Coping, stress, burnout and engagement within the South African Police Service in KwaZulu-Natal

COPING, STRESS, BURNOUT AND ENGAGEMENT WITHIN

THE SOIJTH AFRICAN POLICE SERVICE IN KWAZULII-

NATAL

L. Wiese Hons. B.A.

Mini-dissertation submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree Magister Artium in Industrial Psychology at the Potchefstroomse Universiteit vir Christelike Hoer Ondenvys

Supervisor: Prof. S. Rothmann

November 2002

Potchefstroom

COMMENTS

The reader is reminded of the follo~ing.

The references as well as the editorial style as prescribed by the Puhlicatior? Manual (4'"

eu'ilion) of the American Psychological Association (APA) tvere foIlon.ed in this

dissertation. This practice is in line with the policy of the Programme in Industrial Psychology of the PU for CHE to use APA style in

all

scientific documents as from

January 1999.

The mini-dissertation is submitted in the form of a research article. The editorial style specified by the South Afican Journal of Industrial P.~~vcholo,s, (whch agrees largely with the APA style) was used, but the APA guidelines were followed in constructing tables.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I \\ant to thank the following people for their contributions. in whichever way, to this mini- disseflaion:

My Lord and Saviour, for blessing me with the ability to realise t h s projecl.

Prof. S. Rothmann, m!. supervisor. for h s willingness to help, h s avadability despite h s busy schedule and his well-mformed inputs, as well as for his contribution to the statistical processing of the data.

Rosemary Serrao, for the professional language editing.

All the participants in the Police Burnout and Suicide Project, for the collection and capturing of the data

M!. fiiends and f d y for their interest. love and support. The Ferdmand Postrna L i b r a , personnel for their assistance.

The personnel of the SAPS in Kwazulu-Natal for their participation in the stud!,.

The financial assistance of the National Research Foundation (NRF) towards this research is hereby acknowledged. Opinions expressed and conclusions arrived at, are lhose of the author and are not necessarily to be attributed to the NRF.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION Problem statement Research objeclk es General objectives Specftc objectives Research method Literature review Empirical study Research design Study population Measuring inslrurnenls Statistical analysis Division of chapters Chapter s u m m w

CHAPTER 2: RESEARCH ARTICLE

CHAPTER 3: CONCLUSIONS, LIMlTATIONS AND

RECOMMENDATIONS 3.1 Conclusions 3.2 Limitations 3 . 3 Recommendations Page 1 REFERENCES

LIST OF TABLES

Table Table 1 Table 2

Description Page

Characteristics of the Sample

Descriptive Statistics, Cronbach Alpha Coefficients and Inter- Item Correlation Coefficients of the Measuring Instruments Table 3 Product-Moment Correlation Coefficients between Burnout,

Stress, Coping and Engagement

Product-Moment Correlation Coefficients between Coping, Stress and Engagement

Table 4

Table 5 Differences in Burnout and Engagement among Police Members Based on Sex

Table 6 DdTerences in Burnout and Engagement among Police Members Based on Present Medical Conditions

Table 7 DdTerences in Burnout and Engagement among Police Members Based on Marital Status

Table 8 Differences in Burnout and Engagement among Police Members Based on Race

Table 9 Differences in Burnout and Engagement among Police Members Based on Rank

Table 10 Results of the Canonical Analysis: Stress, Coping, Reciprocity and Burnout

Table 1 1 Results of the Canonical Analysis: Stress, Coping, Reciprocity and Engagement

Table 12

Table 13 Table 14 Table 15

Results of the Canonical Analvsis: Coping and Stress

Results of the Canonical Analysis: Burnout and Engagement Results of the Canonical Analysis: Burnout and Coping Results of the Canonical Analysis: Engagement and Coping

ABSTRACT

Title: Coping, stress, burnout and engagement w i t h the South Mican Police Senice in

Kwaulu-Nat al

Key terms: Burnout. job stress, coping, engagement, police

Recently, there has been an increasing interest in the occurrence of burnout among police personnel. It is especially engagement, the positive antithesis of burnout. that promises to yield nen- perspectives on interventions to alleviate burnout. Previous research indlcate relationships between coping, stress and burnout, whlst such relationshps with engagement in police members have not yet been investigated. The results of such research have implications for programs in the police service.

The objective of this research was to determine Ihe relationshp between coping, stress, burnout and engagement w i t h members of the South African Police Service (SAPS) in Kwazuiu-Natal. A cross-sectional research design was used. A stratfied random sample of 257 police personnel in Kwazulu-Natal was taken. The Cope Questionnare (COPE), Police Stress Inventory (PSI), Maslach Burnout lnventory - General Survey (MBI-GS), and the Utrecht Work Engagement Scale (UWES) were used as measuring instruments. Cronbach alpha coefficients, inter-item correlation coefficients and confirmatory factor anaiysis were used to determine the validlty and reliability of the measuring instruments. Descriptive statistics, Pearson-product correlation coefficients. canonical correlation coefficients, analysis of variance and t-tests were used to analyse the data

The results showed that Indian police members had higher levels of exhaustion than White members and higher levels of reduced professional efficacy than Black members. A practically significant ddTerence was also found between cynicism levels when police members with and withoul present medical conditions were compared. It was also found that high work demands and lack of work resources were related to hlgh exhaustion levels, and that hgh passive coping strategies were related to hgh exhaustion and cynicism and low professional efficacy levels.

The expected inverse relationship between burnout and engagement was confirmed by the low levels of exhaushon and cynicism and the high levels of professional efficacy associated with high levels of vigour, dedcation and absorption. Finally, it was found that high levels of problem-focused coping, social suppofl and turning to religion were associated with high levels of each of the three engagement dimensions.

OPSOMMING

Titel: Coping, stres. uitbranding en begeestering in h e Suid-Afr~kaanse Polisiediens in Kw.ar,ulu-Natal

Sleutelterme: Uitbranding. slres, coping. begeestermg, polisie

Onlangs was daar toenemende belangstehg in h e ervaring van uitbranding by pohsielede. Dit is \!era1 b e g e e s t e ~ g , h e antilese van uilbranding, wal belooi'om nuwe perspektienre te lewer op intervensies vir die verligting \:an uitbranding. Vorige navorsing het verbande tussen coping, stres en uitbranding aangetoon, temyl sulke verbande met begeestering b!. polisielede nog nie ondersoek is nie. Die resultate van sulke navorsing het irnpllliasies vir verskeie programme van die polisiedens.

Die dgemene doelstelling van hierdie navorsing wras om die verhouding te bepaal tussen coping. stres, uitbrandmg en begeestering van lede \:an die Suid-PSrikaanse Polisiehens (SAPD) in Kwzulu-Natal. 'n Dwarssnee-ontwerp is gebruik as navorsingsontwerp. 'n Geslratifiseerde ewekansige steekproef van 257 polisie-personeellede in Kwazulu-Natal is getrek. Die COPE-vraelys (COPE). Polisiestres-Opname, Maslach Uitbrandingsvrael!.~ (MBI-GS) en Utrecht Werksbegeestering-skaal (UWES) is as meetinstrumente gebruik. Cronbach alpha-koeffisiente. inter-item korrelasie-koefisiente en bevestigende faktoranabse is gebrud. om die belroubaarheid en geldigheid van die meetinstrumente te bepaal. Beskry5:ende statistiek, Pearson produkmoment korrelasie-koeffisiente, kanoniese korrelasie- koeffisii3nte. variansie-analise en t-toetse is gebnuk om d e data te analiseer.

