Is virtual reality the new
museums’ reality?
A quantitative study exploring the experiential value of virtual reality exhibitions within museums
Name: Lisa Konings Student number: 10579141
Final Version Master Thesis: 01-07-2018 Program: MSc Business Administration
Track: Entrepreneurship and Management in the Creative Industries Institution: University of Amsterdam
Statement of originality
This document is written by Student Lisa Konings who declares to take full responsibility for the contents of this document. I declare that the text and the work presented in this document is original and that no sources other than those mentioned in the text and its references have been used in creating it. The Faculty of Economics and Business is responsible solely for the supervision of completion of the work, not for the contents.
Abstract: Virtual reality offers museums new possibilities and can be considered as one of the most appealing and potentially most performance enhancing technology to attract a broad audience. Despite a growing importance of using new technologies in the design of museum exhibitions in order to enrich the experiences of visitors, relatively little is known about its effectiveness. To fill this knowledge gap a survey-based quantitative research was conducted. The results of this study provide insight into how museum visitors experience exhibitions that are centered around virtual reality systems and to what extent individual visitor experiences lead to visitor satisfaction and loyalty behavior in favor of the museum. Findings reveal that virtual reality exhibitions primarily offer entertainment experiences, followed by aesthetic, educational and escapist experiences. Furthermore, it appears that the entertainment aspect of virtual reality exhibitions predict visitor satisfaction the most. Satisfaction, in turn, translates into greater intention to recommend the virtual reality exhibition. The results of this study thus suggest that virtual reality within the design of museum exhibitions offer the potential to improve the social and, subsequently, the economic performance of museums. Overall, findings of this study provide several theoretical contributions and offer important implications for museum managers.
Table of contents
1. Introduction ... 6
1.1 Problem definition ... 6
1.2 Research question ... 10
2. Literature review ... 11
2.1 Staging experiences in museums ... 12
2.1.1 Visitor experience ... 12
2.1.2 Experiential value dimensions ... 14
2.1.3 The visitor experience and technology ... 16
2.2 Virtual reality exhibitions within museums and the visitor experience ... 20
2.2.1 Virtual reality-based exhibitions: perceived ease of use ... 21
2.2.2 Virtual reality-based exhibitions: satisfaction and intention to recommend ... 25
2.2.3 Conceptual model ... 31 3. Methodology ... 31 3.1 Contexts ... 32 3.2 Research design... 33 3.4 Measurement of variables ... 35 3.4.1 Independent variable ... 36 3.4.2 Mediator variables ... 36 3.4.3 Dependent variables ... 37 3.4.4 Control variables ... 38 3.5 Statistical procedure ... 39 4. Results ... 41 4.1 Preliminary Results ... 41 4.1.1 Descriptive statistics ... 41
4.1.2 Pre-analyzing the data ... 44
4.1.3 Correlation matrix ... 47
4.2 Hypotheses testing ... 49
4.3 Impact of control variables ... 53
5. Discussion and conclusion ... 58
5.1 General discussion ... 58
5.2 Conclusion ... 62
5.3 Theoretical and practical implications ... 63
5.4 Limitations and recommendation for future research ... 66
A. Survey ... 79 B. Plot of Eigenvalues ... 81 C. Visitors´ evaluations per context ... 82
1. Introduction
1.1 Problem definition
In order to compete effectively, organizations nowadays are focused on creating memorable experiences to engage customers. Achieving memorable customer experiences is considered to be a highly desirable goal for organizations aiming to improve customer loyalty and profitability (Frow & Payne, 2007). Organizations focused on facilitating memorable customer experiences want to create more impact and differentiate themselves in their service delivery, with the purpose to create both value for the organization and its customers (Verhoef et al., 2009). It is therefore crucial for organizations to engage and involve customers by staging an experience that is in line with the needs of customers (Pine & Gilmore, 1998). Yet, in order to improve the staged experiences, managers should have to go beyond imagining what they think customers want and offer them novel experiences (Kotler & Kotler, 2000). Individuals seek novelty and variety in experiences. Therefore also cultural organizations are required to engage their audiences by placing the emphasis on the visitor and on creating more memorable experiences (Antón, Camarero & Garrido, 2017). Museums illustrate this phenomenon perfectly as providing memorable visitor experiences has become a key factor in achieving visitor satisfaction and ensuring the museum´s sustainability. In a highly
competitive world of tourist attractions, museums need to focus sharply on visitor satisfaction (Rowley, 1999). As a matter of fact, visitor satisfaction has become the main goal of
museums (Caldwell, 2000), highlighting the importance of delivering satisfying museum experiences. Effectively managing visitor experiences can thus be seen as a way to achieve competitive advantage for museums. This is needed because budgetary subsidies are limited and shrinking. Museums need to ensure their survival, by securing financial resources, offering societal value and focusing on the attraction of many and also diverse audiences
(Gilmore & Rentschler, 2002; Macedo & Pinho, 2006). Consequently, a fundamental shift has occurred for museums from being primary a presenter of cultural goods to being an
experience provider.
Especially the use of multimedia technologies within museum are greatly influencing the visitor experience. Investments in technology within museums have the potential to engage museum visitors in new ways and to offer them richer experiences (Kotler & Kotler, 2000; Stogner, 2009), and also positively impact the perceived quality of the museum due to improved service delivery and, consequently, ensure the museum’s sustainability (Antón, Camarero & Garrido, 2017; Pop & Borza, 2016). Moreover, it has been found that technology investments enhance the economic and social performance of museums (Camarero & Garrido, 2012; Camarero, Garrido & Vicente, 2015; Garrido & Camarero, 2008). Investments in multimedia technologies can thus be seen as a sustainable managerial approach for museums. Especially virtual reality technologies can be seen as one of the most appealing and
potentially effective technologies within the context of museums to make culture more
accessible to a broad audience (Carrozzino & Bergamasco, 2010). Virtual reality technologies are found to offer immersive and interactive experiences for users and, therefore, contribute to the achievement of a competitive advantage for organizations (Tost & Economou, 2009; Carrozzino & Bergamasco, 2010). More museums have started to embrace virtual reality technologies within the design of their exhibitions, but virtual reality systems within museums are still quite uncommon (Carrozzino & Bergamasco, 2010).
Despite a growing importance of using technology in the design of museum exhibitions in order to enrich visitor experiences, relatively little is known about the effectiveness on how value is created by experiencing technology-based exhibitions and to what extent the visitor population is satisfied with this sort of exhibitions. Assessing the level of visitor satisfaction through providing memorable visitor experiences is considered to be
important since visitor satisfaction has become the main goal of museums. However, no empirical studies have explored this yet. Empirical studies that have looked at the experiences of museum visitors, looked at how visitors experienced the overall museum visit, including the encounters with multimedia technologies (Antón, Camarero & Garrido, 2017;
Mehmetoglu & Engen, 2011; Radder & Han, 2015). Or they have looked at the educational role of museums and linked the learning experiences of visitors to multimedia technologies (Pallud, 2017). This study is meant to contribute to a better understanding of the effectiveness of technology-based exhibitions. For it may be possible that technology-based exhibitions can create a hindrance for achieving organizational goals. First of all, this is because when
museums invest too much in technology this can cause harmful long-term effects if pursuing the museum’s social goals becomes second and providing entertainment experiences becomes first (Balloffet, Courvoisier & Lagier, 2014). Also, technologies within museums have the potential to undermine the educational experience and to mainly attract younger visitors who belong to a generation that is digitally native (Stogner, 2009). It is thus important that
technology investments remain valuable for museum visitors and that visitor experiences are balanced properly (Bradburne, 2001).
