each other for two weeks. And then I think: well nice! And she is a very social person and very nice and always fun to be with and always asking me; How are you? And: We really should meet and chat and then we do it and then she is on her phone all the time chatting and then I think… yes that is not cool. "(Lianne, 23)
That moment when they are having a conversation with someone and that person is not listening because he or she is busy with his or her smartphone is very disturbing according to the emerging adults. If they are having a conversation, they want the other person to listen. However, a couple participants indicated that they do not find it a big problem when the other is checking his or her phone once in a while. As long as it does not take more then a couple of minutes.
No, but I did that too, I think it's really… when you are with a girlfriend or something going for some drinks, and you really have something to chat about, I also really really hate it when you're talking to someone who is on his playing on his phone. Then you can just talk to someone who just, yeah you might as well not talk to that person. Which is in his phone, it is very disrespectful and rude. You know, like yeah you just keep on talking, I am not listening anyway. (Eva, 25)
During the focus groups, it became clear that most of the participants are aware of the changes that have taken place the last couple of years. They think that people try not to be uninterested or disrespectful to each other; it is just something that has become normal to do. It is a common thing to do, because everybody does it. Everything comes together on a smartphone; work e-mail, private e-mail, social networks, professional social networks. The emerging adults think it is an automatic behavior to check a smartphone constantly during the day.
Yes, but it is something that is working it’s way in our lives you know.. If you did this a year or two years ago then it was really very antisocial, but now it's really so normal to do. Everyone does it and you do it yourself too. (Remco, 22)
Perception of Domino Effect
In contrast with the face-to-face situation and the use of a smartphone, the emerging adults find it more socially acceptable to use a smartphone in a group. Then there are others to talk to and it is not annoying when someone is checking his or her phone sometimes.
However, it happens that at a certain point, everyone is looking at his or her smartphone. A couple participants think that it has to do with a ‘domino effect’. If one person looks at his or her phone, it is a sign that it is acceptable to check your phone, so the second person follows. It is something that just happens without thinking about it. Before they know it, everyone is looking at his phone, and that is a moment to say something about it.
Yes it is sometimes when you're with a couple of friends or something that it happens that one of them gets his phone and then the rest follows and the next thing you know is that every one is on his phone, it is a kind of domino effect. Until someone says hey nice guys, what are we doing? (Thomas, 23)
Even though the participants find it annoying and disrespectful to use a smartphone in social situations, they also think it is a really handy tool for social awkward situations. When
traveling with the train in the morning or after work, and they do not feel like talking to people, the smartphone provides a solution. They can talk to other people online or listen to music, which indicates that they are not open for conversations with people around them. Also, when they are with someone and they do not have anything to say to each other for a moment, the smartphone is always there to entertain them or help them out.
Yes, but I also do not feel like talking to strangers on the train in the morning. So it is also a way to say; guys I do not want to talk. (Jetske, 25)
Perception of Social Pressure to Use or Not Use The Smartphone
One of the main things that causes irritations amongst all participants, is the social pressure they feel because of the ‘last seen status’ in WhatsApp and the blue checkmarks that show if someone read their message and at what time. Even though they feel the pressure to answer when they receive messages, they say not to reply immediately. They decide when they have time and when they want to respond.
Well, if I really see a message of someone who says I need to know this as soon as possible, I answer, but basically when I'm with someone then I just turn my phone of or I put it away. But I do notice that I find it very annoying when people say yes I can see you've read it. (Melissa, 23)
A couple participants indicate that they strongly feel the pressure to answer to messages, but they also indicate that they do not care about that, and do not give in to that pressure. This is a contradicting finding and the participants who indicated this, could not really explain how they felt about it. They feel the pressure and they find that annoying, yet they ignore that pressure. Also, they agreed that it is just a nice thing to do, to reply to a message. It is something that others expect from them, but it is also something they expect from others if they send a message.