Die resultate het aangetoon dat Inher polisielede hoer vlakke van uitputting ervaar as Wit lede en hoer vlal\ke van verminderde professionele effektiwiteit as Swart polisielede. 'n Praklies beteke~llsvolle verskil is ook gevind in sinisme-vlakke wanneer polisielede met en sonder medese probleme vergelyk is. Daar is verder gevind dal hoe werkseise en gebrekhge werkhulpbronne met hoe uitputtingsvlakke verband h o y en dal hoe vlakke van passiewe coping-strategiee met hoe uitputtings- en sinismevlakke en lae professionele effektiwiteitsvlakke verband hou.

Die verwagte inverse verhouding tussen uitbranding en begeestering is bevestig deurdat lae vlakke van uitputting en sinisme en hot! vlakke van professionele effektiwiteit met hoe vlakke van energie, toewyding en absorpsie geassosieer het. Laastens is gevind dat hoe vlakke van probleem-gefokusde coping, sosiale ondersteuning en 'n soeke na religie met hoe vlakke van al d i e begeesteringdimensies verband hou.

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

I

This study deals with the possible relationships between coping, stress, burnout and engagement.

This chapter focuses on the problem statement, objectives and the research method.

1.1

PROBLEM STATEMENT

Due to the increasing amount of time that people spend at work. the field of Psychology increasingly focuses on the workplace. It has been determined that unsatisljmg conditions in the workplace could lead to deterioration, and ultimately, burnout in the worker (Anshel, 2000; Freudenberger, 1974; Maslach, 1982; Nel, 1999). Various studies have investigated burnout in police officers, as well as the relationship of this construct with coping

and

stress (Burke, 1993; Golembiewski & Kim, 1990; Jackson & Maslach, 1982; Stearns & Moore, 19931, leading to the conclusion that more information with regard to these constructs is needed.

'~aslach (1982) conceptualised burnout as a syndrome consisting of three essential characteristics, namely exbaustion, depersonalisation and reduced professional accomplishment. Exhaustion refers to the depletion or draining of emotional and physical resources, depersonalisation points to the development of negative, callous, or escessively detached responses toward various aspects of the job and a lack of professional accomplishment refers to feelings of incompetence and a lack of achievement and productivity at work (Maslach, Schaufeli, & Leiter, 2001 ; Schaufeli & Enzmann, 1998).

The term 'burnout' was traditionally only used with reference to people working in the human services (Maslach et al., 2001 ; Van Dierendonck, Schaufeli, & Buunk, 1998). These workers experience extreme pressure fiom within themselves, from the community, and possibly fiom an administrator who expects of them to give of themselves (Freudenberger, 1974).

They

work intensively for long hours with

minimum

£inancia1 compensation. Todav,

however, it is possible to determine the burnout level of people in various occupations (Maslach et al., 2001) with the help of the Maslach Burnout 1.nventory

-

General Survq. Within the human services occupations, burnout was predominantly researched in the health (33,8%) and teaching (26,6%) professions. Law enforcement constitutes only 3.4% of all burnout research on occupations (Schaufeli &

Enzmann,

1998). Since the 1980's, however, there has been a growing mterest worldwide in the police forces (Steams & Moore. 1993). According to Ainsworth (1995), barely a day goes by without the media featuring at least one stay about crime and the police, resulting in police officers being increasingly in the spotlight and their actions continually being scrutinised by an evermore demanding public.

I

Police forces around the world are being asked to respond to a growing list of new demands and responsibilities, and to become more efficient and effective.

Although it is not possible to accurately estimate the prevalence of burnout, a relative comparison between levels of bumoul across various occupational fields and professions revealed high levels of cynicism and reduced professional efficacy in law enforcement (Schaufeli & Enzmann, 1998). The study holds that this profile is consistent across nations. In contrast to these results, a South

&can

study by Pieters (1995) indicated low levels of burnout among the Soulh M~ican Police Service (SAPS) personnel in the Western Transvaal region.

Burnout not only leads to negative outcomes for the individual but also to negative outcomes -

for the - organisation. According to Levert, Lucas and Ortlepp (2000), burned out workers

- - -- show a lack of commitment and are less capable of providing adequate services, especially

- - -

along dimensions of decision-making and initiating involvement with clients (Fryer, Poland, Bross, & Krugman, 1988; Maslach, 1982).

They

are also too drained to . give - -of themselves in a creative, - - - co-o perative fashion (Sammut , 1 997).

Cherniss (1980) identified three possible levels of causes of burnout, namely the individual, the work-setting, and the larger culture and society. This study will focus on the two former levels.

According to Burke (1994), considerable evidence exists that the work-setting, particularly work stressors, i . u e n c e psychological burnout. Schaufeli and Enzmann (1998) consider

burnout as a particular kind of prolonged job stress. Brill (1984) refers to stress as a temporary adaptation process that is accompanied by mental and physical symptoms. An individual who experiences stress must be able to return to hs/her normal level of bctioning (adaptation has been successllly performed). Burnout refers to a breakdown in adaptation accompanied by chronic mahctioning at work.

In comparison with other occupations, police work has been identified as a particularly stresshl occupation (Goodman, 1990; Gulle, Tredoux, & Foster, 1998; Kroes, 1976; Reiser, 1974)

-

probably one of the most stressful occupations world-wide (Anshel, 2000). Studies investigating the extent oFPost Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) in the SAPS indicated that 36% of the riot police and 41% of Black police sufFered from PTSD (Burgers, 1994). More evidence about the increasing distress of the SAPS can be found in the alarming rise in suicide statistics: an incidence of 60 out of every 100 000, compared to an incidence of 5 out of every 100 000 among the general public in 199 1, according to Nel and Burgers (1998). There

has

also been a dramatic increase in medical boardings

-

particularly for psychological reasons

-

as well as in divorce statistics, and alcohol and drug abuse ( G u ~ et al., 1998). Gulle et al. (1998) found that the SAPS experienced a greater degree of stress

than

a police sample from the United States of America

Nel(1999) and Koortzen (1 9%) distinguish between internal and external causes of stress in police officers. Internal causes include those at organisational, unit or station and at personal level while external causes include the public, social and legal areas wherein the police work. Within the internal causes, Koortzen (1996) distinguishes between internal working conditions and the individual self

According to Koortzen (1996) the inherent nature of the work relates to both internal and external causes. Other theorists view inherent stressors (caused by tbe nature of police work itself) as separate from organisational stressors (caused by the bureaucratic nzture of police organisations) (Alexander, Walker,

Innes,

& Irving, 1993; Biggam, Power, MacDonald,

Carcary, & Moodie, 1997; Brown & Campbell, 1990, 1994; Van Rooyen, 1987; Violanti & Aron, 1994). Some authors suggest that organisational stressors have a greater effect on police members than inherent stressors (Brown & Campbell, 1990, 1994; Kop, Euwema, & Schaufeli, 1999; Violanti & Aron, 1994). Koortzen (1996) found that external stressors, determined largely by the environment and the community, had a greater effect on the

members of the police in South Africa According to Nel (1999) these factors include the following: the socio-political changes in the country, negative public attitudes, the lack of trust by the community, subsequent criticism of the police and limited support for the efforts of the police, as well as poor ,gun-control in South AFrica in terms of the society as a whole. Further factors are the easy access of the police to weapons, long working hours, often being away fiom home, poor salaries and associated financial constraints, and also inadequate housing and living circumstances.