Therefore, the goal of this study is to understand how museum visitors experience technology-based exhibitions within museums, with a focus on virtual reality, and how visitors assign value to their experiences. More specifically, this study will take on a visitor approach and will assess what kind of experiences are created and will explore to what extent virtual reality exhibitions are satisfying to museum visitors and if their satisfaction leads to loyalty behavior in favor of the museum. For the purpose of this study, quantitative data is collected from two different contexts in order to assess the value of virtual reality-based service experiences according to museum visitors of two Dutch museums: Het
Netherlands that have launched a virtual reality exhibition designed to appeal to all age groups by combining entertainment with rich layers of education.
In order to fully understand how museum visitors experience technology-based
exhibitions within museums, the experiential value dimensions proposed by Pine and Gilmore (1998) are used. These dimensions reflect the kind of individual experiences that are created by the consumption of staged experiences. These are: an educational experience, an
entertainment experience, an escapist experience, an aesthetic experience or a combination of those.Different empirical studies have used these dimensions in relation to several plausible consequences across various tourism contexts, including the museum branch (Antón,
Camarero & Garrido, 2017; Mehmetoglu & Engen, 2011; Oh, Fiore & Jeoung, 2007; Radder & Han, 2015). This study can be considered as a follow-up study. However, only one specific service offering will be the subject of this explanatory study. This is due to the fact, as argued by Oh, Fiore and Jeong (2007), that it may be more difficult to predict the relationship
between individual experiences with plausible consequences as satisfaction, because they may depend heavily on the salience of the overall experiences staged by museums. As a
consequence, more plausible explanations can be offered for the effect of only one staged experience on plausible consequences. This study´s one service offering is a technology-based service offering, namely a virtual reality exhibition. This is an appropriate choice since
introducing interactive exhibitions in order to enrich visitor experiences is considered as a trend within the museum branch (Caldwell, 2000). In contrast to the other studies, also the process that determines an individual experience is examined in this study, namely the process of using the virtual reality system.
This leads to the practical relevance; this study contributes to the understanding of the effectiveness of new high-tech technologies within museum exhibitions, focusing on virtual reality. Insights in its effectiveness is increasingly needed, since museums in particular start to
recognize the potential offered by these technologies (Carrozzino & Bergamasco, 2010). Even though it is nowadays still quite rare to experience virtual reality within museums. This study will provide the management of a museum with rich information on how their investments will contribute to the fulfillment of visitor satisfaction and loyalty behavior in favor of the museum. In addition, it will offer them guidelines to design a technology-based exhibition aiming to provide memorable visitor experiences. This is essential for museums in the Netherlands due to the decline in governmental support and, consequently, their need to increase their generated revenue.
1.2 Research question
As described in the introduction section, the focus of this study will be to assess the value of virtual reality-based service experiences. More specific, the goal of this study is to understand how the use of virtual reality systems determines visitor experiences and how the value created from these visitor experiences leads to satisfaction and loyalty behavior in favor of the museum. This results in the following research question:
What is the impact of a virtual reality exhibition within museums on the value of the visitor experience and on satisfaction and loyalty evaluations of museum visitors in the Netherlands?
In order to answer this question, a number of sub research questions have been composed:
1. What is the effect of the museum visitor’s perceived ease of use of a virtual reality system used in a Dutch museum exhibition on the value of the visitor experience in terms of education, entertainment, escapism and aesthetics?
2. What is the effect of the visitor experience created by a virtual reality exhibition in terms of education, entertainment, escapism and aesthetics on overall satisfaction of museum visitors in the Netherlands?
3. What is the effect of the museum visitor´s perceived level of overall satisfaction on the visitor’s intention to recommend the virtual reality exhibition within a Dutch museum to friends and family members?
The remainder of this study is structured as follows. First, a theoretical overview is given of the literature available in relation to the research question. Also the hypotheses are provided along with the conceptual model. In the next chapter a description of the data and the methodology is given. Then the data is analyzed and results are presented, followed by a conclusion and a discussion. Finally, the study contributions are highlighted, followed by suggestions for future studies.
2. Literature review
Following this introduction, this chapter will provide an overview of the literature available in relation to the research question. The first section will discuss the concept of visitor experience; it will be defined and applied to the context of museums. A good
understanding of this concept is needed as for the purpose of this study a particular focus is laid on the experience of visitors. This section will continue with exploring the relationship between the visitor experience and technology used within museums. Different areas of research have provided insights into the potentials multimedia technologies offer, virtual reality included, which in turn enriches visitor experiences. The first section offers theoretical background, while the subsequent section focusses on providing support for the proposed conceptual model. The process that determines individual visitor experiences and how these experiences will result in overall satisfaction and loyalty behavior will be examined by focusing on one specific service offering: a virtual reality exhibition. More specifically, this section examines the relationship between perceived ease of use, experiential value
dimensions, overall satisfaction and intention to recommend. All of these constructs will be discussed together with the proposed hypotheses and the conceptual model.
2.1 Staging experiences in museums
2.1.1 Visitor experience
As discussed in the previous chapter achieving memorable customer experiences in order to compete effectively is considered to be a highly desirable goal for organizations aiming to improve customer loyalty and, consequently, profitability (Frow & Payne, 2007). The widely used term customer experience has been defined in marketing literature as ‘‘the user’s interpretation of his or her interaction with the brand’’ (Frow & Payne, 2007, p. 90). To elaborate on this definition, a customer experience can emerge from a set of interactions between a customer and an organization or its product or service (Gentile, Spiller & Noci, 2007). The conceptualization of customer experience of Verhoef et al. (2009) puts emphasis on the user’s interpretation and points out the customer’s involvement at different levels. According to the authors customer experience is holistic in nature and involves the customer’s cognitive, affective, emotional, social and physical responses to the organization. This implies that a customer experience is strictly personal. In addition, both the organization and the consumer can gain value through the set of interactions (Gentile, Spiller & Noci, 2007; Verhoef et al., 2009). Value for visitors can be created by consuming positive or even memorable experiences, and for organizations value is created in terms of customer loyalty and profitability (Gentile, Spiller & Noci, 2007). In order to differentiate yourself as an organization from competitors it is important to stage experiences that are in line with the customer needs (Pine & Gilmore, 1998). A customer experience cannot be designed by the organization, since an experience is co-created through customer interaction with several service elements (Teixeira et al., 2012). Pine and Gilmore (1998) state that an experience
occurs when an organization intentionally uses services as the stage, and goods as props, to engage individual customers in a way that a memorable event is created for them. According to this conceptualization experiences are distinct from services and goods. Services and goods can be seen as means that need to be actively used in order to provide value for customers. This in turn defines the customer experience. Organizations are able to facilitate a memorable experience for customers, but not capable to fully control customer experiences. Yet,
organizations can design situations that better support customers in co-creating their desired experiences. Value needs to be added to organizations’ offerings that provide customers with memorable and satisfying experiences that engage the customers on an emotional, physical, intellectual and spiritual level (Pine & Gilmore, 1998). According to Grewal, Levy and Kumar (2009) organizations can adopt a business strategy, referred to as customer experience management, which designs situations that ultimately can result in a win-win value exchange between customers and organizations. However, achieving this is difficult because of the richness of customer experiences (Gentile, Spiller & Noci, 2007).
