JOB INSECURITY, BURNOUT AND ORGANISATIONAL
COMMITMENT OF EMPLOYEES IN
A FINANCIAL INSTITUTION IN
GAUTENG
Mini-dissertation submitted in partial fulfiient of the requirements for the
degree Magister Commercii in Industrial Psychology at the Vaal Triangle
Campus, North-West University
Study Leader: Prof. J.H. Buitendach Co-supervisor: Miss. I.J. Human Vanderbijlpark
NOTE
= The reader must note that the publication and reference style used in this mini- dissertation is in accordance with the instructions for publication (4& ed.) of the American Psychological Association (APA). This is in accordance with the policy of the Programme in Industrial Psychology at the North-West University to use the APA-style in all scientific documents since January 1999.
PREFACE
I would like to acknowledge the following people, without whom none of this would have been possible:
The Father, Son and Holy Spirit for giving me the talent to get this far.
Prof. J.H. Buitendach, for initiating this study and being the driving force behind i t
= Illana Human, for the advice and that laugh when I most needed it.
Mrs. A. Oosthuyzen for the statistical data and Jacqueline Bosman for providing me with a better understanding of statistics.
Mr. B. Record for the help in editing.
My "Tatusiu", for your constant support and interest throughout my studies. = Richard D d , for accompanying me from the start
Cindy Laureano, I am blessed to have you as my friend through those good times and bad - Obrigado.
=
NRF
(National Research Foundation) - for supporting this research through their fmancial aid.TABLE OF CONTENTS
Preface List of tables Summary OpsommingTable of contents
CHAPTER
1
1.1 Introduction 1.2 Problem Statement 1.3 Research objectives 1.3.1 General objective 1.3.2 Specific objectives 1.4 Research Method 1.4.1 Literature study 1.4.2 Empirical research 1.4.3 Research design 1.4.4 Study population 1.4.5 Measuring instruments 1.5 Statistical Analysis 1.6 Chapter Division 1.7 Chapter Summary ReferencesCHAPTER
2 Research Article Abstract Opsomming Discussion v vi viii iiiMethod Research Design Study Population Measuring Instrumen& Statistical Analysis Results Discussion
Limitations and Recommendations References
CHAPTER 3
3.1 Conclusions 3.2 Limitations 3.3 Recommendations ReferencesLIST
OF TABLES
Table
Description
Page
Table 1
Characteristics of the Siudy Population. 26
Table 2
Factor analysis for the JISI 29
Table 3
Factor analysis for the MBI-GS 30
Table 4
Factor analysis for the OCQ 32
Table 5
Descriptive statistics, alpha coeficients, skewness and kurtosis of the
JISI, h 5 I - GS and OCQ (N = 146) 33
Table 6
Cutegodation Job Insecurity, Burnout and Organisatioml Commitment
Scores 3 5
Table 7
Productmoment Correlation Coeficients between Job Insecurity and Burnout.
Table 8
Productmoment Correlation Coeficients between Job Insecuriw and Orgrmisational Commitment.
Table 9
W O V A ofjob insecuriw (total) of age, tenure, race and position. Table 10
ANOVA
of differences between job insecurity (total) and ageTable 11
SUMMARY
Subiect: Job insecurity, burnout and organisational commitment of employees in a fmancial institution in Gauteng.
Kev terms: job insecurity, burnout, organisational commitment, wellness, financial institution.
The study on job insecurity has recently become a widely researched phenomena in South Africa. Financial institutions like many other organisations, also have to deal with change issues such as restructuring, that affect the workers within their organisation. A recent annual survey done within the banking section indicated a substantial disturbance in the South African banking sector, which has seen the industry shed nearly 9 000 jobs in 2002 alone. It is important then, to identify the negative effects of these changes on the employees and implement change management programmes to aid the worker in lowering the stress that they may experience as a result of the change within their institution.
Thus,
the objective of this study was to identlfy the relationship that may exist between job insecurity, burnout and organisational commitmenf to determine the levels of job insecurity, burnout and organisational commitment, how the different demographic groups experience different levels of job insecurity and whether job insecurity can predict burnout and organisational commitment.A cross-sectional survey design was used. A stratified random sample of employees (N
= 146) in a financial institution in Gauteng were used. The Job Insecurity Survey
Inventory (JISI), Maslach Burnout Inventory-General Survey W I - G S ) and Organisational Commitment Questionnaire (OCQ), were adrmnistrated together with a biographical questionnaire. Descriptive statistics, pearson product-moment correlation coefficients, Multivariate Analysis of Variance (MANOVA), ANOVA, multi-linear regression analysis were used to analyse the data.
The results indicated that human resource workers in the financial institution experienced high levels of job insecurity. They however experienced high levels of burnout and low
levels of organisational commitment There was an indication that the two race groups (black and coloured, white) have different experiences of job insecurity and that both males and females are affected by the stressors of job insecurity. The age group most affected by job insecurity was the younger than 24 years group. The relationship of job insecurity with burnout and organisational commitment indicated that high levels of burnout were experienced together with low levels of organisational commitment when job insecurity was present The study determined that job insecurity can predict 29,3% of the variance in bumout and 28,2% of the variance in organisational commitment
OPSOMMING
Ondemem: Werksonsekerheid, uitbranding en die organisasie-verbondenheid van werknemers binne 'n finansiele instelling in Gauteng.
T r e h r d e : werksonsekerheid, uitbranding, organisasie verbondenheid, welsyn, finansiele instansie.