The predicted increase in urban unrest and terrorisrq increased workloads due to reductions in social services and health-spending, pressure for internal management rearrangements with devolved financial budgeting, the implementation of equal opportumties policies, and continued progress in information technology, are likely to present the police service with a continuation of existing stressors and to introduce some new sources of stress (Ainsworth, 1995).

Some researchers have suggested that individual coping stralegies may be important in ameliorating or exacerbating psychological burnout (Alsoofi, AI-Heeti, & Alwashli, 2000; Anshel, 2000; Golembiewski & Mumenrider, 1988). Coping refers to the cognitive and behavioural strategies that individuals use to manage a stressfd situation, as well as the negative emotional reactions elicited by that event (Folkrnan, Lazarus. Gruen, & DeLongis,

1986).

There are two major coping strategies: problem-focused coping (including strategies that focus on d&g with the stressor itself) and emotion-focused coping (refering to efforts that deal with the emotional response to a stressor) (Bouchard & Sabourin, 1997). The third strategy is a combined fimction of the other two and is related to seeking social support (Piko, 2001). Beehr, Johnson and Nieva (1995) showed that problem-focused coping strategies were negatively related to strains (somatic complaints, exhaustion, depersonahsation and thoughts of suicide) among police officers. Emotion-focused coping strategies were related to every police strain, except the abuse of alcohol.

When a successll coping strategy is followed, goals are achieved, professional efficacy is enhanced and a sense of existential significance is fostered (Schaufeli & Enzmann, 1998). By contrast, when

a

poor copmg strategy is adopted, burnout is likely to develop. Therefore, high

levels of burnout are associated with ineffective (Rowe, 1997) or withdrawal coping strategies and low degrees of burnout with constructive coping strategies (Maslach & Jackson 1982). Maladaptive coping strategies, such as alcohol and drug use, anger and withdrawal were found in police officers by Burke (1993). Accordmg to Violanti, Marshall and Howe (1985) police officers are typically "symptomatic drinkers", who use alcohol for the relief of psychological strain. Violanti (1992) found the coping strategies of distancing and plafil problem solving significantly reduced distress, while escapdavoidance and self- control coping did not work in the police situation. Burnout is a self-perpetuating process

-

not only because it impedes the attainment of professional goals, but also because it depletes coping resources.

Psychology has traditionally focused on negative states rather than on positive ones. According to Diener, Suh, Lucas and Smith (1999) the number of articles examining negative states outnumbers the positive states by a ratio of 17 to 1. Recently, however, more attention is being given to posilive psychological states. Accordingly, there has been a sh& in research from burnout to job engagement. The latter is viewed as the positive antithesis of the former (Maslach et al., 2001; Schaufeli, Martinez, Pinto, Salanova, & Bakker, m press).

Maslach and Leiter (1997) rephrased burnout as erosion of engagement with the job. Engagement is characterised by energy, involvement, and efficacy

-

the direct opposites of the three burnout dimensions. By implication, engagement is assessed by the opposite pattern of scores on the three Maslach Burnout Inventory (MBI) dimensions. According to these authors, low scores on exhaustion and cynicism and high scores on efficacy are indicative of engagement. According lo this analysis, engagement is distinct &om established constructs in organisational psychology, such as organisational commitment, job satisfaction, and job involvement, since engagement provides a more complex and thorough perspective on an individual's relationship with work.

Schaufeli, Salanova, Gonzdez-Roma and Bakker (in press) define and operationalize the term engagement in its own right. It is still conceptualjsed as the positive antithesis of burnout, but there is no presumption that it is assessed by the opposite profile of MBI scores. Burnout is characterised by low levels of activation and pleasure, while engagement is characterised by high levels of activation and pleasure. Engagement

is

defined as a persistent, positive afTective-motivational state of lltilment in employees, characterised by vigow,

dedication, and absorption. It is interesting to note that burnout is particularly related to job demands (e.g. work overload, emotional demands), but engagement is particularly related to job resources (e.g. job control, availability of feedback, leamirig opportunities).

From the above discussion it is clear that burnout is a potentidv serious problem in the police service. This research WLU investigate the relationships of coping and stress wilh burnout and engagement respectively. If significant relationships between these variables exist. there will be implications for the recruitment, induction, selection, training, development and performance management programs of the SAPS.

From this investigation, a better understanding of the well-being of the SAPS will be gained, which may lead to the South African community having more empathy with and putting less pressure on police officers. The organisation will benefit from this by reduced costs on the health and well-being of police officers. The community, as the clients receiving the protection service, will benefit by the greater etliectiveness of the SAPS.

From the above-mentioned the following research questions emerge:

How are coping, stress, burnout, and job engagement conceptualised in the literature'? How is the relationship between coping, stress, burnout, and engagement conceptualised in the literature?

What are the levels of coping, stress, burnout and engagement in the South AIiican Police Services in Kwazulu-Natal?

What is the relationship between coping, stress, burnout and engagement in the South Ahcan Police Services in Kwmlu-Natal'?

1.2 RESEARCH OBJECTJVES

1.2.1 General objectives

With reference to the above formulation of the problem, the general aim of the current study is to investigate the relationship between coping, stress, burnout and engagement within the South &can Police Services in Kwazulu-Natal.

1.2.2 Specific objectives

To conceptualise coping, stress, burnout, and job engagement from the literature.

To conceptualise the relationship between coping, stress, bumout, and engagement from the literature.

To determine the levels of coping, stress, burnout and engagement in the South AFtlcan Police Services in Kwazulu-Natal.

To determine the relationship between coping, stress, burnout and engagement in the South African Police Services in Kwmulu-Natal.

The research method consists of a literature review and an empirical study.

1.3.1 Literature review

This literature review focuses on previous research on coping, stTess, burnout and engagement. An overview is given of how these variables are conceptuahsed in the literature (and of the possible relationships between them

13.2 Empirical study

1.3.2.1 Research design

A survey design is used to reach the research objectives. The specific design is the cross- sectional design, whereby a sample is drawn fkom a population at one time (Shaughnessy & Zechrneister, 1997). Information collected is used to describe the population at that time. This design can be used also to assess inter-relationships between variables within a population.

According to Shaughnessy and Zechmeister (1997) this design is ideally suited when the aim of the study is descriptive and predictive by nature.

1.3.2.2 Study population

The study population consists of a stratified, random sample of SAPS members in the Kwazulu-Natal region ( N = 257).