Museums have adopted this business strategy as well since they have become more visitor-oriented and strive to stage satisfying visitor experiences. Within the context of museums it is more appropriate to refer to the term visitor experience than to the above-mentioned customer experience. For the purpose of this study, visitor experience refers to a strictly personal individual interpretation of museum visitors and is considered to be holistic in nature, which occurs when a visitor is engaged in such a way that a memorable event is created for him or her. As a new marketing approach museum managers work to make visits to museums more attractive, accessible and satisfying (Harrison & Shaw, 2004). Therefore, museums can be seen as experience-centered places where visitors can consume experiences (Muskat, Muskat, Zehrer & Johns, 2013). Consequently, the primary goal of many museums nowadays is to achieve a high level of visitor satisfaction (Harrison & Shaw, 2004). Higher
levels of visitor satisfaction will be achieved, when museums build an understanding of their visitor’s interests into the experiences they stage (Camarero & Garrido, 2008). Museum visitors are especially interested in seeking novelty and variety in the experiences they consume (Antón, Camarero & Garrido, 2017). In addition, the staged experiences should be so rewarding and pleasing that it leads to visitor satisfaction. There is, however, no single formula which museums can employ for shaping rewarding and pleasing visitor experiences (Kotler & Kotler, 2000).
2.1.2 Experiential value dimensions
Pine and Gilmore (1998) were the first authors that have introduced a conceptual framework for understanding the nature of customer experiences in general. According to them organizations are able to stage an educational, entertaining, escapist and/or aesthetic experience whenever they engage customers in a personal and memorable way. They have named this conceptual framework the four realms of an experience. Figure 1 summarizes this conceptual framework. They argue that an experience is more valuable to consumers than a service delivery on its own. The value that is created by experiences is different for each individual. Yet, each individual experience is expressed through the proposed four
experiential value dimensions. A customer experience is not solely related to one of the four dimensions. An individual experience will often have elements of all four dimensions, but one dimension can be emphasized. The way an individual values an experience depends on the individual’s degree of involvement and engagement. Within Pine and Gilmore’s (1998) conceptual framework the horizontal axis refers to the continuum of involvement and the vertical axis refers to the continuum of engagement. Involvement refers to which extent customers can get involved passively in an experience or can actively participate in an
experience. Customers participate passively when they not directly affect the performance and participate actively when they personally affect the performance that yields the experience
(Pine & Gilmore, 1999, p. 30). Engagement refers to which extent consumers are absorbed or immersed in an experience. Absorption is defined as ‘‘occupying a person’s attention by bringing the experience into the mind’’ and immersion is defined as ‘‘becoming physically or virtually a part of the experience itself’’ (Pine & Gilmore, 1999, p. 31). An entertainment experience involves enjoyment which results from passive participation and absorption. An educational experience involves learning and requires active participation and absorption. An escapist experience refers to involvement as an imaginative activity and results from active participation and being immersed in an experience. Lastly, an aesthetic experience refers to the enjoyment of the physical environment by being passively involved but immersed in an experience.
The experiences staged by museums are likely to include some combination of education, entertainment, escapism and aesthetics. Education is in essence one of the social purposes of a museum (Hatton, 2012). Therefore, museums should facilitate interactive and contextual learning experiences (Chang, 2006). Museums also offer experiences that are entertaining and fun for visitors. It has been found that most visitors expect that during a museum visit, the experiences that are created should be fun in particular (Shen & Chen, 2012). Escapism can also be seen as a core motivation to visit a museum (Slater, 2007; Shen & Chen, 2012). Visitors namely look for a place of peace and fantasy where they can escape their daily routine. An aesthetic experience is also appropriate in the context of museum experiences. It refers to observing and enjoying the physical environment through sensory perceptions (Antón, Camarero & Garrido, 2017). Like a building area, an exhibition or the different objects within the museum.
Figure 1
Pine and Gilmore´s (1998) conceptual framework of the four realms of an experience
2.1.3 The visitor experience and technology
Pine and Gilmore (1998) have pointed out that technologies encourage whole new genres of experiences. This is also concluded by Kotler and Kotler (2000); the museum-going experience can be improved by designing exhibitions that reach different visitor population groups and offer them different levels of information. This can be done by employing different formats as storytelling, interactive elements and simulation of an environment. The usage of multimedia devices within museums help visitors to interact, participate and engage with museum exhibitions in an entertaining and educational manner. Kotler and Kotler (2000) have referred to this as edutainment. Multimedia technology refers to a computer generated environment that can include text, graphics, sound, animation and video. Content that arises from this can be presented through multimedia devices, such as touch-screen computers. Multimedia devices have affected the way exhibitions are designed and made the museum’s
Educational Aesthetic Escapist Active participation Passive participation Immersion Entertainment Absorption
content more accessible and attractive for a broader audience and have enriched the museum experience (Styliani, Fotis, Kostas & Petros, 2009). The more appropriate technology is used within museums, the more the needs and wishes of visitors will be satisfied, especially for those expressing quite high expectations of their museum visit (Del Chiappa, Ladu, Meleddu & Pulina, 2013). In addition to this, the effect of multimedia technology on the value of visitor experiences depends on the characteristics of the multimedia devices (Addis, 2005). The first characteristic is interactivity, which refers to the ability of multimedia devices to respond to a user’s input. The second characteristic is the ability to deliver the content of a message in a computer generated environment. Especially the interactive characteristic of multimedia devices is found to be essential for user satisfaction (Alcaraz, Hume & Mort, 2009; Barron & Leask, 2017).