Well you do see…uhm if you got a message than you can see how long ago you’ve been online. I find it equally socially desirable to read the message. I am online sometimes to read something, and if I do not have time to react I do not react, but it's never that I've said to people well to bad for you I don’t feel like responding or something. (Jurian, 24)
A different point that was discussed by the emerging adults during the focus groups is the impression others get from them in their offline environment when they use their smartphone in the presence of others. No one wants to be the guy or girl who is always on his or her phone, because that is associated with being disrespectful and uninterested.
If I'm somewhere with my best friend then you know each other so well that you know it is okay to send a message but I do not want to present myself to other people in that way if I don’t know them that well. So I won’t. Because I do not want them to get the wrong impression of me. Then I just let my phone in my pocket. Until I really am away from them. Unless I know people very well, then I’ll just look at it for a second. (Anne, 20)
Perception of Divide Between Online and Offline Environments
When the emerging adults receive a message on their phone when they are talking to a friend, it is difficult to decide whether or not they should answer to that message. If the
message is important, they want to reply but they find it rude to the person they are with. The participants find it hard to distinguish which world has priority in certain situations.
Sometimes I don’t know really who needs the most attention. Because if someone asks you an urgent question and says I really just need your help for this and this, I want to answer because I know the answer but you are with someone so you can not get your phone and then I find it difficult sometimes ... Basically the person who is offline has priority but maybe that also has to do with that you people can see that you've read something ... That you still feeling a little bit pressure or something. (Beau, 22)
On the other hand, smartphones are a handy tool to maintain social relationships because online and offline worlds overlap. When having a drink with friends, it is handy to contact friends who want to come to the same bar by sending a text online.
That is the only thing for what I will get my phone when I am with friends. WhatsApp When someone is on his way or something or he wants to know where we are. (Wouter, 25)
The handy aspect of the smartphone to combine both worlds could also cause irritation among others. It is not always clear what a person is doing on his or her smartphone. It could be work, checking the news or checking a flight schedule or asking a friend to come and join for a drink. People usually assume that a person is on WhatsApp or Facebook when using a
smartphone. Therefore, some participants feel like they have to justify why they use their smartphone when they are with friends.
I think with me… it depends on with who I am how much time I spend on my phone, because I have two really close friends and they are really allergic for when someone in the group is on Facebook. The other day, I put on Facebook to see if I received a message from a friend and he got really upset with me. I thought, yes but I am just checking if I got a message from someone to see if she comes to join us, not because I am bored with you guys… And then I felt like a 16 year old who has to justify herself. (Melissa, 23)
During the focus groups participants agreed on the major topics, like when they use their phone most often and when it is appropriate to use a smartphone in social settings and when not. But when a couple of participants did not agree on a certain topic they discussed why that was and started to ask each other questions to find out why they disagreed. Participants agreed most of the times, but when anecdotes were told, a couple of participants were astonished by certain stories. One participant indicated that during work meetings, she never listens but works on her smartphone. She even makes sure that her battery is fully loaded before entering the meeting. Other participants were a shocked and kept asking questions about her reasons, which is simple; she is bored during those meetings and is waiting for them to pass by. So she is passing her time by doing other things on her smartphone. Other
participants indicated that that is something they should never try at their work because it is experienced as rude.
During some focus groups the researcher could observe most of the time, because participants were asking each other questions the researcher also wanted to know. This made the group dynamic stronger. Other group sessions did not go that smooth, so the researcher had to guide the participants more. It occurred that the group with males-only, were really focused on the subject of the study and did not deviate from the topics, whereas groups with females did deviate from the topics really easily. This made the sessions longer with more
irrelevant information in it, whereas the group session with males-only was shorter and all data gathered was relevant for the study.