13.2.3 Measuring instruments

The COPE Questionnaire (COPE) is used to measure participants* coping strategies. The COPE is a multidimensional 53-item coping questionnaire that indicates the different ways that people cope in different circumstances (Carver, Scheier, & Weintraub. 1989). Although the original questionnaire measures 13 different coping strateges, Pienaar (2002) subjected the COPE to a principal components factor analysis with a varimax rotation. Three internally consistent factors were extracted, namely Problem-focused coping (16 items), Passive coping (13 items), and Seeking social support (7 items). The alpha coefficients of the three scales are 0,93, 0,86, and 0,87 respectively. All these values are acceptable ( a > 0.70. Nunndy & Bernstein, 1994), and thus indicate the internal consistency of the factors of the PSI. Test- retest reliability varies Erom 0.46 to 0,86 and from 0,42 tot 0,89 (applied after two weeks).

The Police Stress Inventory (PSI) is used to measure participants' job stress. The PSI focuses on common work situations that often resuit in psychological strain. Each of the 44 items describes a jobrelated stressor event and assesses both the perceived severity and frequency occurrence of that event. Firstly, participants rated each of the 44 items regarding the intensity of stress on a 9-point scale. The frequency part of the questionnaire asked "how many times in the last six months" did the participant experience the particular source of stress. Pienaar (2002) subjected the PSI to a principal components factor analysis with a varirnax rotation. Three internally consistent factors were extracted, namely Job demands ( 17 items), Lack of resources (14 items), and Police stressors (8 items). The alpha coefficients of

the three scales are 0,92; 0,92; and 0,89 respectively. All these values are acceptable

( a

>

0,70, Nunnally & Bemstein, 1994), and thus indicate the internal consistency of the factors of the PSI.

The Maslach Burnout Inventory-General Survey (MBI-GS) (Maslach, Jackson, & Leiter, 1996) is used to measure burnout. The MBI-GS has three subscales: Exhaustion (Es) (five items; e.g. "I feel used up al the end of the workday"), Cynicism (Cy) (five items; e.g. "1 have

become less enthusiastic about my work7') and Professional Efficacy (PE) (six items: e.g. "In

my opinion, I am good at my job"). Together the subscales of the MBI-GS provide a three- dimensional perspective on burnout. Internal consistencies (Cronbach alpha coefficients) reported by Schaufeli et al. (1996) varied fiom 0,87 to 0,89 for Exhaustion, 0,73 to 0'84 for Cymcism and 0,76 to 0,84 for Professional Efficacy. Test-retest reliabitities after one year were 0,65 (Exhaustion). 0,60 (Cynicism and 0,67 (Professional Efficacy) (Schaufeli et al., 1996). All items are scored on a 7-point frequency rating scale ranging fiom

"O"

(never) to "6" ( d m ) . High scores on Ex and Cy, and low scores on PE are indicative of burnout. Storm (2002) c o ~ r m e d the 3-factor structure of the MBI-GS in a sample of 2396 SAPS members, but recommended that Item 13 should be dropped from the questionnaire. She confirmed the structural equivalence of the MBI-GS for different race groups within the SAPS. The following Cronbach alpha coefficients were obtained for the MBI-GS: Exhaustion: 0,88: Cynicism 0,79; Professional Efficacy: 0,78 (Storm, 2002).

The Urrechr Work Engagement Scale (UWES) (Schaufeli et al., in press) is used to measure the Ievels of engagement of the participants. The UWES includes three dimensions, namely, vigour, dedication and absorption, which is conceptually seen

as

the opposite of burnout and is scored on a seven-point scale. It ranges fiom "0" (never) to "6" (every day) and includes questions like '2

am

bursting with energy every day in my work"; 'Time flies when I am at work" and "My job inspires me". The alpha coefficients for the three sub-scales varied between 0,68 and 0,91. The alpha coefficient could be improved (a varies between 0,78 and 0,89 for the three sub-scales) by eliminating a few items without substantially decreasing the scales internal consistency. Storm (2002) obtained the following alpha coefficients for the U W E S in a sample of 2396 members of the SAPS: Vigour: 0,78; Dedication: 0,89; Absorption: 0,78.

1.3.2.4 Statistical analysis

The statistical analysis is carried out with the help of the SAS-program (SAS Institute, 2000). Cronbach alpha coefficients, inter-item correlation coefficients and confirmatory factor analysis are used to assess the reliability and validity of the

measuring

instruments (Clark & Watson, 1995). Descriptive statistics (e.g. means, standard deviations, skewness and kurtosis) are used to ana@se the data

Effect sizes are computed to determine the significance of the findings. Pearson product-

moment correlation coefficients are used to specie the relationships between the variables. A

cut-off point of 0,30 (Cohen, 1988) are set for the practical sigmficance of correlation coefficients.

One-way analysis of variance and t-tests are used to determine the differences between the levels of burnout, stress, coping and engagement of the various demographic groups. The following formula is used to determine the practical significance of differences (d) when t- tests are used:

Meam

-

Meane

d =

S&~Y

where

Mean,+ = Mean of the first group

MeanB = Mean of the second group

S h= Highest standard deviation of the two groups.

A cut-off point of 0,80 (large effect, Cohen, 1988) is set for the practical significance of differences.

The following formula is used to compute the effect sizes

(6)

of these differences (Steyn,

1999):

where

MA = Mean of the construct in one demographic group

Mg = Mean of the construct in the other demographic group MSE = Mean square error

1.4 D M S I O N

OF

CHAPTERS

Chapter 1 : Introduction Chapter 2: Research article

Chapter 3: Conclusions, limitations and recommendations

1.5

CHAPTER SUMMARY

Chapter one focuses on the problem statement, objectives and the research method of ths study.

Chapter two encompasses the complete study. The results of the statistical analysis are reported, indicating the practical significance thereof. The findings of the study are also discussed shortly.

Chapter three provides a comprehensive analysis and discussion of the literature and the results of the empirical study. Conclusions are reached with regard to the research objectives, recommendations for the organisation are made and limitations of the present studv are discussed. Finally, research opportunities, which follow from this research, are presented.

CHAPTER 2

COPING, STRESS, BURNOUT AND ENGAGEMENT WITHIN THE SOUTH

AFRICAN

POLICE SERVICE

IN

KWAZULU-NATAL'

L.

WIESE

S. ROTHMANN

Research Programme "Human Resource Management.for Development". Research Unit "Decision-making and Management for Economic Development", PUfor CHE

ABSTRACT

The objective of this research was to determine the relationship between coping. stress, burnout and engagement in the South f i c a n Police Service. A survey design was used. The study population (N = 257) consisted of police personnel in Kwazulu-Natal. The COPE, Police Stress Inventory (PSI), Maslach Burnout Inventory - General Scale (MBI- GS) and Utrecht Work Engagement Scale (UWES) were used as measwing instruments. The results showed that bwnout was related to coping, stress and engagement. Passive

- - - -- - -

coping strategies were related to stress, whilst problem-focused coping strategies were related to engagement. Indian police members reported higher levels of exhaustion than

- - - ~ - ~ -- - - - -

White members and higher levels of professional efficacy than Black members. Police

- ~-

members with -- medical conditions affecting their work performance, scored higher on the

-

-cynicism scale than members without a medical condition.