Cultural organizations are increasingly engaging with technologies as part of their exhibition designs as it opens up possibilities for more effective pursuit of organizational goals (Bakhsi & Throsby, 2012; Stogner, 2009). It creates public value, expands audience reach and enriches the visitor experience. Different empirical studies have found that when museums invest in technology in order to satisfy the needs of their visitors, the social and economic performance of museums is enhanced (Camarero & Garrido, 2012; Camarero, Garrido & Vicente, 2015; Garrido & Camarero, 2008). Moreover, the achievement of social performance contributes to the achievement of economic performance (Camarero & Garrido, 2007). Social performance refers to the achievement related to visitor satisfaction, reputation and custody of culture by passing it on to visitors (Garrido & Camarero, 2008). Economic performance relates to the amount of visits and revenue (Garrido & Camarero, 2008). In addition, investing in technology is in line with the current consumer trend in consuming cultural offerings. The digital technology lifestyle of consumers has emerged whereby
educational and cultural experiences, and in which they play a more active part (Pulh, Marteaux & Mencarelli, 2008). In sum, they want to be entertained in an immersive,
experiential, interactive, dynamic and story-driven way (Stogner, 2009). As the expectations of cultural consumers has changed, museums feel the urge to change as well. More museums are adopting a sensory approach and incorporate multimedia devices that involve the
audience’s senses by offering a total sensory experience (Mencarelli, Marteaux & Pulh, 2009). In conclusion, technology in particular can be seen as a factor that contributes to the occurrence of memorable individual experiences (Rowley, 1999).
Above all, multimedia technology is viewed as critically important in enhancing the museum’s educational role (Von Lehm & Heatch, 2005). Different studies have looked at the educational role of museums and have linked the effects of interactive multimedia devices to the enrichment of learning experiences of visitors. First of all, visitors’ learning will be positively improved because the senses of the visitors will be stimulated and therefore their memory is reinforced (Addis, 2005). Multimedia devices make it possible to co-create, to learn and to be entertained in a not too difficult way. In addition, Pallud (2017) states that interactive and easy to use technologies are needed to engage visitors, thereby ensuring positive learning experiences. The more effective the experience is in engaging all the senses, the more memorable it is likely to be (Balloffet, Courvoisier & Lagier, 2014). It can therefore be concluded that multimedia devices make it possible to provide services which are more effective and of higher quality (Pop & Borzo, 2016). Multimedia devices thus enhance service delivery within museums as technology will make exhibitions more accessible for different groups of visitors, provide interaction and interpretation and will enhance the quality and relevance of exhibitions and therefore educate the public. As stated by Gilmore and Rentschler (2002) accessibility, communication and education are the most important
dimensions for offering services within museums, and technologies contribute to improve all three.
Recently the use of virtual reality systems within exhibitions has become a
phenomenon in museums (Bruno et al., 2009). Virtual reality technology can be considered as a new form of computer-generated simulation whereby the user interacts with the virtual environment in a seemingly real way by using multimedia devices. According to Steuer (1992) virtual reality is defined as ‘‘a real or simulated environment in which a perceiver experiences telepresence’’ (Steuer, 1992, p. 6). Telepresence, in turn, is defined as ‘‘the experience of presence in an environment by means of a communication medium’’ (Steuer, 1992, p. 6). The main feature of virtual reality is that it supports a multimedia form of
communication and that it is immersive, virtual, computational, dynamic and interactive (Tost & Economou, 2009). A virtual reality exhibition can be seen as a new concept of exhibitions where visitors are immersed in a unique scenographic environment. This provides information and stimulates actions, sensations and feelings by means of devices. Within the scenographic environment the perception of the user is mediated by the virtual reality technology, and therefore perceives two separate environments simultaneously: the physical environment in which one is actually present and the environment presented via the medium, the virtual world (Steuer, 1992). Such technology-based exhibitions are aimed to establish a one-to-one sequential interaction between the user and the virtual reality system. Using new technologies are found to have several potential advantages within museums, namely providing novel experiences that are highly accessible and offering educational and aesthetic value to visitors (Pantano & Corvello, 2014). Therefore, however, it is important that museum visitors believe that it is easy to use the new technology systems.
Virtual reality within real museum exhibitions is often used as a mean to produce new forms of art, rather than to communicate existing collections (Carrozzino & Bergamasco,
2010). Therefore virtual reality technology is useful to tell stories as the virtual environment can be made from scratch (Sylaiou, Mania, Karoulis & White, 2010). Virtual reality systems with appealing and accessible features have the potential to educate audiences in a more innovative and interactive manner (Stylaiou et al., 2010). This is confirmed by Tost and Economou (2009). Virtual reality within museums is found to be appropriate for learning because it allows a flexible, personalized exploration of richer quantity of information. In addition, virtual reality has the ability to enrich visitor experiences in new innovative ways and contribute to the achievement of a competitive advantage for organizations, since high levels of immersion and interaction can be facilitated (Carrozzino & Bergamasco, 2010; Tost & Economou, 2009). Immersion in the context of virtual reality refers to the extent to which sensory levels are immersed and how successfully a user communicates with a virtual
environment (Huang, Liaw & Lai, 2016). Interactivity refers to the degree to which users of a medium can influence the form or content of the mediated environment (Steuer, 1992). Immersive and interactive virtual reality has all the potential to become a very effective mean to make culture accessible to a broad audience. In addition, it has been found that it is
particularly useful to target young people who are more comfortable with new media (Carrozzino & Bergamasco, 2010).
2.2 Virtual reality exhibitions within museums and the visitor experience
The previous section identified the kinds of customer experiences that are applicable in the context of museums. In addition to this, technologies, and virtual reality technologies in particular, are found, by multiple areas of research, to enrich these experiences. Yet, this section will elaborate on this by exploring how visitor experiences are created by visiting a virtual reality-based exhibition and how these experiences can result in visitor satisfaction and loyalty behavior in favor of the museum.
2.2.1 Virtual reality-based exhibitions: perceived ease of use
Museums that introduce virtual reality exhibitions are adopting a sensory approach by offering a total sensory experience to its visitors (Mencarelli, Marteaux & Pulh, 2009). In such exhibitions, visitors’ senses are stimulated by means of wearable devices. According to Carrozzino and Bergamasco (2010) the experience of presence in a virtual environment is considered to be the main goal of a virtual experience, which in turn is realized by the unique features of virtual reality: immersion and interaction. Virtual reality can be considered as a persuasive technology that convinces users to be willing to experience it (Huang & Liao, 2015). Usage, in turn, will provide users an interactive simulation experience (Huang & Liao, 2015). Virtual reality exhibitions are aimed to activate visitor’s participation and involvement and museums thereby foster the use of so-called pull techniques in order to generate interest in visiting the exhibition (Antón, Camarero & Garrido, 2017). It is therefore assumed that a museum exhibition centered around a virtual reality system can trigger all of the four experiential value dimensions proposed by Pine and Gilmore (1998). These dimensions depend on the individual’s level of engagement and involvement. The way visitors participate actively and get involved, will make up their experiences in terms of an educational,
entertainment, escapist or aesthetic experience. Since virtual reality experiences enable users to experience presence through immersion and interaction, it is expected that visitors can enjoy themselves and escape from reality during such experiences (Carrozzino &
Bergamasco, 2010). Also, by participating more actively knowledge is expanded and an educational experience will be provided by virtual reality exhibitions (Antón, Camarero & Garrido, 2017; Stylaiou et al., 2010; Tost & Economou, 2009). In addition, an aesthetic experience can be provided as well by the virtual reality exhibition, since the setting of the physical environment can influence the interest and engagement of visitors and consequently the individual visitor experience (Goulding, 2000).