Die bestudering van werksonsekerheid is sedert die onlangse verlede 'n fenomeen waaroor daar in Suid-Afrika wyd nagevors word. Finansiele instellings moet soos etlike ander organisasies noodgedwonge 'n groot aantal veranderinge hanteer. Herstrukturering is een van die veranderinge wat 'n bepaalde invloed op werknemers uitoefen. 'n Onlangse jaarlikse ondersoek in die bankwese spreek van grootskaalse ontwrigting in hierdie sector, wat net in 2002 alleen van byna 9 000 poste ontslae geraak het. Die negatiewe effek wat sodanige verandering op werknemers het, behoort vasgestel te word sodat daar dienooreenkomstig dew midel van veranderingbestuu~sprogramme ingegryp kan word om die werknemerstres te verlaag. Met die voorafgaande inaggenome, was die doe1 van die huidige studie dan om die moontlike verband tussen werksonsekerheid, uitbranding en organisasie-verbondenheid te identifiseer. Verder moes die vlak van die voorgenoemde drie sake bepaal word, asook hoe die onderskeie demograiiese groepe die verskillende werksonsekerheidsvlakke ervaar. Voorts moes vasgestel word of uitbranding en organisasie-verbondenheid op grond van werksonsekerheid voorspel kan word.
'n Dwarsdeursnit ondersoekontwerp is gebruik om die hipoteses te toets. Die ondersoek groep het bestaan uit 'n gestmtifiseerde ewekansige gekose groep werknemers (A7 = 146)
in 'n finansiele instelling in Gauteng. Die volgende meetinstrumente is gebruik: "The Job Insecurity Survey Inventory (JISI)", "Maslach Burnout Inventory-General Survey (Ml3I-GS)", "Organisational Commitment Questionnaire (OCQ)" en 'n biografiese vraelys. Vir die ontleding van die data is van beskrywendestatistiek, "Pearson product- moment" korrelasie k&ffisi&t, "Multivariate" Analise van Variansie (MANOVA), ANOVA, "multi-lined regressie analise gebmik gemaak.
Die bevinding van die ondersoek het getoon dat die menshulpbronwerkers van die betrokke finanside instelling h e werksonsekerheidsvlakke beleef Hulle het uitbranding ook op 'n hoe vlak ervaar, en die vlak van organisasie-verbondenheid was laag. Die aanduiding was dat die twee onderskeie rassegroepe (swart en kleurling, wit) verskille toon betreffende werksonsekerheid en dat beide die manlike en vroulike persone deur skessors as gevolg van werksonsekerheid geaffekteer is. 'n Groot mate van werksonsekerheid is beleef deur die respondente wat jonger as 24 is. Die verband tussen werkonsekerheid en uitbranding sowel as organisasie-verbondenheid toon dat 'n hoe uitbrandingsvlak en 'n lae organisasie-verbondenheidsvlak in die teenwoordigheid van werksonsekerheid ervaar word. Die studie se bevinding was dus dat werksonsekdeid 29,3% variansie in uitbranding voorspel en 282% variansie in organisasie-verbondenheid voorspel.
CHAPTER
1
1.1 INTRODUCTION
The purpose of this minidissertation was to investigate the relationship between job insecurity, bumout and organisational commitment of workers in a financial sector. This chapter focuses on the problem statement, the research objectives, basic hypothesis and the research method. Chapter 1 will conclude with a layout of the chapter division and a summary.
1.2
PROBLEM STATEMENT
The high unemployment faced in the South Amcan economy together with job insecurity keep people working for the same organisations, even though they would prefer to leave that particular organisation (Bennett, 2002). According to Leonard (2001), when employees are not informed of the various processes that occur within their own company and thus when a change occurs within their organisation they begin to feel uncertain and insecure as to whether or not they will remain employed within the organisation. Statistics gathered fiom the International Labour Organisation (LO) are reported by Leonard (2001), as showing that the number of jobs cut due to bank consolidations in Western Europe number at least 130,000 over the past 10 years. The ILO researchers also estimate that the number of layof& could reach 300,000 within the next two years (Leonard, 2001). De Witte (2004, March) states that the mean change in job security in eight European countries over the past five years indicates that Germany, Hungary and France are most affected by insecurity. In the United States, the number of jobs in the banking and financial sector decreased five per cent between 1985 and 1995. According to Whitfield (2003), an annual survey done within the banking section indicates a substantial disturbance in the South
African banking sector, wbich has seen the industry shed nearly 9 000 jobs during 2002. The
survey finher mentions that half the biggest banks anticipate further cub of up to 1G% by 2006, meaning employment in the banking sector is likely to fall fiom the current level of 113 240 to around 102 500 over the next three years.
Greenhalgh and Rosenblatt (1984) stated that job insecurity is the powerlessness to maintain desired continuity in a threatened job situation, the overall concern about the future existence of the job (Heaney, Israel & House, 1994) and the individual's expectations about continuity in a job situation (Davy, Kinicki & Scheck, 1997). Job insecurity has been conceptualised from two p i n & of view i.e. as (i) a global or (ii) a job stressor (Mauno & Kinnunen, 1999). Most of the job insecurity has been defined according to the global view, signifying the threat of job loss or of job discontinuity i.Hartley, Jacobson, Klandermans & Van Vuuren, 1991). For the purpose of this study, the global view will be used to determine whether the threat of job loss has an effect on the employee's levels of burnout and organisational commitment within their working environment.
The experience of job insecurity is related to both the cognitive and affective phenomena. De Witte (2000) states that the cognitive aspect of job insecurity relates to the individual's belief in the likel~hood of losing the job and the affective aspect is the concern about the likelihood of losing continuity in one's job. Hartley et al. (1991) made the distinction between the cognitive appraisal process that is linked to anticipate impacts (in the case of job insecurity) and that which is linked to damage already sustained (in the case of job loss) can be assumed to have some di&rential influence on the severity of the impact on the individual. Job insecurity is potentially more stressful because coping for the time being may be inhibited by the event of uncertainty. Hartley et al. (1991) conclude that numerous studies have shown that dealing with unceltainty about potentially disastrous and poorly predictable future events may create even greater psychological stress than the events themselves.