OPSOMMING

Die algemene doelstelling van hierdie navorsing was om die verband tussen coping.

s t m uitbranding en begeestering binne die Suid-Afrikaanse Polisiediens te ondersoek. 'n Opname-ontwerp is gebruik. Die studiepopulasie (N = 257) let bestaan uit polisie- personeel in Kwazulu-Natal. Die COPE, die Polisiestres-Opnarne. Maslach Uitbrandingsvraelys a1 Utrecht Werksbegeestering-skaal. is as meetinshumente gebrujk Die resdtate het aangetoon dat uitbranding verband hou met sm. coping-strategic en begeestering. Passiewe coping-strategid het verband gehou met stres. t e y l probleem- gefokusde coping-strategic verband gehou het met begeestering. Met vemying na demografiese versklle. het Indiese polisielede h&r vlakke van uitputting g e t m as Wit polisielede en h d r vIakke van persoonlike effektiwiteit as Swart lede. Polisielede met mediese toestande wat hul werk affekteer, het h&r sinisnle getoon as diegene sonder h mediese toestand.

' The tinancial assistance o f the Natiorsal Research Foundation (NRF) towards this research is h m b y acknowledged. Opinions expressed and conclusions amved at, arc those o f the primary author and are not nccessarilv lo be attribaed to the NRF.

The productiveness, motivation and health of the police force are regarded as important factors contributing to a country's stability, economic growth and development (Rothrnann & Van Rensburg, 2002). Healthy employees who are engaged in their work are therefore imperative to fiu-thering these goals. Unfortunately, law enforcement is one of the professions where stress and burnout has been a special concern (Sewell, 1983). Physical assault, the violent death or suicide of an officer who is a close friend, or a response to the

- - - - -- -

death of a child, - - are frequently - -occurring situations (Carlier & Gersons, 1992).

Two trends recently emerged in burnout research which both result in a broadening of the traditional concept and scope (Maslach, Schaufeli, & Leiter, 2001). Firstly, the concepl of burnout that was initially closek M e d to the human services such as health care, education

and social work where people do 'people' work of some kind, has been expanded towards all other professions and occupational groups. Secondly, burnout research seem to shift towards its opposite: job engagement. Researchers recently extended their interest to the positive pole of employees' well-being, instead of looking exclusively to the negative pole. Seen fiom this perspective, - burnout - is rephrased - as an erosion of engagement with the job (Schaufeli,

. - -

Salanova, & BWer, in press). This development indicates

an

emerging trend towards a 'positive psychology' that focuses on human strengths and optimal kctioning rather than on weaknesses and malfunctioning (Seligrnan & Csikszentmihalyi, 2000).

Schaufeli and Enzrnann ( 1 998, p. 36) d e h e - burnout as - "a - persistent, - - negative, - - work-related state of mind in 'normal' individuals that is primarily characterised by exhaustion accompanied by distress, a sense of reduced effectiveness, decreased motivation, and the

- - - -- -

development - - of dysfunctional attitudes and behaviours at work". Research over the past two decades has shown that burnout is not only related to negative outcomes for the individual, including depression, a sense of failure, Fatigue, and loss of motivation, but also to negative outcomes for the organisation, including absenteeism, high turnover rates and lowered productivity (Schaufeli & Enzmanq 1998, p. 36).

The term 'burnout' was traditionally only used with reference to people working in the human services (Maslach, Schaufeh, & Leiter, 2001; Van Dierendonck, Schaufeli, & Buunk.

1998). These workers experience ex-treme pressure from within themselves, from the community, and possibly -fiom an administrator who expects of them to give of themselves - -- - (Freudenberger, 1974). They - work intensively for long hours with minimum financial

compensation Today, however, it is possible to determine the burnout level of people in various occupations (Maslach et al., 2001). Within the human service occupations, burnout is predominantly researched in the health (33,8%) and teaching (26,6%) professions. Law enforcement constitutes only 3,4% of all burnout research on occupations (Schaufeli & Enrmann, 1998).

Organisational factors which contribute to burnout are work overload, - - poor - - collegial - - - support, role conflict, role ambiguity and lack of feedback (participation in decision making and

autonomy). These factors represent "demands" on employees (also referred to as job stressors), that are included in most models of burnout (Schaufeli & Enzmann. 1998). Burnout has been found to be related to job stressors including low levels of perceived control and a lack of resources. In the SAPS the - most - - - - serious stressors for police officers

were found - to be -the lack of supervisory and management skills (Koortzg 19%). With - -- -

reference to police stressors, police officers rated 'duty-related violent injury', 'pursuit of an - armed - - suspect', 'response to a scene involving the death of a child', and 'accident with

-- - - - - - -

-departmental - - - - - vehicle' - -

- as the top four stressors in their work (Peltzer, 2001).

One

of the basic issues in the burnout domain concerns coping, or ways in which an individual can attempt to deal with job stressors to ward off aversive strains (Beehr, Johnson, & Nieva, 1995). Lazarus and Folkman (1984, p. 141) define coping as "constantly changing

cognitive and behavioral efforts to manage specific exTemal and/or internal demands that are appraised as taxing or exceeding the resources of the person". There are two major coping strategies. When a successful coping strategy is followed (e.g. problemsolvmg), goals are achieved, professional efficacy is enhanced and a sense of existential si@cance is fostered (Schadeli & Enzmann, 1998). By contrast, when a poor coping strategy is adopted, burnout is likely to develop. Burnout is also a self-perpetuating process not only because it impedes the attainment of professional goals, but also because it depletes coping resources.

Although it is not possible to accurately estimate the prevalence of burnout, a relative comparison between Ievels of burnout across various occupational fields and professions has revealed high levels of cynicism and reduced professional efficacy in law enforcement (Schaufeli &

Enzmann,

1998). The study holds that this profile is consistent across nations. In contrast to these findings, a South African study by Pieters (1 995) indicated low levels of burnout among South African Police Service (SAPS) personnel.

It is clear from the above-mentioned discussion that coping strategies and job stressors might be related to burnout of police members. However, no studies regarding the role of coping strateges and jobs stressors in burnout of police members in South Africa, more specifically in K\\-azulu-Natal, were found in the literature.

Maslach and Leiter (1997) state that engagement is characterised by energy, involvement and

efficacy, which are considered the direct opposites of the three burnout dimensions narnelj., ehaustion, cynicism and lack of professional efficacy (three dimensions of burnout according to the MBI-GS (1Mnslach Hurnour Inventory General Survey). Employees u.ho

are engaged in their jobs have a sense of energetic and effective connection with their job activities and see themselves as able to deal totally with their job demands. Accordmg to Maslach and Leiter (1997), engagement is indicated by the opposite pattern of scores on the three MBI dimensions. According to these authors, low scores on exhaustion and cynicism and high scores on efficacy are indicative of engagement. By using the MBI-GS to measure the level of engagement, il becomes impossible to study the relationship between burnout and engagement empirically, since both these concepts are considered to be opposite poles of a continuum that is covered by one single instrument.

It is also necessary to study the adaptation of police members at work in a positive way b ~ . focusing on the concept of engagement. However, only one study (Schaufeli et al., in press) was found which focused on engagement and its relationshp with burnout. Furthermore, no information is available regarding the relationships between coping strategies, job stressors, burnout and engagement of police members.

The obiective or this research was to determine the relationship between coping. stress, burnout and engagement in members of the SAPS. If statistically significant relationships between these variables are found, programmes such as recruitment, selection, induction, training and development, and performance management could be considered to facilitate the development of engagement, in order to counteract the development of burnout.