For the purpose of this study, the way a visitor experiences a virtual reality exhibition is explored. A focus is laid on the kind of experiences that are created by the exhibition. Yet, because the virtual reality exhibition is centered around virtual reality, which facilitates an active immersion in a virtual environment, the process of using virtual reality is considered to be important in order to fully understand how the visitor experience is determined. When users perceive the virtual reality system as easy to use, the more likely that positive feelings will be generated and the stronger satisfaction with the usage will be (Cheng & Yuen, 2018). Since using virtual reality systems demands new navigational skills, ease of use is considered to be a driver of satisfaction (Verhagen, Feldberg, Van Den Hooff, Meents & Merikivi, 2011). In line with this, Pantano and Corvello (2014) have found that perceived ease of use will positively affect the museum visitor´s attitude towards technologies used within museums. Perceived ease of use implicates that the user does not need to exhaust too many cognitive resources when using the technology (Huang & Liao, 2015). Perceived ease of use can be defined as ‘‘a user’s belief that learning to navigate the system is free of effort’’ (Verhagen et al, 2011, p. 202). This implies that when perceived ease of use is high, users believe that the navigation of the technology system is effortless. Perceived ease of use can thus be seen as an assessment of the consequences of using the technology and can be measured based on hands-on-experiences (Wixom & Todd, 2005). Perceived ease of use is positively affected by the quality of the technology and the provided information, the way users are deeply involved with the technology, and also by the extent to which users are skilled in using the technology (Agarwal & Karahanna, 2000; Cheng & Yuen, 2018; Huang & Liao, 2015; Verhagen et al., 2011). In addition to this, when users are deeply involved with the technology system, this will be reflected in higher levels of immersion, temporal dissociation, control, curiosity and heightened enjoyment (Agarwal & Karahanna, 2000). This, in turn, can contribute to
systems is found to influence user’s experiential value dimensions that define the visitor experience (Verhagen et al., 2011). Especially the entertainment experience will be positively influenced by perceived ease of use according to both Rodrigues, Oliveira and Costa (2016) and Verhagen et al. (2011). Since virtual reality system within cultural heritage places are meant to provide meaningful and pleasant experiences, the extent to which visitors are experienced with virtual reality systems matter (Carrozzino & Bergamasco, 2010). This is confirmed by Verhagen et al. (2011) who have found that when individuals are inexperienced with virtual reality, the perceived ease of use is found to be more relevant and influential in making up more valuable experiences. Based on all these findings, it can be assumed that higher levels of perceived ease of use can make the user more receptive and open to experience the high levels of immersion and interaction virtual reality systems offer
(Carrozzino and Bergamasco, 2010). Furthermore, as a result, visitors are able to participate and to be immersed more in their experiences since less cognitive resources need to be exhausted. The value that is created by these experiences, in turn, can be expressed through all four experiential value dimensions. It is thus assumed that not only an entertainment experience will emerge, but the other three kinds of experiences as well. Based on these previous arguments, it is likely that when perceived ease of use is high, the chance of more positive memorable experiences in terms of education, entertainment, escapism and aesthetics will be higher. The kind of experience that will be created is thus likely to be impacted by the visitor´s perceived ease of use of the virtual reality system. In conclusion, perceived ease of use is considered to be important in determining the kind of experience visitors will consume. Given these points, the following hypothesis is proposed:
Hypothesis 1: The perceived ease of use of the virtual reality system by museum visitors is
positively related to the value of the visitor’s educational experience (a), entertainment
As mentioned above, a positive relationship is proposed between perceived ease of use of the virtual reality system and the value of the visitor experience. In order to discuss the effects of perceived of use in more detail, previous studies have found a positive direct relationship between the perceived ease of use of a technology system and satisfaction with the virtual world (Cheng & Yuen, 2018; Verhagen et al., 2011; Wixom & Todd, 2005). When users perceive the technology system as easy to use, they are more likely to generate positive feelings and a stronger level of satisfaction. Since virtual reality exhibitions are centered around a virtual reality system, the satisfaction with the virtual world may be comparable to the satisfaction created by a virtual reality exhibition. In line with this reasoning, when visitors perceive the virtual reality system used within an exhibition as easy to use, the more likely that their level of satisfaction with the virtual reality exhibition will be positively affected. This is due to the delivery of satisfying museum experiences (Caldwell, 2000). Therefore, a well-staged virtual reality-based service experience should be provided with virtual reality systems that visitors perceive as easy to use. This implies that the direct positive relationship between perceived ease of use and satisfaction is likely to be mediated by the visitor experience. If a visitor perceives the system as easy to use, the greater the chance that a more meaningful and pleasant experience will be provided and, consequently, the higher the level of satisfaction. For this reason, it can be assumed that the value of the visitor experience, with its mediating role, will be able to better explain the previously identified positive direct relationship. Virtual reality systems are considered to be complex to control (Carrozzino & Bergamasco, 2010). The more museum visitors perceive the system as easy to use, the more they are enabled to be engaged and involved. This in turn can create individual experiences, in terms of education, entertainment, escapism and aesthetics, which all together are found to affect overall satisfaction (Hosany & Witham, 2010). In line with this reasoning, overall satisfaction created by a virtual reality exhibition will be positively affected on the condition
that the virtual reality system is perceived as easy to use. This is because it allows visitors to be engaged and involved in such a way that a memorable experience can be created for them. Accordingly, the following hypothesis is proposed:
Hypothesis 2: The positive relationship between perceived ease of use of the virtual reality
system and overall satisfaction is partially mediated by the value of the visitor’s educational
experience (a), entertainment experience (b), escapist experience (c), and aesthetic
experience (d).
2.2.2 Virtual reality-based exhibitions: satisfaction and intention to recommend
An individual experience that occurs is a subjective response that is evoked by the consumption of an experience. It can be considered as the subjective mental state felt by individuals during a service encounter (Chan, 2009). Service providers stage experiences, but the consumers of the service offering play an active part as there is no value created from staged experiences until the service offering is used (Frow & Payne, 2007). The created value reflects the judgements of individuals based on their experience with a service offering (Chen & Chen, 2010). During the consumption of an experience an individual has a constant flow of thoughts and feelings (Mossberg, 2007), and these thoughts and feelings make up the
individual experience. These individual experiences and the related perceptions are essential to determine the value of service offerings (Frow & Payne, 2007). According to Pine and Gilmore (1998), the kind of experience that is created depends on the individual’s degree of engagement and involvement during the consumption of a service experience. As assumed earlier all the four experiential dimensions, which can be triggered by an immersive and interactive virtual reality exhibition, have the possibility, perhaps one more than the other, to make visitor experiences memorable. Memorable experiences occur when individuals
all senses become involved (Pine & Gilmore, 1999). Therefore, it is important for service providers to offer experiences that touch all four experiential value dimensions. If so, the richest experiences are facilitated. Tung and Ritchie (2011) have found that an experience will be memorable for customers if positive emotions emerge from the experience, behavioral intentions emerge to remember to experience and when expectations are reached and the experience is personally relevant. The more effective the experience is in engaging all the senses, the more memorable the individual experience is likely to be (Balloffet, Courvoisier & Lagier, 2014). Accordingly, a well-staged experience leads to positive memories, which in turn shapes individual’s subsequent attitudinal evaluations, such as overall satisfaction and behavioral intentions (Hosany & Witham, 2010; Mehmetoglu & Engen, 2011; Oh, Fiore & Jeong 2007; Pine & Gilmore 1999; Radder & Han, 2015). It can be assumed that the more value is created by experiences, the more memorable the experience will be and,
consequently, the more satisfied the individual will be with the staged experience. On top of that, arousal, as the intensity of the physiological response to a stimulus, is a key indicator of sensory experiences (Hosany & Witham, 2010; Oh, Fiore & Jeong, 2007). Immersive and interactive virtual reality has the ability to stimulate sensory levels in new innovative ways (Carrozzino & Bergamasco, 2010), which in turn can trigger intensified physiological responses. The more arousal is produced by individuals followed after a stimulus, the more positive evaluations will be elicit and the more negative evaluation will be reduced (Bagozzi, 1996). Given that a virtual reality exhibition is aimed at offering a total sensory experience to museum visitors, it can be assumed that by introducing such exhibitions the creation of an arousing experience with enduring memories is central to a museum’s ability to generate high levels of satisfaction and, consequently, positive behavioral intentions.