Ashford, Lee and Bobko (1989) describe five components of job insecurity that affect the employee within the organisation: Firstly, the severity of the threat concerning job continuity or aspects of the job. Secondly, the importance of job features, meaning that the fear of losing an important job feature is a cause of greater job insecurity than the threat of losing a minor job feature. Thirdly, the perceived threat of the occurrence which is expected to negatively affect the employee's total job situation, for example, being laid off. Fourthly, the total importance of the changes mentioned above and the powerlessness experienced by the employee due to job insecurity. Fifthly, an employee's inability to control the threats described in the previous four
components. According to Probst and Brubaker (2001) it is suggested that employees attribute their feelings of job insecurity to environmental changes such as government policy, economic conditions including recessions, restructuring, new teclmology and management's decision making. Feelings of job insecurity are also engendered in survivor employees (Davy et al., 1997). The organisation investigated in this study consists of survivor employees, who have recently been through a restructuring process and as such, this research is applicable to their situation.
In cognisance of the above definitions, the researcher regards job insecurity as a phenomenon in which the individual experiences uncertainty concerning hisher employment situation due to various internal and external changes faced by the organisation. This uncertainty acts as a stressor, causing tfie worker to experience feelings of powerlessness and a lack of control over their situation. Job insecwity is attributed to the individual's cognitive attributions (belief in losing job) and affective attributions (feelings experienced in losing wntinuity in one's job). The uncertainty of not knowing whether one will be employed or retrenched, prohibits the worker fiom taking productive action to deal with the situation (as it is yet unknown), therefore increasing the person's lack of control over hisiher situation. A need therefore exists, to cope directly with the stressor that is causing the individual to experience the negative effects of job insecurity.
This skessor is explained in Katz and Kahn's (1978) original model where stress is viewed as being part of a process originating in the interaction between the individual and their environment The model indicates the variation between the individual's evaluation of the situation and their immediate reaction to the situation. Evaluation and reaction differ among individuals due to gender, age, personality and their socialization with important people and other groups in the environment.
Lazarus and Folkman (1984) focused along a similar line of reasoning by researching the individual's affective and cognitive reactions and behaviours during stress experiences. Lazarus and Folkman (1984) elaborated on their research by studying the individual's primary and secondaty appraisal. The primary appraisal being the evaluation of the type of threat or
challenge the individual is exposed to and its strength and importance for the individual. The secondary appraisal being the evaluation of the possibility the individual has for countering the threat and how effective these counteractive methods are expected to be. The experiencing of stress occurs when the employee, after the secondary appraisal, feels that the strategies and resources available are not sufficient to counteract the negative components of the situation. Should that occur, the individual would experience stress that comes in the form of job insecurity.
The research of Ferrie, Shipley, Marmot, Stansfield and Smith (1998), as well as of Dekker and Schaufeli (1995), indicates that job insecurity affects an employee to the extent where the stressors (perceived job insecurity, loosing an important job feature) lead them to experience burnout. Burnout starts to occur when the organisational conditionslenvironments are intolerable and unjust, that not even personal factors are s d c i e n t enough to resist their effects.
According to Gerber, Nel and van Dyk (1999), burnout means that individuals feel that their physical and mental resources have been exhausted as a result of the umtinuous striving for a work-related objective. Burnout is often the end-result of too much work pressure and stress, particularly if the pressure arises &om unattainable work goals. According to Maslach and Leiter, (1997) burnout includes three dimensions, that of cynicism, exhaustion and personal efficacy. Cynicism refers to the interpersonal dimension of burnout and is a negative, callous or detached response to various aspects of the job. Emotional exhaustion is the feeling of being overextended and depleted of one's emotional and physical resources and personal efficacy is the self-evaluation dimension of burnout and is a feeling of competence, productivity and achievement at work. It is stated by Schaufeli and Enzmann (1998) that burnout is a symptom of work-related stress. Exhaustion is the core indicator, with four general symptoms accompanying it, namely distress in the form of affective, cognitive, physical and behavioural symptoms, a sense of reduced effectiveness, decreased motivation and dysfunctional attitudes and behaviours.
According to Carrel1 et al. (1999), burnout occurs when a person believes that they cannot or will not continue to do the job. The difference according to a physician, who has treated both, is that a person who is stressed can take an extended vacation and return rested and ready to get back to work. If that person has experienced bumout however, within a few days after returning to work
they will feel as miserable as before the vacation. While stress usually contributes to burnout, it does not explain the whole phenomenon. Burnout, in essence, is the overall perception that one is giving more than one is receiving - in monetary rewards, recognition, support or advancement It can occur at all organisational levels, at all pay levels and in all age groups. Byme (1993) views burnout as the final step in the process of unsuccesshl attempts to cope with negative stress conditions and therefore he reasoned that burnout is a consequence of prolonged and extensive job-related stress. The next dependent variable to be conceptualised in this study is organisational commitment
Organisational commitment is defined by Bishop and Scott (2000) as the relative strength of an individual's identification with and involvement in a particular organisation. Chow (1994) states that it is the extent to which employees identify with their organisation and managerial goals, show a willingness to invest effort, participate in decisionmaking and internalise organisational values. The person's commitment to the organisation is reflected in three separable psychological states, namely affective attachment, perceived costs (also referred to as continuance commitment) and normative attachment (Allen & Meyer, 1990). In other words, people stay within the organisation because they want to (affective), because they need to (continuance), or because they feel they ought to be committed to the organisation (normative).
Affective and normative attachments towards the workplace are developed over time and are reflected as high levels of commitment, satisfaction and trust (Allen & Meyer, 1990; Mowday, Porter & Steers, 1979). Feelings of job insecurity threaten these basic attachments and cause a decrease in productivity and an increase in absenteeism, which may undermine the competitive strength of the company (Hartley, Jacobson, Klandermans & Van Vuuren, 1991).