Coping, job stress, burnout and engagement

Some researchers have suggested that incfividual coping strategies maJJ be important in ameliorating or exacerbating psychological burnout (Alsooli, Al-Heeti, & Alwashli, 2000:

Anshel, 2000: Golembiewski & Mtmzenrider, 1988). Coping refers to the cognitive and behavioural strategies that individuals use to manage a stressful situalion. as well as lhe negative emotional reactions elicited bv that event (Folkman, Lazarus, Gruen, & DeLongis,

1986).

There are two malor coping strategies, ncameh: problem-focused coping and emotion-focused coping. The former reSers to strategies that focus on dealing nilh the stressor itself and is regarded as effective coping, whilst the latter refers to efforts dealing with the emotional response to a stressor. whch are regarded as poor coping strategies (Bouchard & Sabourin, 1997). The thrd strategy is a combined fhction of the other two and is related to seeking social support (Piko. 2001).

-

When a successful coping strategy (e.g. problem-solving) is followed, goals are achieved, proSessional efficacy is enhanced and a sense of existential significance is fostered (Schaufeli & Enzmann, 1998). BJ. contrast, when poor coping strategies are adopted, burnout is likel~. to debelop. Therefore, high le\:els of burnout are associated with ineffective (Rowe, 1997) or withdrawal coping strategies and low degrees of burnout with constructive coping strategies (Maslach & Jackson, 1982; Maslach el al., 2001).

Violanti (1992) found that the coping strategies of distancing and planful problem solving .. -

signrficantly reduced distress. \4;hile escape/a\,oidance and self-control coping did not ~vork in the police situation. 0 adaptive coping strateges found ; olice officers include

alcohol and drug use, L I ~ I ~ C I and withdrawal (Burke, 1993; \ I U I U I U , Marshall, & Hove,

1985). Also, more coping strategies (Violanti, 1992) and poor coping skills are positivel!. reIated to the intensity and frequency with \\;hich slTess is experience in police n.ork (Anshel. 2000).

With reference to the work-setting, considerable evidence exists that particularl~. n.ork stressors influence psychological burnout (Burke, 1994). Schaufeli and Enzmann (1998) consider burnout as a particular kind of prolonged job stress. Brill (1984) refers to stress as a temporary adaptation process that is accompanied by mental and physical symptoms. An indi1:idual who experiences stress must be able to return to histher normal level of functioning (adaptation has been successSullv performed). Burnout refers to a breakdonn in adaptation, accompanied by chronic malfunctioning at work.

Law enforcement has been identified as a particular stresshl occupation worldwide (Anshel. 2000: Burke, 1994: Goodman, 1990; Gulle, Tredoux. & Foster, 1998; Kroes, 1976; Reiser. 1974). South Afiican studies have found that 36% of the riot police and 41% of Black pol~ce officers in the SAPS suffered from Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) (Burgers, 1994). Furthermore, an alarming rise in suicide statistics. medical boarhngs (particularly for psychological reasons). divorce statistics. and alcohol and drug abuse ( G d e el al., 1998: Nel & Burgers, 1998; Venter. 1993) was found among members of the SAPS. G d e et al. (1 998) sho\ved that the SAPS experienced a greater degree of stress than a police sample from the Un~ted States of America

Nel (1999) and Koortzen (1996) distinguish between internal and esternal causes of stress m police ollicers. Internal causes include those at organisational. unit or station and at personal level, while external causes include the public, social and legal areas wherein the police n.ork. With reference to internal causes, Koortzen (1996) distinguishes between internal working conditions and the individual self

According to Koortzen (1996) the inherent nature of the work relates to both internal and esternal causes. Other theorists view Inherent stressors (caused by the nature of police n.ork itself) as separate from organisational stressors (caused by the bureaucratic nature of police organisations) (Alexander. Walker, Innes. & In~ing, 1993; Biggam, Power, MacDonald. Carcar), & Moodie, 1997; Brown & Campbell, 1990, 1994; Van Rooyen, 1987: Violanti & Aron. 1994). Some authors suggest that organisational stressors have a greater effect on police members than inherent stressors (Brown & Campbell, 1990, 1994; Kop,

Euwerna

& Schaufeli, 1999; Violanti & Aron, 1994). Koortzen (1996) found that esternal slressors, determined largely by the environment and the communih had a greater effect on the members of the police in South Africa. According to Nel (1999). these factors include the following: the socio-political changes in the country, negative public attitudes, the lack of trust by the community, subsequent criticism of the police and limited support for the efforts of the police, as well as poor gun control in South Africa in terms of the society as a whole. Further factors are the easy access of the police to weapons, long working hours, often beins away from home. poor salaries and associated financial constraints, and also inadequate housing and living circumstances.

According to Maslach, Jackson and Leiter (1996). burnout includes the following dimensions:

I",'.~hau.srion refers to feelmgs of being overextended and depleted of one's emotional and physical resources.

C:vnicism refers to the interpersonal dimension of burnout and is a negative, callous or detached response to various aspects or the job.

Low projessional eficncy refers to the self-evaluation dimension of burnout and is a feeling of competence. productivity and achievement at work.

Job engagement is vienied as the positive antithesis of burnout (Maslach et al., 2001: Schaufeli, Martinez, Pinto, Salano\q & Bakker, in press). Maslach and Leiter (1997) rephrased burnout as erosion of engagement with the job and suggested engagement to be characterised by energy, in\/ol\lement, and efficacy - the direct opposites oS lhe three burnout dimensions. Not much research on job engagement exists, as it is a relati~.el\* new field of study. It is. however. interesring to note that burnout is particularly relaled to job demands (e.g. work overload, emotional demands), but engagement is particularly related to job resources (e.g. job conlrol, availability of Feedback, learning opporlunities) (Schaulkli, Salanova Gonzhlez-Romj & Bakker, in press).

Schaufeli et al. (in press) describe burnout and engagement as opposite concepts that should be measured independently with different instruments. They define engagetnent as "a positive, Ilfilling. work-related state of mind that is characterised by vigvur, dedication and absorptiotz". Engagement refers to a more persistent and pervasive affecthe-cogniti~ le state that is not focused on any particular job. event, individual or behaviour. Vigour refers to hgh levels or energy and mental resilience while working, as well as a \\iillingness to exert effod and persist even in dficult situations. Dedication is described as a sense of significance, enthusiasm inspiration. pride and challenge. Absorption refers to a tendency to be 1 1 1 ~ . concentrated and deeply engrossed in work, so that time passes quickly and one has difficulty detaching oneself from work. Absorption includes focused attention, a clear mind. mind and body unison, effortless concentration, complete control, loss of self-consciousness, distortion of time, and intrinsic enioyment (Csikszentmihalyi, 1990). Schaureli et al. (in press)

developed the Ulrecht Work Engagement Scale (UWES) and found it lo be acceptabl!. reliable and valid according to a study in Spain.

RESEARCH METHOD

Research design

A survey design was used to reach the research objective. The specific d e s i ~ q is the cross- sectional design, whereby a sample is drawn from a population at one time (Shaughnessy & Zechrneister, 1997).

Sample

Random samples (n = 257) were taken from small, medium and large police stations in the

Kwazulu-Nalal. The following formula proposed by Kerlinger and Lee (2000) nlas used to determine the sample size for this study:

and

\\here 17' = estimated sample size; n = the estimated sample size using the formula: N = the s i ~ e of the population; z = standard score corresponding lo the specified probability of risk;

SD = the standard deviation of the population and d = the specified deviation.