Satisfaction can be defined as ‘‘the degree to which one believes that an experience evokes positive feelings’’ (Chen & Chen, 2010, p. 30). Also, a satisfying experience occurs
when there is a congruence between performance and expectation, while a dissatisfying experience occurs when perceived performance differs from expectation. According to Harrison and Shaw (2004) customer satisfaction is seen as an evaluative state which can be measured throughout a service delivery (Harrison & Shaw, 2004). The level of satisfaction with a service offering can be measured based on two types of satisfaction: transaction-specific satisfaction, whereby the level of satisfaction is based on a transaction-specific service encounter at a specific point in time, or cumulative satisfaction, whereby all service encounters over time are evaluated (Zhao, Lu, Zhang & Chau, 2012). Moreover, modeling satisfaction is useful from a managerial perspective since satisfaction is considered as a key factor to create and sustain a competitive business (Di Pietro, Mugion, Renzi & Toni, 2014). When modeling satisfaction evaluations, both a cognitive and affective approach are needed to fully
understand how satisfaction is created (De Rojas & Camarero, 2008). This cognitive-affective view on satisfaction is found to be suitable within service literature (Caruana, Money & Berthon, 2000; Chen & Chen, 2010; Del Bosque & San Martin, 2008; Oh, Fiore & Jeoung, 2007). The satisfaction evaluations will include summary rational and emotional assessments of service offerings, since individuals go through cognitive and affective psychological processes during a service experience. Satisfaction can thus be defined, for this study, as a museum visitor’s cognitive-affective state derived from an experience at a specific point in time.
In different areas of service research it has been found that the value that is created from consuming experiences is a direct antecedent of customer satisfaction (Cronin, Brady & Hult, 2000; Gallarza & Saura, 2006; Harrison & Shaw, 200; Oh, Fiore & Jeoung, 2007; Williams & Soutar, 2009; Wu & Liang, 2009). Accordingly, empirical evidence is provided that customer satisfaction is positively influenced by customer value. Therefore, consuming well-staged experiences, which involve individual cognitive and affective, psychological
processes, can result in a more positive cognitive-affective state of an individual. This is confirmed in the context of museums as well, as Chen and Chen (2010) found that the higher the visitor’s perception of the value created by the museum visitor experience, the more positive the satisfaction evaluations will be. Therefore it can be concluded that perceived value, which defines the visitor experience, causes overall satisfaction with a museum service offering. More specifically, different tourism studies have indicated direct effects of the four experiential value dimensions of Pine and Gilmore (1998) on overall satisfaction (Hosany & Witham, 2010; Mehmetoglu & Engen, 2011; Oh, Fiore & Jeong, 2007; Radder & Han, 2015). Hosany and Witham (2010) have looked at the experiences of cruise tourists and concluded the aesthetic dimension as the main determinant of overall satisfaction. The aesthetic dimension was the main determinant for bed-and-breakfast tourists as well (Oh, Fiore & Jeoung, 2007). For music festival visitors the dimension of escapism was found to have the dominant effect on overall satisfaction (Mehmetoglu & Engen, 2011). In the context of
museums, the dimension of education has been found to influence visitor satisfaction the most (Mehmetoglu & Engen, 2011). In addition, Radder and Han (2015) have concluded that the more positive the museum visitor experience in terms of a combined educational and
entertainment experience, an edutainment experience, the higher the level of satisfaction and the more favorable behavioral intentions. In line with these findings, satisfaction can be considered as an important consequence outcome of the value of the visitor experience. On the basis of these arguments, the following hypothesis is therefore proposed:
Hypothesis 3: The value of the visitor’s educational experience (a), entertainment experience
(b), escapist experience (c) and aesthetic experience (d) is positively related to overall
satisfaction.
To elaborate on the above, previous service studies have concluded that the perceived value of visitor experiences affects satisfaction and that satisfaction, in turn, affects loyalty
behavior (Bigné, Sánchez & Sánchez, 2001; Chen & Chen, 2010, Chen & Tsai, 2007; De Rojas & Camarero, 2008; Del Bosque & San Martin, 2008). Loyalty behavior can be classified under behavioral intentions and can be considered as the main consequence of satisfaction. One recognized behavioral intention is intention to recommend. Intention to recommend refers to the likeliness that someone would recommend a service offering to friends or family members (Hosany & Witham, 2010). When looking only at this kind of loyalty behavior, it has been found by multiple service studies that perceived value of visitor experiences is an important antecedent to satisfaction and, subsequently, to intention to recommend (Cronin, Brady & Hult, 2000; Gallarza & Saura, 2006; Hosany & Witham, 2010; Williams & Soutar, 2009; Wu & Liang, 2009). Accordingly, a pleasant experience will have a positive impact on overall satisfaction, which in turn influences the visitor’s intention to recommend the service offering. Another recognized behavioral intention is intention to return to the service offering (Chen & Chen, 2010). However, within the context of museums intention to return might not be a very appropriate measure. First of all, the likelihood of a repeat visitation may for instance be relatively low for foreign tourists (Trinh & Ryan, 2013). Secondly, because visitors may not see a need to return to a museum in the near future if the exhibitions do not change substantially (Harrison & Shaw, 2004). For these reasons, only intention to recommend will be, in this study, appropriate as a consequence of satisfaction. When higher levels of satisfaction are perceived, the more likely that positive word of mouth is generated. On the basis of this reasoning, the following hypotheses is proposed:
Hypothesis 4: Overall satisfaction is positively related to intention to recommend the virtual
reality exhibition of a Dutch museum.