The financial institution used in this study has been in existence for seven years since its amalgamation. It consists of numerous small business units, i.e. retail banking, business banking, international banking, insurance, home loans, vehicle asset finance, etc. There are approximately 33 000 employees working within this institution. It is seen as a big market leader in the financial industry, which places it under enormous pressure to remain competitive.
processes, thus job insecurity is constantly in the minds of the employees. More work has to be done with less people in order for the companies to manage their cost-to-income ratio, which again places a lot of extra pressure on the employees. The financial institution has recently been through a restructuring program, which was introduced in September 2002. Numerous employees were retrenched and those that remained can be seen as the survivors. It could be assumed that they lost their trust in the organisation and experienced high levels ofjob insecurity and burnout accompanied by low commitment towards their organisation. This study will contribute to the financial institution in the sense that it will provide information on the current levels of job insecurity, burnout and organisational commitment of the employees. Out of the analysis in this study, information can be used to develop work-life balance programs to assist the employees with the increased levels of pressure and insecurity.
The research problem can be summarked as follows: it is clear that the experience of job insecurity is a reality in the South &can context and even worldwide (Human, 2002). It is further stated by Human (2002) that few programs have been implemented in the past to address the problem. Furthermore, there is a lack of research regarding the effect that burnout and organisational commitment have on job insecurity in a financial industry in South Africa
(Gauteng).
The following research questions will be analysed on the basis of the description of the research problem:
P How are job insecurity, burnout and organisational wmmitment and their relationship with each other mnceptualised in the literature?
P What are the levels of job insecurity, burnout and organisational commitment of workers in a financial institution;
P What are the relationships between job insecurity, burnout and organisational commitment of workers in the financial institution?
k
Which demographic group is most affected by job insecurity?P Can job insecurity predict burnout and organisational commitment of employees in a financial institution?
1.3
RESEARCH OBJECTIVES
13.1 General objective
With reference to the above formulation of the problem, the general objective of this research is to establish the relationship between job insecurity, burnout and organisational commitment in a financial institution in Gauteng.
133 Specific objedkes
The specific research objectives are:
b To conceptualise job insecurity, burnout and organisational commitment and the relationship of these constructs fiom the literature;
b To determine the levels of job insecurity, burnout and organisational commitment of workers in a financial institution;
>
To determine the relationships between job insecurity, burnout and organisational commitment of workers in a 6nancial institution;b To determine whether different demographic groups in a financial institution differ regarding their levels ofjob insecurity;
b To determine whether job insecurity can predict burnout and organisational commitment of workers in a financial institution.
1.4 RESEARCH METHOD
The research method consists of two phases, namely a literature study and an empirical investigation.
l A . l Literature study
The researcher will use theoretical data that was obtained through relevant means such as books, journals, articles and electronic media. The information regarding job insecurity, burnout and organisational commitment will be thoroughly analysed and integrated to provide a basis fiom which further conclusions and suggestions can be made.
1.4.2 Empirical research
In the following paragraphs, relevant aspects of the empirical studies conducted in this thesis are discussed.
1.4.3 Research design
A research design that is most suitable for this study, is the survey design. The reason for selecting this specific design is the fact that cmsssectional design involves the collection of data at a specific time, in contrast with a longitudinal design that gathers data at different times (Mitchell & Jolley, 1992). A survey design is used to reach the research objectives. The specific design is the cross-sectional design, whereby a sample is drawn from a population at one time (Shaughnessy & Zechmeister, 1997). Information collected is used to describe the population at that time and is appropriate for studying various groups at different stages of development (Burns & Grove, 1993). This design can also be used to assess interrelationships among variables within a population. According to Shaughnessy and Zechmeister (1997), this design is ideally suited to the descriptive and predictive functions associated with correctional research. Another reason for the selection of this design is due to the fact that it is less time consuming. According to Shaughnessy and Zechmeister (1997), this design is ideally suited to the descriptive and predictive functions associated with correctional research.
1.4.4 Study population
Stratified random samples were taken from human resource workers peviously mentioned, in a fmancial institution from various job levels in Gauteng. Questionnaires were sent to all the workem within the Human Resource department via electronic media, whereupon 146 questionnaires were received. Stratification took place based on gender,
race,
age, qualification, tenure, position and category (skills).1.4.5 Measuring instruments
The Job Znsecuriry S u m y Inventory (JS& (De Witte, 1999). This questionnaire was used to measure global job insecurity, it is reported to have a Cmnbach alpha coefficient of a = 0,92 @e Witte, 2000). Within the items, two subscales exist: cognitive (e.g. "I think I might get
fued
in the near future") and affective (eg. "I feel insecure about the future of my job"). Borg and Elizur (1992) state that both scales were shown to be highly reliable, with the six items measuring cognitive job insecurity, displaying a Cronbach alpha coefficient of a = 0,90; and the five items of affective job insecurity having a Cronbach alpha coefficient of a = 0,85. De Witte (2000) further mentions that the survey focuses on two aspects, namely the cognitive comprehension of the possibility of job loss as well as the affective reaction to the feelings of job insecurity @e Witte, 2000). In a South f i c a n study, Human (2002) obtained a Cronbach alpha coefficient of a = 0,83 (total score), a = 0,71 (cognitive) and a = 0,79 (affective).The Mmlach Burnout InventoryCeneral Survey (UBZ-GS), (Maslach, Jackson & Leiter, 1996). This questionnaire will be used to measure burnout. The MBI-GS has three sub-scales: Exhaustion (five items; e.g. "I feel used up at the end of the workday"), Cynicism (five items, e.g. "I have become less enthusiastic about my work") and Professional Efficacy (six items, e.g. "In my opinion, I am good at my job"). Together the sub-scales of the MBI-GS provide a three dimensional perspective on bumout Internal consistencies (Cronbach alpha coefficients) reported by Maslach et al. (1996) varied fiom a = 0,87 to a = 0,89 for exhaustion, a = 0,73 to a = 0,84 for cynicism and a = 0,76 to a = 0,84 for pmfessional efficacy. All items are scored on a 7-point frequency rating scale ranging from "0" (never) to "6" (daily). High scores on exhaustion and cynicism, and low scores on professional efficacy are indicative of burnout. In a South African study the following Cmnbach alpha coefficients were obtained for the MBI-GS by Storm (2003): exhaustion: a = 0,88; cynicism: a = 0,79; professional efficacy: a = 0,78.