The values for z. S I ) and d have been determined in previous studies of burnout in South Africa (Basson & Rothmann, 2002). Stations were divided in10 small (less than 25 staff members), medium (25 - 100 staff members) and large (more than 100 staff members) stations. All police members at randomly identified small and medium stations in each of the provinces were asked to complete the questionnaire. In the large stations stratified random samples were taken according to ses and race.

Table 1 provides a summary of the characteristics of the sample used in thls study.

Table 1

(7har.aaei.i.slics of'the Sample (N

-

257)

Education

(Xurucrerrr l r c U~tlrgorv Percentu,oc of He~pondent,

- - - -- - - -- - --- - - KILL Wtu le 11.98 Black 52.89 Colourul 2.48 Indtan 32.64 Constable 10.87 Sergeant 10.87 lnvpctor 50.87 Cdpla~n 16.09 Supenntmdenl 2.17

Senior Supct intendent 9.13

Grade 10 8.37 Scs hhrilal Status language S-rated 1.59 Rcmarricd 1.59 Afrikaans 10.24 Endish 3513 S+i 0.39 Scsotho 0.79 IsiSwati 0.79 IsiSdekle 0.39 IsiShma 0.39 IsZulu 51.18

3.lzdical Condition Yes 15.80

According to Table 1, the majority of participants were Black (52,89 %), Inspectors (50,87%) and had an educational level of Grade 12 (53,39 %). Male participants constituted 78,31 % of participants and the majority of participants were married (39.84 %). 5 1.18 % of respondents \vere Zulu-speaking, 35,83 % were English-speaking and 10,24 % were Afrikaans-speaking. The majority of respondents were without a medical condition that could influence work perfornlance (85,20 %).

Measuring instruments

The COPE Que.stionnaire (COPE) was used to measure participants' coping strategies. The

COPE is a multidimensional 53-item coping questionnaire that indicates the dfferent \\lays people cope in different circurnstances (Carver, Scheier, & Weintraub, 1989). Although the original questionnaire measures 13 different coping strategies, Pienaar (2002) subjected the COPE to a principal components factor analysis with a varimax rotation. Three internally consistent factors were extracted, namely Problem-focused coping (16 items). Passi1;e coping

( 1 3 items), and Seeking social support (7 items). The alpha coefficients of the three scales are

0,93, 0,86, and 0,87 respecti\dy.

AU

these values are acceptable

( a

> 0,70, Nunnally & Bemsteiy 1994), md thus indicate the internal consistency of the factors of the PSI. Test- retest reliabhty varies fiom O,46 to 0,86 and from 0,42 tot 0,89 (applied after two weeks).

The Police Stress Inventory (PSI) was used to measure participants' job stress. The PSI focuses on common work situations that often result in psycholog~cal s t r m . Each of the 44 item describes a job-related stressor event and assesses both the perceived severity and frequency occurrence of that event. Firstly. participants rated each of the 44 items regarding the intensity of stress on a !+point scale. The frequency part of the questionnaire asked '%ow many times in the last six months" did the participant experience the source of stress. Pienaar (2002) subjected the PSI to a principal components factor analysis with a varima~ rotation. Three internally consistent factors were extracted, namely Job Demands (17 items), Lack of resources (14 items), and Police stressors (8 items). The alpha coefficients of the three scales are 0,92: 0;92; and 0,89 respectively. All these values are acceptable

( a

> 0,70, Nunnally & Bernstein 1994), and thus indicate the internal consistency of the factors of the PSI.

The Maslach Burnotlt Inventory-General S~.rrvey (MBI-GS) (Maslach el al.. 1996) was used to measure burnout. The MBI-GS has three subscales: Eshaustion (Ex) (five items; e.g. "I feel used up at the end of the workday"), Cynicism (Cy) (five items: e.g. "I have become less enthusiastic about my work-') and Professional Efficacv (PE) (six items; e.g. "In my opinion, I am good a1 my job"). Together the subscales of the MBI-GS provide a three-dimensional perspective on burnout. Internal consislencies (Cronbach alpha coefficients) reported b!. Schaufeli et al. (1996) varied fiom 0,87 to 0.89 for Exhaustion, 0,73 to 0,84 for Cynicism and 0.76 to 0,84 for Professional Efficacy. Test-retest reliabilities after one year were 0,65 (Exhaustion), 0160 (Cvnicism and 0.67 (Professional Efficacy) (Schaufeli et al.. 1996). All items are scored on a 7-point frequent!, raling scale ranging from "0: (never) to "6" (dad!.). High scores on Ex and Cy. and low scores on PE are indicative of burnout. Storm (2002) confirmed the 3-factor structure of the MBI-GS in a sample of 2396 SAPS members, but recommended that Item 13 should be dropped from the questionnaire. She confirmed the structural equi~lalence of the MBI-GS for different race groups in the SAPS. The follou,ing Cronbach alpha coefficients were obtained for the MBI-GS: Exhaustion: 0,88; Cynicism: (475); Professional Eficacy: 0,78 (Storm 2002).

The IJtrechr Work Ellgagemerzr Scale (UWES) (Schaufeli et al., in press) \+!as used to

measure the levels 01 engagement of the participants. The UWES includes three dimensions, namely. vigour, dedication and absorption, whlch is conceptually seen as the opposite of burnout and is scored on a seven-point scale. It ranges from "0'' (never) to "6" (every day) and include questions like "I am bursting with energy every day in my ivork"; "Time lles when I am at u-ork" and '-My job inspires me". The alpha coeflicients for the three sub-scales varied between 0,68 and O,91. The alpha coefficient could be improved (a varies between

0'78 and 0,89 for the three sub-scales) by eliminating a re\\! items without substantially

decreasing the scales internal consistency. Storm (2002) obtained the follo~ving alpha coefficients for the UWES in a sample of 2396 members of the SAPS: Vigour: 0.78: Dedication: 0.89: Absorption: 0,78.

Statistical analysis

The statistical analysis was carried out with the help of the SAS-program (SAS Institute, 2000). Cronbach alpha coefficients, inter-item correlation coefficients and confirmato? factor analysis were used to assess the reliability and validity of the measuring instruments (Clark & Watson. 1995). Descriptive slatistics (e.g. means, standard deviations, skewness and kurtosis) were used to analyse the data

T-tests and one-ivay analysis oC variance (ANOVA) were used to determine differences between the sub-groups in the sample. The following formula 14.a~ used to deterrmne the practical sigdicance of a difference

(4

when a t-test was used (Steyn, 1999):

where

Mean.,, = Mean of the first group

Mean5 = Mean of the second group

SDxu.\. = Highest standard deviation of the two groups

A cut-off point of 0.80 (large effect, Cohen. 1988) was set for the practical significance of a difference between means.

The following formula was used to determine the effect sizes ( d ) of differences bet~veen the means of two groups (Steym, 1999):

mean^ - Meann

d =

Root MsIi

where

MeanA = Mean of the first group

MeanB = Mean of the second group

Pearson product-moment correlation coefficients were used to speci@ the relationships bet\i.een the 1 ariables. In the case \\There the distribution of scores was skeu. Spearman correlation coefficients were computed. A cut-off point of 0,30 (Cohen, 1988) was set for the practical sigdcance or correlation coeffic~ents.