Discussion
The present study aimed to improve our understanding of how emerging adults think about smartphone use in social settings in their daily lives.Results revealed that the
smartphone is a paradoxical medium in that it offers both solutions and obstacles in many aspects of emerging adults’ lives. For example: the smartphone can be used to connect to others, which relates to having a positive face (Goffman, 1959) in contrast to the opportunity the smartphone offers to withdraw from social connections, which relates to having a negative face (Goffman, 1959). This entails that the smartphone gives emerging adults the opportunity to choose between different social settings and to ignore the setting that they don’t feel like participating in. This goes for both the offline and online settings. For instance; if a person is in an offline social setting and is not interested in participating in a conversation, the
smartphone offers a solution to talk to others. However, when they do not look at their phone for a long period of time because they participate in an offline conversation, they are not available for people online that are trying to reach them, which can be experienced by the other person as rude. At that moment, people in the offline social setting form a positive image about that person but people in the online social setting form a negative image about that person. This can be connected to the importance of having face, described by Erving Goffman (1959) as an important motivation for human interaction. As mentioned in the theoretical framework of the present study, there is a conflict between the negative face that occurs when someone does not respond to a text message and the positive face, which entails that you care about what others think about you. There should be a balance between online and offline contacts. Most of the participants find their offline face more important than their
online face. However, a couple participants find it important to respond to online messages, they think it is important to maintain both worlds and leave a good impression in both worlds. On top of that, they find it rude not to answer to messages. The overlap of the online and offline world is causing confusion among the emerging adults, which is one of the most interesting findings of this study. They find it hard to decide which world has priority in some situations, cause both worlds seek their attention at the same time. They are trying to find a way to cope with these situations and try to do what is best. However, these moments cause stress, because they can never do it ‘right’. Either way, one of the two worlds will be left unsatisfied. This could cause tensions in the relationship between the sender and the receiver (Pielot et al. 2014), as mentioned in the theoretical framework of the present study.
Furthermore, results revealed that emerging adults use their smartphone most
intensively when they have to wait for something or someone. The smartphone is an excellent way to pass the time by texting friends, checking the news, scrolling through Facebook or Instagram or playing a game. It is experienced as a waste of time to do nothing when waiting for something, or when cycling to work. That ‘waiting’ moment also provides a moment for relaxation. The participants find it really relaxing to do nothing and just play with their smartphones and look at things. This contradicts with that emerging adults find it a waste of time to do nothing when they are on their way. However, it could indicate that they really adjust their smartphone use to their needs, which corresponds to what Hakoama and Hakoyama (2011) found in their study,that emerging adults are looking for media content that fits their personal needs and that they are susceptible to trends that fit those needs in order to form their social identity.
Another interesting result is that emerging adults use their smartphone as a shield they can hide behind when they feel uncomfortable in social settings. The phone gives excess to other friends with who they can talk at that moment, so they keep themselves busy until their
appointment arrives. In this way they don’t have to wait alone. This is something the
emerging adults indicated as really comforting about the smartphone; it provides a feeling of safety. This feeling of safety is important because they don’t know what to do without it. Staring in front of you is awkward and they are afraid of what other people will think.
When discussing the social etiquette concerning smartphone use, it appears that the emerging adults find it socially acceptable to use a smartphone in a group. According to them, it has to do with a ‘domino effect’. If one person looks at his or her phone, it is a sign that it is acceptable to check your phone, so the second person follows. This leads to a situation where everyone is ‘plugged in’ and not talking to each other anymore. Finally there is always one person that realizes what is going on and says something about it. When connecting these findings to the Social Identity Theory by Tajfel (1974) in which he states that groups with individuals develop shared social norms and values, it becomes clear that this theory still holds with the rise of the smartphone and new ways of communicating. People adapt to others. When another person is checking his or her phone it is a sign that it is accepted to do that as well and it appears that it has become normal to use a phone in a social setting that was initially thought of as rude behavior.
However, when having a one-on-one conversation with someone, it is not socially accepted to use a smartphone. It is experienced as rude and disrespectful. It depends on the context and the importance of a message that needs to be replied, but when excusing oneself when texting it is accepted. As long as it is communicated to the other person why the phone is used in that situation, it is socially accepted. When that does not happen, you can leave a wrong impression of yourself and that is something emerging adults absolutely do not want. They are in a life stage where they try to develop a favorable image and find it important what others think about them, which will contribute to their social value (Goffman, 1959). They do not want to be the guy or girl that is always on his or her phone, because that is associated
with being uninterested and disrespectful to others.