The Organisational Commitment Questionnaire (OCQ), (Allen & Meyer, 1990). This questionnaire will be used to measure organisational commitment. The OCQ consists of 18 items rated on a 5-point Likert type scale (1 = strongly disagree, 5 = strongly agree). Choices at
the beginning of the scale (1) indicate a total disagreement with the statement made in the item,
whereas the choices at the end of the scale indicate total agreement with the item. McDonald and Matkin, (2000) in their study of the organisational commitment of temporary staff in a UK organisation, found the reliability for the scale to be 0,84. Allen and Meyer (1990) stated that
inter-item correlations between different samples were often above 0,90, which shows that the combined factor is congruent Cronbach alpha coefficients were consistently above a = 0 3 0 for every one of these sub-scales (Suliman & Iles, 2000). In a study done in South Africa, Heymans (2002) reported a Cronbach alpha coefficient of a = 0,80, for the affective scale a = 0,69, for the continuance scale a = 0,53 and for the normative scale a = 0,74. Dwyer (2001) reported a total Cronbach alpha co&ciet of 0,79 for the overall scale and Rugg (2001) reported a Cronbach alpha coefficiet of O,86 for the overall scale of the organisational commitment questionnaire.
1.5
STATISTICAL ANALYSIS
The statistical analysis will be carried out with the help of the SAS-program (SAS Institute, 2000). Cronbach alpha coefficients and confirmatory Extor analysis wiU be used to assess the reliability and validity of the measuring instruments (Clark & Watson, 1995). Descriptive statistics (means, standard deviations, skewness and kurtosis) were used to analyse the data.
Pearson product-moment correlation coefficients were used to s p f y the relationships between
the variables. A cut-off point of O,5O (medium effecf Cohen, 1988) will be set for the practical sigtllficance of correlation coefficients.
Multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) was used to determine the significance of differences between job insecurity of demographic groups, such as gender. MANOVA was used to test whether mean difference among groups on a combination of dependent variables are likely to have occurred by chance (Tabachnick & Fidell, 2001). In MANOVA a new dependent that maximizes group differences is created from the set of dependent variables. One-way analysis is then performed on this newly created dependent variable. Wilk's Lambda was used to test the significance of the e&&. Wilk's Lambda is a likelihood ratio statistic of the data under the assumption of equal population mean vectors for all groups, against the likelihood of the assumption that the population mean vectors are identical to those of the sample mean vectors for the different groups. When an effect is significant in MANOVA, ANOVA is used to determine which dependant variables are affected. The ANOVA is used to determine the differences between the levels of job insecurity of the different demographic groups. Tukey tests
were done to indicate which groups differed significantly when ANOVAS were done and
T-
Tests were also used to analyze the difference between two means.The following formula was used to compute the effect sizes (d) of these differences (Step, 1999):
where
M e n n ~ = Mean of the first demographic group
M q = Mean of the second demographic group RootMSE = Root Mean Square Error
In terns of the current research, a cut-off point of 0,50 (medium effect) is set for the practical significance of differences between group means (Cohen, 1988).
A multi-linear regression analysis
p)
was used to determine the proportion of the total variance of one variable that is explained by another variable (Moore, 1995). The effect size (which indicates practical significance) in the case of multiple regression analysis is given by the following formula (Cohen, 1988):f z = RZ/(l
-
RZ)A guideline value of
fZ
= 0,01 for a small effect,f
= 0,10 for a medium effect and f = 0,35 for a large effect was set 6 1 practical significance of f.A multi-linear regression analysis was conducted to determine whether job insecurity can predict bumout and organisational commitment The results of the multiple regression analysis use job
insecurity as the independent variable and burnout together with organisational commitment as
the &pendent variables.
1.6
CHAPTER DIVISION
Chapter 1 : Introduction Chapter 2: Research article
1.7
CHAPTER SUMMARY
In Chapter 1 the introduction, together with the problem statement, the aim of the study and research methodology were formulated and presented. The research methodology consists of a literature and empirical study, where it was decided to use the survey research design to meet the research objectives. The Job Insecurity Survey Inventory (JEI), Maslach Bumout Inventory- General Survey (MBI-GS) and Organisational Commitment Questionnaire (OCQ) will be the questionnaires used to measure job insecurity, burnout and organisational wmmitment of workers in a financial institution. The statistical analysis includes the Cronbach alpha coefficients and confirmatory factor analysis to assess the reliability and validity of the measuring instruments. Pearson product-moment correlation wefficients will be used to specify
the relationships between the variables. Multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) will be used to determine the significance of differences between job insecurity of the demographic variables. The ANOVA will be used to determine the differences between the levels of job insecurity of the different demographic groups, T-Tests will be used to analyze the dfierence between two means and lastly, a multi-linear regression analysis
w)
will be used to determine the proportion of the total variance of one variable that is explained by another variable.In Chapter 2, a literature study will be done focusing on the individual topics of job insecurity, burnout and organisational commitment and their possible relationship with one another.
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CHAPTER 2
JOB INSECURITY, BURNOUT
AND
ORGANISATIONAL COMMITMENT OF EMPLOYEES IN AFINANCIAL
I N S ~ O N IN GAUTENG'K. LABA J.H. BUITENDACH
IJ.
HUMAN
WolkWell: Research Unitfor People, Policy & P e r f o m o e , Vaal Triangle Canpus, North-West University, South Africa.
ABSTRACI'
The objective of this Sudy was to identify any relationships that may exist M e e n job insearrity, bumout and organisational a m m b e n t . To determine the levels of job insecurity, burnout and organisational commitment, how different demographic p u p s experience different levels of job insecurity and whether job insecurity can predict burnout and orgauisational commitment. A -sectional w e y design was used. A smtiiied random sample of human resource workers (N = 146) was used &om a financial
institution in Gauteng. The Job Insecurity Survey Inventory (JISI), Maslach Bumout Inventory-General Survey (MBI-GS) and Organisational Commitment Questionnaire (OCQ) w a e administered with a biographical questionnaire. The regression analyses indicated that 29,8% of the total variance was explained by job insecurity on burnout and that 28,7% of the total variance was explained by job insecurity on organiseticaal commitment.