As mentioned above, a positive relationship is proposed between the value of the visitor experience and overall satisfaction, as well as between overall satisfaction and
study of Hosany and Witham (2010), intention to recommend is considered as an outcome that is mediated by overall satisfaction. The more pleasant the visitor experience in terms of the four experiential value dimensions, the more overall satisfaction will be positively impacted. Overall satisfaction, in turn, influences the visitor’s intention to recommend. Even though Hosany and Witham (2010) have concluded that the level of satisfaction of cruise visitors only partially mediates the relationship between visitor experiences and intention to recommend, since the educational and escapist experiential value dimensions were not significantly related to satisfaction and intention to recommend, the previous reasoning still holds for this study. This is because active participation, in comparison to cruise journeys, is required for virtual reality exhibitions. In that way, educational and escapist experiences are likely to occur as well.
A positive relationship between the value of the visitor experience and intention to recommend form the basis of the proposed mediating role of overall satisfaction. Even though, overall satisfaction is the primary and direct link to behavioral intentions, Chen and Chen (2010) have found that perceived value of visitor experiences in the context of museums leads to behavioral intentions directly as well. This is confirmed by the study of Radder and Han (2015), which have examined the museum experience based on the four experiential value dimensions of Pine and Gilmore (1998). Yet, this direct effect on intention to
recommend is likely to be stronger once it is exerted through overall satisfaction, since it has been found that satisfaction has the strongest effect on behavioral intentions and especially intention to recommend (Bigné, Sánchez & Sánchez, 2001; Chen & Chen, 2010; Tam, 1999). In light of these arguments, the following hypothesis is proposed:
Hypothesis 5: The positive relationship between the value of the visitor’s educational
experience (a), entertainment experience (b), escapist experience (c) and aesthetic experience
H1 H3 H4
H2
H5 2.2.3 Conceptual model
Based on the above review and the study hypotheses, a conceptual framework, as shown in figure 2, is presented. First of all, it is assumed that the experiences of museum visitors with virtual reality-based exhibitions could be represented in terms of Pine and Gilmore’s (1998) four experiential value dimensions. Secondly, it is proposed that all four dimensions could be affected by the visitors’ perceived ease of use of the virtual reality system used within the exhibition (Verhagen et al., 2011). Thirdly, it is proposed that these four dimensions could affect the level of overall satisfaction experienced by visitors and, consequently, visitors’ intention to recommend the virtual reality-based exhibition.
Figure 2
Conceptual model
3. Methodology
This chapter will first outline the contexts of the two museums that are the cases of this study by explaining in more detail their virtual reality exhibitions. After this, the research design is described and justified. In addition to this, it is explained which data collection and sample method were used. Furthermore, the measurement scales for each construct proposed
Perceived ease of use Overall satisfaction Intention to recommend Education Entertainment Escapism Aesthetics
in the conceptual model together with all other items used in the survey are provided, including their reliability scores. Lastly, the statistical procedure is explained.
3.1 Contexts
Westfries Museum in Hoorn launched their virtual reality exhibition, De Gouden Eeuw VR, in December 2014. This museum was the first museum in the Netherlands that
invested in virtual reality by offering its visitors a virtual reality presentation in which they virtually walk through the streets of Hoorn during the Dutch Golden Age (Ter Braak, 2014). It is suitable for adults and children aged six and older. The duration of this virtual reality presentation is about twenty-five minutes. Based on visitors’ reactions the first version of this virtual reality presentation had been improved (Molenaar, 2015). Some visitors experienced dizziness when they moved freely a little too enthusiastically in the virtual world. Therefore the visitors are now making a guided tour. It is however still possible to pause and to change the speed level and view direction. During the data collection of this study visitors watched this improved version and also a new five minute virtual reality presentation, Kaap Varen, which was added to the first presentation. The primary goal of the virtual reality exhibition is to tell a historic story in a different way (Ter Braak, 2014). As a result of the expensive investment in the virtual reality presentation, the number of museum visitors has risen
considerably (‘‘Stijgend aantal bezoekers,’’ 2017). Within the exhibition area thirty-four seats are set up in which visitors can experience the virtual reality presentation by means of virtual reality eyewear, the newest system at that time, and headphones.
Het Scheepvaartmuseum in Amsterdam launched their virtual reality exhibition, Dare to Discover - a VR Journey, in December 2017. The virtual reality presentation is made as
historically reliable as possible in order to take museum visitors back to the Dutch Golden Age (Verhoeven, 2017). It is suitable for adults and children aged eight and older. The aim of the virtual reality exhibition is to give museum visitors a novel experience. More specifically,
to give them the feeling that they are present in the Dutch Golden Age for a short period (Verhoeven, 2017). During the virtual reality presentation visitors will make a flight over the historic port of Amsterdam and experience how this area develops at a rapid pace into one of the world’s largest ports. The duration of the virtual reality presentation is about five minutes. The exhibition area is located on board of the replica of a VOC ship. This ship has been moored beside the museum since 1991. Within the exhibition area twenty rotating seats are set up in which visitors can experience the virtual reality presentation by means of special eyewear. According to the exhibition designer the choice was made to wait with using virtual reality within the museum until the technology was far enough advanced to offer up-to-date high quality (Verhoeven, 2017).
3.2 Research design
In order to collect data to answer the research question and to test the hypotheses, this study made use of a mono-method quantitative survey design. First of all, a quantitative method was used since this study looked for causality by measuring the operationalized concepts of the proposed conceptual model and focused on facts occurring in an objective observably world within the context of museums. A quantitative research is more apt for answering questions about relationships between specific variables (Harrison & Reilly, 2011). A quantitative research approach focuses on testing hypothetical-deductive generalizations, which in turn implies logical positivism as research philosophy (Amaratunga, Baldry, Sarsher & Newton, 2002). Positivism searches for causal explanations between variables. For the purpose of this study, an objective quantitative method was used to assess museum visitors´ evaluations without interfering subjectively. Subsequently, the external validity of this study will be stronger. In addition to this, quantitative research methods allow large-scale data collection and because statistics are aggregated from a relatively large sample, it can be seen as relevant for making well-informed policy decisions or decisions for improvements
(Amaratunga, Baldry, Sarsher & Newton, 2002). A possible weakness of this paradigm is that it is considered not to be very effective in understanding processes that people attach to actions. This study, however, was aimed to overcome this by examining visitors’ evaluations based on their individual experiences with the virtual reality exhibition.
Secondly, a survey design was chosen since it is considered to be appropriate to assess behavioral and descriptive constructs. Surveys are commonly used in exploratory and
descriptive research to collect data about people to describe, compare or explain their attitudes and behavior (Sekaran & Bougie, 2016). In addition, surveys can be used to reveal the extent and level of satisfaction with created experiences (Caldwell, 2000). The questions in this study’s survey were arranged into a self-administered questionnaire that a respondent had completed on his or her own on paper after the respondent had visited the exhibition. The survey consisted out of 29 questions, which is shown in Appendix A. Because the respondents were not asked to answer a long series of questions on a wide range of topics, the survey did not require a great deal of cognitive work. This contributes to reducing method bias. On top of that, since short questions are preferred to long ones, the questions and statements in the survey did not exceed the recommended 20 words (Sekaran & Bougie, 2016). An important advantage of personally administered questionnaires is that the researcher has the opportunity to introduce the research topic, motivate respondents and clarify any doubts of respondents about any question on spot. This ensures an almost 100% response rate (Sekaran & Bougie, 2016). However, there is a chance that the researcher might introduce a bias by explaining questions differently to different people. To overcome this, an effort was made by the researcher to treat all respondents equally and approach all respondents in the same way. In this way, reliability will be ensured.