Another interesting finding is a conflict that emerges between emerging adults’ own perception of their behavior and what they really do: the fear of missing out in relation to WhatsApp and Facebook group chats. The emerging adults state that they do not care if they miss out on certain conversations, but meanwhile they all indicate that they find it hard to leave group chats because those chats give them the feeling they do not miss out on anything and it gives them a feeling of social inclusion. This finding corresponds to the findings of Przybylski et al. (2013), that staying in constant touch with others help to be socially included in online groups. The emerging adults describe the group chats in WhatsApp as really handy platforms for exchanging information. There is however, a major irritation level when it comes to these group chats. Because there are so many people participating in these group chats, a lot of uninteresting conversations take place, which do not apply to everyone. Though they will not leave a group chat because it is rude and the chance they might miss something is present. This corresponds to the findings that Walsh et al. (2008) present in their study, that the use of smartphones increases social inclusion and connectedness. The feeling of
connectedness that a smartphone provides also causes emerging adults to check their phone repeatedly, which corresponds to the study of Oulasvarta et al. (2012), who describe this checking habit as a repetitive inspection of constantly changing content that is quickly
accessible on the smartphone. It is something that happens unconsciously, it is an automatism to check their phone for new messages during the day. Also, curiosity makes them check their phone while driving or when they are on their bicycle.
A conflicting situation that came up during this study is that emerging adults imply not to care about the pressure to answer, but in fact they do. They feel the pressure of the sender but they do not want to give in. They feel like they are the ones with the power, that they decide. This contradiction is something that emerging adults find difficult to deal with. It
is therefore a relief when they are on a holiday location with no Internet or Wi-Fi connection. They have an excuse at that moment not to respond to messages, which gives them a feeling of peace and quiet, because no one can bother them with questions.
Another thing emerging adults experience as annoying is when they are telling a story and the other person is not listening at all. That person is physically present but not listening at all because he or she is absorbed by his or her phone. This corresponds with the absent presence theory by Gergen (2002), discussed earlier in this study. Emerging adults feel like what they have to say is not interesting or important when the person they are talking to is not listening but looking at his or her phone. Emerging adults are well aware of the disruptions smartphones can cause but they think it is something that has become normal over the last couple of years. It is annoying when having a one-on-one conversation, because it always causes you to forget what you were talking about, but it happens all the time because it is socially accepted to check your phone once in a while. It all has to do with a persons norms and values.
Concluding, emerging adults perceive the use of smartphones as something that is part of daily life and they use it for many different goals. The shared opinion about smartphone use in social settings is that it is rude to use a smartphone in a one-on-one social setting, however it is socially accepted in a group. This has to do with unconscious behavior and the checking habit people developed with the rise of the smartphone. Emerging adults are aware of their own behavior and admit that they could use their phone less sometimes, especially in social settings where it is not necessary to use their smartphone. However, they use their phones in social settings because they like the feeling of safety the smartphone offers them in uncomfortable situations. It is hard to replace the smartphone with something else to hide behind at those moments. The conflicting situations that occur concerning smartphone use indicate that emerging adults sometimes struggle with the use of the device, especially at the
moments where online and offline worlds both seek their attention. As discussed in the theoretical framework of the present study, this is a difficult matter to understand and
emerging adults do not always know what to do in those situations. A striking remark of one of the participants was that the position of the smartphone and the use of it will not play a bigger part in our lives but a smaller one, because it has become normal to use it everywhere. It is normalized in society to use the device everywhere. This is something that is accepted more and more.
The present study provides insights in the perceptions and behaviors of emerging adults in relation to smartphone use in daily life, a relatively overlooked and quickly out-dated research area. More research is needed to create a vast body of research about the use of smartphones amongst emerging adults. The present study contributes to the knowledge about thoughts, perceptions and behavior of emerging adults concerning smartphone use, although it is difficult to determine what the participants think about their own behavior. They all
discussed situations in which they used their smartphone but it is possible that the participants wanted to create a favorable image of themselves during the focus groups. For future
research, questionnaires or individual interviews could provide a solution to avoid this kind of errors. However, these group responses did reveal how this age group makes sense of their smartphone use together. It should also be noted that the present qualitative study was conducted in a short amount of time, which made it hard to include a bigger group of participants. Also, the majority of the participants were female, which could be of influence on the present findings. For future research, more mixed gender groups or equally divided gender groups should be included to avoid this kind of bias.