OPSOMMJNG
Die doel van hierdie ondersoek was om die moontlike verband tussen werkonxkerheid, u i t h d i n g en orgaoisasi8verbondenheid te analiseer. V& is die verskillende vlakke van werkonxkerheid, uitbranding en organisasie-vabondaheid bepaal, amok ondersoek hoe die onderskeie demografiese groepe die verskillende wakonsekerbeidsvlakke maar en of wakonsekerbeid as 'n voorspeller van uitbranding en organisasi~verhondenheid bskou kan word. 'n D w k t opname tegniek is gebruik. 'n Gestratifiseerde ewekansige proefgoep van werknemas (n"146) is vanuit 'n hansiele instansie in Gauteng gebndk. Die "Job Jmxxity Survey Inventory (JISI)", "Maslach Bumout Inventory-General Survey (MBI-GS)" en "Orgauisational Commitment Questionnaire (OCQ)" is afgeneem saam met 'n
biografiex vraelys Die regressie-analisz het getcan dat 29.8% van die totale variansie deur werkonsekeheid op uitbranding voonpel is en dat 28,7% van die totale variansie deur werkonsekerhkd op o~gaoisasi6verbondaheid voaspel is.
* T k Iim-d u.imc+ of the N d d Rcscrr;h Pamd.tin( (NRF) t o 4this rncrmh u b b y .olmowled@ Opinims -sed d mnolmims m i d & rs thas of lhs mthor md rc notneraunily to be .mibutodto the Ndmd R d F o l m h t i o n
Over the past four decades of the 20th century, the nature of work has changed dramatically. The 1960s and 1970s saw the introduction of new technology, the use of computers into the workplace (Sparks, Faragher & Cooper, 2001). This was followed in the 1980s by a huge shift towards globalisation, with many organisations undergoing mergers, acquisitions, strategic alliances and privatisations. This entrepreneurial period resulted in increased economic competitiveness in international markets for those countries that embraced it (Cooper & Jackson, 1997). In the 1990s, a major restructuring of work started to take place. Organisations in countries hit by recession were downsizing or delayering in an effort to survive. During the last decade, this trend for resbucturing and downsizing has continued in many o w s a t i o n s , together with an increase in sub-contracting and outsourcing, in order to compete succesfully in the increasing competitive global market. Howard (1995) concurs that since the late 1970s, economic recession, industrial restructuring, technological change and an intensitied global competition have dramatically changed the nature of work. In South Africa the Price Water- house Coopers Annual Survey on banks indicates a substantial disturbance in the South African banking sector, which has seen the industry shed nearly 9 000 jobs over the past year (Whitfield, 2003).
Sparks, Faragher and Cooper (2001) further mentioned that there are now fewer people at work, doing more and experiencing less security and control in their jobs. Downsizing or rightsizing appears to be the solution in organisational attempts at improving organisational effectiveness and reducing labour costs
Wtt,
Keats, Harback & Nixon, 1994). In addition, downsizing survivors have to do more, with fewer resources, their work-load increases and uncertainty regarding task performance is likely to be prevalent Purke & Nelson, 1998).Job insecurity describes the employees' negative reactions to the changes concerning their jobs. Davy, Kinicki and Scheck (1997) state that job insecurity is an individual's expectations about continuity in a job situation, perception of a potential threat to continuity in his or her current job (Heaney, Israel & House, 1994) and a powerlessness to maintain the desired continuity in a threatened job situation (Greenhalgh & Rosenblatt, 1984).
The underlying theme behind the various definitions is that job insecurity is a subjective phenomenon, i.e. that it is based on the individual's perceptions and interpretations of the immediate work environment (Hadey, Jacobson, Klandermans & van Vuuren, 1991). Job insecurity refers to the anticipation of this stressful event in such a way that the nature and continued existence of one's job are perceived to be at risk (affective job insecurity), thereby implying that the feeling of job insecurity only occurs in the case of involuntary job loss. Hartley et al. (1991) state that job insecurity refle- a fundamental and involuntary change concerning the continuity and security within the employing organisation.
Borg and Elizur (1992) differentiate between the two dimensions identified within job insecurity: cognitive job insecurity is the likelihood of job loss and affective job insecurity is the fear of job loss. Hartley et al., (1991) make the distinction between the cognitive appraisal processes that are linked to anticipate impacts (in the case of job insecurity) and that which is linked to damage already sustained (in the case of job loss) which can be assumed to have some difkrential influence on the severity of the impact on the individual. This is due to job loss relieving at least one major source of stress, that of event uncertainty - the difficulty of predicting the probability
of job loss. Job loss is already known and so the individual has to come to terms with the loss and cope with its outcomes. Job insecurity is potentially more stressful because coping for the time being may be inhibited by the event of uncertainty. Hartley et al., (1991) concluded that numerous studies have shown that dealing with uncertainty about potentially disastrous and poorly predictable future events, may create even greater psychological stress than the events themselves.
The consequences of job insecurity in the long-run for the employee's overall life situation, is that economic and other highly valued aspects of life will be perceived as threatened (Hartley et
al., 1991). It is generally believed that the quality of the organisation, the work environment and work tasks, may affect the experience of the stressors at work and employee health. It was further assumed that the healthiness of the organisation is also dependent on the level of burnout of the employees. Perceived job insecurity concerning one's &re role in the organisation may also make the employees less inclined to remain with the organisation (low organisational commitment) (Davy et al., 1997). Job insecurity may be related to a withdrawal response
(ineffective coping response), an attempt to avoid the stressor altogether, in other words, job insecurity should have a positive relationship to intentions to quit (Arnold & Feldman, 1982). Workers develop affective and attitudinal attachments to firms over time, which show up as high levels of commitment, satisfaction and trust Feelings of job insecurity may threaten such basic attachments to a firm (Mowday, Steers & Porter, 1979).