Canonical correlation was used to determine the relationshps between the dimensions of burnout, engagement, stress and coping. The goal of canonical correlalion is to analyse the relationship between two sels of variables (Tabachnick & Fidell, 2001). Canonical correlation is considered a descriptive techruque rather than a hypothesis-testing procedure.

RESULTS

Table 2 shows the descriptive statistics, Cronbach alpha coefficients and inter-item correlation coefficients of the measuring instruments.

Table 2

1)escriptive Stati.stic.s, ('i.orzhach Alpha ('oqflicienls nrzd Itz~er-Ilenz Cbrreln/ron C'ocffic~ent.~ of'the Measuring instruments (N - 257)

Item ;\Icon S 1 ) Skewness Kurrusis Inrcr-item r a

-

>,1131-(;S Fsli3ustion 12.58 8.33 0.45 -0.03 0.56 0.86 C~nicisrn 8.14 6.4 1 0.58 -0.5 1 0.46 0.77 Rofcssiunal Eflicac! 28.2 1 7.07 -1.21. 1.45' l1..34 0.74 I \\'ES \'i your 21.58 5.77 -11.47 -0.40 0.3 1 0,69 1)ctlicntion 23.47 6.09 -0>9) 11.22 0.52 0.84 ~~\bsoq)~ion 2135 5.91 -0.35 -0.63 0.27 0.74 1'SI Job Dcniands 85.73 29.62 -0.20 -0.44 0.4 I 0.92 Job Resources 81.83 25.56 4.43 -0.34 0.46 0 3 2 l'r.)lice SWors 41.63 18.82 -0. I4 -1.09 0.57 0.31 COPE Problem-focused Coping 60.76 11.84 -0.37 -0.41 0.29 0.90 Passi\,c Coping 28..? 1 8.38 0.48 -0.23 0.3 1 0.85 Social Support 20..30 5.21 -0.58 -0.27 0.40 0.85 'l'urning tu K e l i ~ i o n 12.32 .3.03 -0.72 -0.02 0.42 0.74 RECIPROCITY Kcciprocit). I .3.66 1.30 -0.59 -0.76 Reciprocity 2 .? % .? .? 1.25 -0.20 -0.85 Reciprocity 3 j.45 1.27 -0.28 -0.99

Rwiprocity 'I'otal 10.45 3.18 -0.38 -0.43 O.S.? 0.77

Iiigh skcwncss and kurtosis

Table 2 shows that acceptable Cronbach alpha coefficients varying from 0.69 to 0.92 were obtained for the scales (see Nunnally & Bernstein. 1994). The mean inter-item correlations of most of the scales are acceptable (0.15 5 r 5 0.50, Clarke & Watson. 1995). The ~nter-item correlations of four scales, namely Eshaustion, Ded~cat~on. Police Stressors and Reciproc~t) - Total. are somewhat h~gh.

It is evident from Table 2 that most of the scales of the measuring instruments have relatively normative distributions, with lo\v skesvness and kurtosis. It is only Professional Efficacy that shows relatively hgh ske\vness and kurtosis. but it is still acceptable.

For the purposes of this study, item 13 of the MBI-GS. items 10 and 51 of the COPE and items 4 and 14 of the UWES were removed. These items were not loading in the same manner as the other items. Items 1 0 and 51 of the COPE were included in another scale, namely Turning to Religion.

Table 3 reports the product-moment correlation coefficients between burnout. stress, coping and engagement. In the case of the correIation between Professional Efficacy and the other constructs, Spearman correlation coefficients were computed because of the skewed dstributlon of Professional Efficacy. Table 3 shows the Spearman correlation coefficients between Professional Efficacy and the other constructs.

Table 3

Product-1Mornenr C70rrelation C'oejficienrs her ween B U ~ O U I . Stress, Coping and Engagement

Item Exhaustion Cynicism Rofesqional Efficacy

Problcm-focused Coping -0.03 -0.03 0.22'

Passivc Coping 0.32'' 0,4 l m + -0.25'

Social Support -0.04 0.02 0.28

'Turning to Religion -0,00 -0,04 0.09

Job Dcmnds 0 . 5 3 ~ ' 11~35". 0.07

Job Rmources 0.47" 0.28' 0,2Im

I'olicl: S b m 0..37' 0.17' 0 . 1 7

\'igour -0124' 4.24' 0.24'

Dedication -0,: 1.' -0..;4" 0.21'

t\bsorption -0.09 -0.02 0.22'

p _< 0,05, statislicallv signilicant

' r > 0,30. practically significant, medium effect ++

r > 0,50, practically significant, large efl'cct

Exhaustion correlates practically significantly and positively with Job Demands, Job Resources and Passive Coping, and negatively with Dedication. Cynicism is practically significantly and positively correlated with Job Demands and Passive Coping, and negativeh with Dedication.

Table 4 shows the product-moment correlation coefficients between engagement, stress and coping.

Table 4

Yrod1.ict-Motncni C'orrelation C7oefTicienl.s between ('oping, S'1re.s.~ and b:ngagemen t

Vigour 1)edication :\bso~ption

Problem-focused C'opiny l';~ssi\t: ('oping Social Support Turning to Rcligion lob l)cmands doh Kesowcos Pulicr: Strersors

-

p 5 0,05, statistically significant

- r > 0,30. practically significant. mdiuni effect

- ' r > 0,50, practically significant, large effect

The results show that Dedication correlates practically significantly positively with Problem- focused Coping and Social Support. Problem-focused Coping is also positively correlated with Vigour and Absorption.

Table 5 reports the differences in the levels of burnout and engagement between male and female police members.

Table 5

Dlljerences in Burnout and Engagemenr atnong I'olzce Members Hasecf on Sex

Item hlalcs 1'~males P d

.-- -~ - .-.---- - .. - -

i\,irrtn Sf) .\leli~7 :;IJ

IIsba us1 ion 11.70 8-13 15-52 8.36 0.00 0.46

No practically significant differences in the levels of burnout and engagement exist between male and female police members.

Table 6 reports the differences in the levels of burnout and engagement between police members with and without medical conditions.

Table 6

1 )! f fkrences in Rtrrnout trnd ICnga,yemenr crmong I'olice Members Based on Present h/le~1'iicc11 CTondi/ion.s

With Mdical Without Medical P tf

Conditions Conditions

/\bsorpt ion 24,57 7;77 25.52 7,11 0,49 0,12

'I?-actiully s i g n i i i m l correlation. large etEect (ti 3 0.80)

I t is evident from Table 6 that police members with medical conditions have practically significantl!. lower levels of Cynicism than police members without nlehcal condilions.

Table 7 reports the differences in the levels of burnout and engagement of police members based on marital status.

Table 7

l)i{firencc.s in Bw.tlottt and Engagement atnong Police Members Rased on ~Wariral Siu/lr.s

[turn Single .\ln~Ticd 1)ivoscccl Scpasatd K o i i ~ s ~ ~ i c d Root hlSE P

I~slmusliou 13.23 12.67 12.17 5.0 16.00 8 3 7

No practically significant differences in the levels of burnout or engagement exist between police members based on marilal slatus.