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Appendix 1. Interview Guide
Interview Guide Focus groups
Welcome everybody, good to have you here today. We are going to talk about smartphones today, what you guys think about the moments that others are using their smartphone in your presence, but also when you use your smartphone yourself. There are no good or wrong answers; everything you say will be useful. To help you I put some cards on the table with situations in which smartphones are often used. Just look at these examples and tell me what comes to mind! (Waiting, bicycle, café/restaurant, family, friends, work) If you think of a situation that is not included, please write it down on an empty piece of paper.
Different topics: 1. Social Identity : Social inclusion 2. Impression management: Expectations Responses
What do others think about you and your smartphone behavior? Does it matter?
3. Fear of missing out Checking habit, need to answer: Importance of always being available
Feelings about missing out on things when not looking at phone for a while 4. Absent presence :
Disturbance of social settings by smartphone use Meet expectations of others
Distracting
5. Online versus offline environments Irritations
Balance between both worlds, how to deal with it? Rules in social settings
Appendix 2. Focus group session 2, mixed gender
Thomas (23), Wouter (26), Jetske (25), Hester(24), Lindsay (23)
Welkom allemaal, fijn dat jullie er allemaal zijn. We gaan het vandaag hebben over
smartphones, wat jullie ervan vinden als anderen vaak op hun smartphone kijken, wanneer je het zelf doet en waarom je vaak je smartphone gebruikt. Er zijn geen goede of foute
antwoorden, alles wat je zegt wordt meegenomen in het onderzoek. Om jullie een beetje op weg te helpen, heb ik een aantal situaties opgeschreven waarin je vaak naar je smartphone grijpt. Kijk maar even naar deze voorbeelden en roep wat er in je opkomt. (Wachten, Fiets, Café/Restaurant, Familie, Vrienden, Werk) Als je een situatie hebt die er niet bij ligt kan je hem op een leeg papiertje opschrijven.
L: Sowieso de fiets. Dan stuur ik altijd spraakberichten. Vindt mijn omgeving altijd een
beetje raar maarja.
J: Ik niet ik zit dan op de fiets dus kan niet typen
Maar Lindsay WhatsApp je dan ook op de fiets?
L: Ja maar dat wordt dan te moeilijk dus dan ga ik over op spraakberichten.
H: Nee ik op de fiets echt bijna niet. Ik ben op de fiets echt gewoon van BOEM ik moet van
A naar B, en ik wil niet overreden worden dus op de fiets maak ik eigenlijk niet zo gebruik ervan.
W: Nee is veel te gevaarlijk op de fiets.
J: Ik ben zelfs wel eens tegen een auto deur aangefietst die openstond s’ochtends vroeg.
Hahahahahahahahaha
J: Ja echt waar. En toen viel mijn telefoon. En riep die man ja je moet niet op je telefoon, dus
ik zo jaaa die viel uit mijn jaszak…
T: Ik heb ook wel een kleine botsing gehad op de fiets.
Toen je aan het WhatAppen was?
T: Ja toen was ik zegmaar aan het WhatsAppen en ik keek niet, ik had mijn handen van het
stuur af en in een keer steekt er iemand over en ik reed er echt vol in haar rug en mijn telefoon vloog uit mijn hand, die was helemaal geschaafd en die vrouw stond me alleen maar aan te kijken van oh oh oh waar gaat het heen. Die sprak geen Nederlands dus dat was ook wel fijn. Ja ja.. uitkijken waar je gaat he jaja oke doei. Maar was niet zo tactisch
H: Maar bijvoorbeeld ik zie ‘wachten’ op tafel liggen en als ik ergens op moet wachten dan
zit ik wel echt IN mijn telefoon ongeveer. Als je ergens staat de wachten op de trein of in de trein. Al mijn vrienden weten ook dat ik ze ga stalken als ik ergens op zit te wachten.