From the aforementioned paragraph, the research thus bases job insecurity as the independent variable within this study to show the possibility of it predicting the dependent variables: burnout and organisational commitment It is assumed that high levels of job insecurity experienced will result in increased levels of burnout and decreased levels of organizational commitment
According to Gerber, Nel and van Dyk (1 999, burnout means that the individual feels that their physical and mental resources have been exhausted as a result of the continuous striving for a work-related objective. Burnout is often the end result of too much work pressure and skess, particularly if the pressure arises from unattainable work goals. Maslach and Pines (1977) state that the employees disengage themselves eom the clients and the job, and therefore change their attitude &om caring to indifference. It is stated by Schaufeli and Bunk (2002) as well as by Schaufeli and Enzmam (1998), that burnout is a symptom of work-related stress. Exhaustion is the core indicator, with four general symptoms accompanying it: diskess in the form of affective, cognitive, physical and behavioural symptoms, a sense of reduced effectiveness, decreased motivation and dyshctional attitudes and behaviours.
Burnout starts to occur when the organisational wnditions/environments are intolerable and unjust, that not even personal factors are sufficient enough to resist their effects. Burnout according to Carrel1 et al. (1999) is the overall perception that one is giving more than one is receiving - in monetary rewards, recognition, support or advancement It can occur at all organisational levels, at all pay levels and in all age groups.
The three main themes concerning burnout are explained by Maslach and Leiter (1997). The first is cynicism, which refers to the interpersonal dimension of burnout and is a negative, callous or detached response to various aspects of the job. Secondly, emotional exhaustion refers to
feelings of being overextended and depleted of one's emotional and physical resources. Thirdly, personal efficacy refers to the self-evaluation dimension of burnout and is a feeling of competence, productivity and achievement at work.
This first component or phase of burnout is emotional exhaustion. Emotional exhaustion is considered to be the most important of the three components. It is characterised by a lack of energy and a feeling that one's emotional resources are used up, which may coexist with feelings of frustration and tension (Cordes & Dougherty, 1993).
Depersonalisation or dehumanisation is the second component of burnout. This phase of burnout typically occurs after emotional exhaustion and tends to be a direct response to the skessors of the job (Cordes & Dougherty, 1993). It refers to an individual's personal detachment from work. For those who deal with people on a day-to-day basis this entails treating individuals as objects rather
than
people. Depersonalisation is characterised by a detached and an emotional callousness (Cordes & Dougherty, 1993). Employees in the depersonalisation phase of burnout will take a cool, distant attitude toward work and the people on the job (Maslach & Leiter, 1997). Depersonalisation is viewed as a coping mechanism that is not only an acceptable response, but a professional one as well (Cordes & Dougherty, 1993).The final component of bumout, diminished personal accomplishment, is a decline in one's feelings of competence and successful achievement (Liter & Maslach, 1988). Individuals in this phase of burnout view themselves negatively in both their ability to perform the job and their ability to have positive personal interactions (Cordes & Dougherty, 1993). As Maslach and Leiter (1997) point out, individuals experiencing diminished personal accomplishment trivialise the things that they are successful at and no longer feel they are able to make a difference through their work or personal interactions. These feelings of inadequacy directly affect an individual's self-efficacy and therefore affect the workers ability to meet clients' needs and to satisfy essential elements ofjob performance (Maslach, 1982).
Change within the oorganisation causes the employees to experience stressful situations. Individuals who perceive their organisation to be undependable in carrying out their
commitments to employees were, in tum, less committed to the organisation (Ashford,
Lee
&Bobko, 1989). Agho, Price and Mueller (1992) state that employees who are satisfied with their jobs are likely to be better ambassadors for the ornisation and show more organisational
commitment.
Chow (1994) defined organisational commitment as the extent to wbxh employees identify with their organisation and managerial goals, show a willingness to invest effort, participate in decision-making and internalise organisational values. Allen and Meyer (1990) stated that the net sum of a person's commitment to the organisation is reflected in three separable psychological states: affective attachment, perceived costs and obligation. Affective commitment is concerned with the extent to which the individual identifies with the organisation. Perceived costs concerns the individual's need to continue working for the organisation and is commonly referred to as continuance commitment. Normative commitment or obligation is influenced by society's norms about the extent to which people ought to be Copnmitted to the organisation. McDonald and Matkin (2000) put it in simple terms where people stay within the organisation because they want to (affective), because they need to (continuance), or because they feel they ought to (normative).
The multidimensional approach of organisational commitment comprises affective, continuance and normative commitment (McDonald & Matkm, 2000). Allen and Meyer (1990) further mention that the levels of all three types of commitment are related to the relationship between the individual and the organisation. The strength of each of them is influenced by different factors (McDonald & Matkin, 2000). Affective commitment is influenced by the extent to which the individual's needs and expectations about the organisation are matched by their actual experiences, which lmks with the perceived reciprocal obligations of the psychological contract Continuance commitment is determined by the perceived costs of leaving the organisation, of which "investments" and "side-bets" are important determinants. Normative commitment is a perceived obligation to stay with the organisation, which, acco~dmg to McDonald and Matkm (2000) is based on the "social exchange theory", where the person receiving a benefit is under a strong "nonnative" (i.e. rule governed) obligation to repay it back in some way.
Organisational commitment is important for organisations because it is an indication of the relevance that organisational variables, such as untidiness, staff turnover and absenteeism have
on productivity (Mowday, Porter & Steers 1982). Organisational commitment indicates the efficiency of an organisation and therefore committed employees' desire to maintain organisational membership would directly relate to the motivation to be participative. It can therefore be established that high levels of commitment enhance the employees' level of motivation and produce the required behaviour that counteracts undesired behaviour such as turnover, waste, hostility, insecurity and absenteeism (Heymans, 2002).