3.3 Data collection and sampling method
For the purpose of this study, data were collected through a survey conducted at two Dutch museums that both provide a virtual reality experience to their visitors: Het
Scheepvaartmuseum and Westfries Museum, both historical museums. In order to test the hypothesized model a self-administered questionnaire was completed by visitors of both museums. These targeted respondents were purposively asked to fill in the questionnaire on spot. The paper questionnaire was handed out after their visit to the virtual reality exhibition. This was needed to ensure that only respondents were included that had experienced a virtual reality exhibition and thus suited the purpose of this study. The respondent’s gender, age or country of birth did not matter. However, the respondent had to be old enough to be able to understand the questions of the questionnaire. Visitors to the exhibition in Westfries Museum were contacted in the exhibition area. Visitors to the exhibition in Het Scheepvaartmuseum were contacted in the hall next to the entrance to the exhibition area. Since the respondents could be either Dutch or foreign, the provided questionnaire was either written in Dutch or English, depending on the language spoken by the respondents. In both museums, visitors were selected on different days of the week, both in the weekend and during the week. A total of 61 questionnaires were collected in Westfries Museum and a total of 69 in Het
Scheepvaartmuseum.
3.4 Measurement of variables
The measurement scales of the items used in the questionnaire were built on relevant existing research. To ensure that the wording of the questionnaire was appropriate, in order to minimize bias, the scales were improved to the purpose of this study. To test the proposed hypotheses, different predictive, outcome, mediator and control variables were included in the questionnaire.
3.4.1 Independent variable
The perceived ease of use measurement scale was based on the study of Verhagen et al. (2011). In their study the measurement items of the construct were found to be reliable. In this study perceived ease of use was captured using four items that were all rated using a 7-point Likert scale ranging from (1) strongly disagree to (7) strongly agree. These items were measured with the following statements: (1) Learning how to use the virtual reality system was easy for me, (2) It was clear and understandable for me how I should use the virtual reality system, (3) It was easy for me to become skillful at using the virtual reality system, and (4) Overall, it was easy for me to use the virtual reality system. The reliability analysis, as indicated by the Cronbach’s α, revealed that the measurement items of the construct of
perceived ease of use in this study were highly reliable (Cronbach’s α = 0.97).
3.4.2 Mediator variables
Measurement scales of all four dimensions – educational experience, entertainment experience, escapist experience and aesthetic experience – were operationalized using the
experience scales of Oh, Fiore and Jeoung (2007). Their study was the first study that had developed measurement scales tapping Pine and Gilmore’s (1998) four experiential value dimensions. These four scales were found to be internally valid and reliable in their study and are therefore likely to be stable across subjects and other tourism settings. Consequently, their measurement scales were used in different contexts (Hosany & Witham, 2010; Mehmetoglu & Engen, 2011; Radder & Han, 2015). The measurement scales of this study were based on Oh, Fiore and Jeoung’s (2007) measurement scales as well. Yet, the scale items had been adapted to one specific service experience, namely the virtual reality exhibitions introduced by Dutch museums. Each dimension of experience was represented with four statements. First of all, the four items of an educational experience were measured by asking the respondents to indicate the extent to which they agreed with the four following statements: (1) I learnt
something new during my visit to the VR presentation, (2) The VR presentation made me more knowledgeable, (3) The VR presentation stimulated my curiosity to learn new things, and (4) The VR presentation was a real learning experience for me. Secondly, an
entertainment experience was measured by the following statements: (1) The VR presentation was amusing to me, (2) The entertainment I experienced during the VR presentation was captivating, (3) I enjoyed the VR presentation, and (4) The VR presentation was fun to visit. Thirdly, an escapist experience was measured by the following statements: (1) I felt I played a different character during the VR presentation, (2) The VR presentation let me imagine being someone else, (3) During the VR presentation I escaped from reality, and (4) During the VR presentation I felt like I was living in a different time or place. Lastly, an aesthetic experience was measured by the following statements: (1) The setting of the VR presentation was
attractive, (2) The setting of the VR presentation pays close attention to design details, (3) It was pleasant being at the VR presentation, and (4) I felt a real sense of harmony at the VR presentation. Ratings of all four scale variables had been captured on a 7-point Likert scale ranging from (1) strongly disagree to (7) strongly agree. The coefficient alphas of the four experiential value dimensions were found to be reliable since all scores were above 0.7: education (Cronbach’s α = 0.88), entertainment (Cronbach’s α = 0.90), escapism (Cronbach’s α = 0.90) and aesthetics (Cronbach’s α = 0.76).
3.4.3 Dependent variables
The measurement scale of overall satisfaction was operationalized using the scale of Mehmetoglu and Engen (2011). Thereupon, the three items measuring overall satisfaction had been adapted to the purpose of this study. As argued by Hosany and Witham (2010), in order to avoid high error variance, satisfaction should be captured using multi-item measures instead of using a single item. Overall satisfaction was measured by asking the museum visitors to reveal the extent to which they agreed with the following three statements: (1) I am
happy with my decision to visit the VR exhibition, (2) My experience with the VR exhibition exceeded my expectations, and (3) Overall, I am satisfied with my visit to the VR exhibition. The three items were measured on a 7-point Likert scale ranging from (1) strongly disagree to (7) strongly agree. Overall satisfaction had a highly reliable Cronbach’s alpha score of above 0.8 (Cronbach’s α = 0.83).
The measurement scale of intention to recommend was based on the study of Hosany and Witham (2007). Visitor’s intention to recommend the virtual reality exhibition is
measured with the question ‘How likely is it that you would recommend this virtual reality exhibition to friends or family members?’, rated on a 7-point semantic differential scale ranging from (1) extremely unlikely to (7) extremely likely.
3.4.4 Control variables
The control variables included in this thesis were as following: age, gender, country of birth, day of visit, first-time visitor, first-time VR user and museum VR exhibition. All the
control variables were considered as substantively meaningful for gaining insight into how they affect the visitors’ evaluations of the staged virtual reality-based service experience. Demographic data such as age, gender and country of birth were not included in the theoretical framework. This is considered not to be necessary, since such data helps to describe the sample characteristics (Sekaran & Bougie, 2016). Age was measured as a scale variable. This variable was later recoded into a categorical variable by using the five age groups of Hosany and Witham (2007), namely a (1) 30-and-younger group, (2) 31-to-40 group, (3) 41-to-50 group, (4) 51-to-60 group and (5) 61-and-older group. Gender was rated as (1) male and (2) female. Country of birth was measured as (1) Dutch and (2) foreign.
For the purpose of this study, museum visitors were selected on different days of the week, both in the weekend and during the week. This is reflected in the variable day of visit,