W: Mis je de trein ook weleens als je zo in je telefoon zit dan? Hahaha
H: Nee dat niet, want ik weet precies hoe laat die gaat en meestal moet ik een klein sprintje
trekken en dan zit ik erin. En dan heb ik zo’n 20 minuten om vol iedereen lastig te vallen.
T: En dan zit je weer op de fiets van A naar B he, H: Hahaha ja dan ben ik weer onbereikbaar.
T: Maar in de trein is het wel een beetje ziek bijna, ik liep vanmiddag nog over het perron en
dan zie je echt de helft van de mensen die zit alleen maar op zijn telefoon…
T: Ja..niemand gaat toch echt met elkaar praten ofzo J: Ja dan sta je voor je uit te staren.
T: Ja maar vroeger gebeurde dat nog wel he
W: Ja maar dat is echt een beetje een misvatting want vroeger hadden mensen ook gewoon
een krantje in de trein. Ja nu leest iedereen het op zo’n klein schermpje dus het ziet er anders uit maar ik denk niet perse dat het anders is dan vroeger.
J: Ja maar ik heb ook helemaal geen zin in gesprekken met vreemden in de trein in de
ochtend. Dus het is ook een manier om te zeggen van jongens ik heb geen zin om te praten.
W: Ja maar soms is het wel leuk hoor, ik zat laatst naast zon oud vrouwtje en die begon een
heel verhaal en dan ben je echt voor je gevoel in 5 minuten van Utrecht naar Den Haag kan ik je vertellen!
L: Ik heb een date gehad met iemand die ik in de trein heb leren kennen! H: Toen was jij je telefoon vergeten!!!!
Iedereen: Hahahahahahahaha
L: Ik zat in de trein omdat ik die telefoon moest ophalen inderdaad. Maar hij had wel zijn
telefoon bij zich. Heeft ie niet op gekeken. Hahaha
Oke, maar jullie zeggen dus dat als je aan het wachten bent gebruik je vaak je telefoon..
L: Ja en wat ook heel veel mensen doen is als ze zich een beetje ongemakkelijk voelen als je
ergens moet wachten en dan uh ja nou ik ga maar even op mijn telefoon. Geen smsjes binnen, nieuws al gelezen nou dan nog maar een keertje kijken?
T: Candycrush! W: FB refresh
Oke dus bij ongemakkelijke momenten pakken mensen snel hun telefoon erbij, doen jullie dat zelf dan ook?
L: Ja als je in de kroeg binnenkomt en je bent de eerste, nou dan ga ik maar op mijn telefoon
kijken.
J: Ja dat had ik vandaag! Had bij de Millers afgesproken met een vriend en moest een half uur
op hem wachten, toen heb ik echt Nu.nl, NOS, Daily Mail, RTL, Facebook, Twitter, Instagram
H: Maar ik denk dat jij best een heftige…uhm J: Ik ben een nieuws junk, ik kan echt niet zonder W: Maar jij woont ook samen toch?
J: Ja
W: En als je thuiskomt dan?
J: Als ik thuiskom, mijn vriend is chefkok, dus die is nooit thuis als ik thuiskom dus ik heb
alle tijd hhaaha.
W: Maar stel dat jullie samen thuis zijn, zit je dan ook nog veel op je telefoon?
J: Nee dat valt wel mee, maar ik ben wel… ik hoef niet perse op mijn telefoon te zitten voor
bijvoorbeeld whatsapp of FB ofzo, maar ik ben echt een nieuwsjunk. Ik kan er echt niet tegen als ik een dag geen nieuws heb gevolgd. Ik wil gewoon weten wat er speelt. Komt misschien door mijn werk hoor, maar ik wil gewoon alles weten.
T: Maar dan staat de TV dus aan als alternatief J: Nee, ik ben niet zo’n TV kijker. Ja of het nieuws.