It is important to determine the possibility ofjob insecurity predicting burnout and organisational commitment Since no previous research has been done in this regard, this study will help to identie the factors most affected by job insecurity. Should there be high levels of burnout and low levels of organisational wmmitment caused by job insecurity, then the necessary preventative measures can be taken to minimise the negative effects that job insecurity has on the workers.
The objective of this study is to iden* any relationship that may exist between job insecurity, burnout and organisational commitment within the Human Resource department of a financial institution in Gauteng. During the change that the financial institution is going through, there is a reasonable expectation that the employees within
that organisation
are experiencing certain measures ofjob insecurity and burnout, accompanied by lowered levels of commitmentThe hypotheses of this study are as follows:
Hi: Job insecurity will be accompanied by high levels of burnout, i.e. increase in levels of exhaustion and cynicism and a decrease in the levels of professional efficacy.
Hz: Job insecurity will be accompanied by low levels of organisational wmmitment, i.e. lowered levels of commitment will be experienced in all three wmmitment variables (affective commitment, continuance wmmitment and normative commitment).
METHOD
Research design
A research design that is most suitable for this study is the cross-sectional survey design. Information collected is used to describe the population at that time and is appropriate for studying various groups at different stages of development @urns & Grove, 1993). According to Shaughnessy and Zechmeister (1997), this design is ideally suited to the descriptive and predictive functions associated with correctional research and are also less time umsurning.
Study population
Stratified random samples (N = 146) were taken from a hancial institution. Questionnaires were sent to all the workers within the Human Resource department via electronic media, whereupon 146 questionnaires were received. The population group consisted of workers from the Human Resources department within a financial setting. There are members from various human resource processes within the department
Within this group the employees hold different positions within the Human Resource department and fulfill the following roles:
= Human resource consultants linked to client bases (entry point consultants) - who
function within a more generalist capacity within the Human Resource department. = Other employees function as Training and Development consultants or Human Capacity
Development planners. These employees act as specialists within the Human Resource Deparhnent.
The third category of employees are the leaders within the various teams and fulfill an indirect line manager role in conjunction with the generalists and specialists.
The last category of employees perform duties similar to administrative assistants within the Human Resource department.
Table 1
Chamcteristicv of the Participants (U = 146)
Ikm cegory p=-%= Scx Male 53% F-le 4% Race A6ric.m 24% White 76% A 5 (Fm) 2A and youogcr 2% 25 - 35 34% 36 - 45 35% 46-55 26% 56 .nd olda 3% Qdlid011l GndcIO-12 20% Diplma 14% 2% Post-e&mte D e w 37?? Y- in M m p y Leu ,,.J,! me ye= 3% 1-4 20.7 5-10 26% 11 - 15 1% 16-20 18% m 15%
Table 1 indicates a slight dflerence in the maletfemale composition of the population group, with 53% males working in the Human Resource department The majority of the age group (65%) falls between the ages of 25 - 45 years, indicating that the Human Resowce department consists of a relatively young workforce. There's an indication that 80% of the human resources department have tertiary education, 29% have a degree, 37% have a post-graduate degree and
14% have a diploma, which indicates that the majority of the workforce are suitably qualified to
perform their jobs. Table 1 also shows that the majority (52%) of the individuals have been working within that organisation for more than 11 years. The years of service in the same position indicated that 66% of the workers tend to work between one and four years in the same position before considering moving on to other job pmspects/positions. There appears to be a minority of cases that have worked for longer than 5 years in the same position within the organisation (17%), which indicates that most (77%) individuals do not stay in the same position
for longer than 5 consecutive years. Twenty nine percent of the workers are registered professionally, 47% are semi-professionals and 24% are skilled. There are no semi-skilled or unskilled workers in the Human Resources department, which indicates that the department cons is^ of only skilled workers.
Measuring instruments
The Job Insecurity S u m y Inventov (JSl), (De Wiiie, 1999). This questionnaire was used to measure global job insecurity. The JISI is reported to have a Cronbach alpha coefficient of a = 0,92 @e Witte, 2000). With the items, two subscales exist: Cognitive (e.g. "I think I might get fued in the near future") and Affective (e.g. "I feel insecure about the future of my job"). Borg and Elizur (1992) state that both scales were shown to be highly reliable, with the six items measuring cognitive job insecurity, displaying a Cronbach alpha coefficient of a = 0,90; and the
five items of affective job insecurity having a Cronbach alpha coefficient of a = 0,85. De Witte
(2000) further mentions that the survey focuses on two aspects, namely the cognitive comprehension of the possibility of job loss as well as the affective reaction to the feelings of job insecurity (De Witte, 2000). In a South African study, Human (2002) obtained a Cronbach alpha coefficient of a = 0,83 (total score), a = 0,71 (cognitive) and a = 0,79 (affective).
The Marlach Burnout Inventoty&neral Survey (MBI-GS), (Maslach, Jackson & Leiter, 1996). This questionnaire will be used to measure burnout. The MBIGS has three sub-scales: Exhaustion (five items; e.g. "I feel used up at the end of the workday"), Cynicism (five items, e.g. "I have become less enthusiastic about my work") and Professional Efficacy (six items, e.g. "In my opinion, I am good at my job"). Together the sub-scales of the MBI-GS provide a three- dimensional perspective on burnout. Internal consistencies (Cronbach alpha coefficients) reported by Maslach et al. (19%) varied h r n a = 0,87 to a = 0,89 for exhaustion, a = 0,73 to a = 0,84 for cynicism and a = 0,76 to a = 0,84 for professional efficacy. All items are scored on a 7-pomt h p n c y rating scale ranging from "0" (never) to "6" (daily). High scores on exhaustion and cynicism, and low scores on professional &cacy are indicative of burnout. In a South African study the following Cronbach alpha coefficients were obtained for the MBI-GS by Storm (2003): exhaustion: a = 0,88; cynicism: a = 0,79; professional efficacy: a = 0,78.
