The impact of multiculturalism at work on job satisfaction and organisational commitment in a tertiary institution

ii

ABSTRACT

This dissertation looks at the existence of multiculturalism within the North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus after the merger. It also assesses the extent to which there is organisational commitment and job satisfaction within this institution of higher learning. Using frequencies and descriptive statistics, the article provides an overview of the extent of the impact of multiculturalism on organisational commitment and job satisfaction in the identified institution. Furthermore, the article evaluates the extent of relationships between multiculturalism as an independent variable and organisational commitment and job satisfaction as dependent variables. Data collected from 250 respondents using the self-administered questionnaires was analysed using SPSS. The results show that respondents’ self-assessment of their productivity is affirmative. It also indicates that most respondents are satisfied with their work and their responses to the intention to leave the organisation are in the negative.

Contrary to the position of most researchers in previous literature, data collected in this study shows that multiculturalism does not result in the sampled employees intending to leave the organisation. It also indicates that the respondents do not show any negative effect of multiculturalism. This positive impact may be attributed to the fact that most respondents indicated their commitment to the institution and satisfaction with their work. The results of this study should be interpreted in the context of academia. In this regard, in a different environment, multiculturalism may be found to result in different findings. Therefore, the findings cannot be generalised to other sectors and industries. In addition, it is safe to generalise the findings only to the Campus at which the study was conducted. Findings of this study show that there is no relationship between multicultural norm and practices and organisational commitment as well as job satisfaction. It nonetheless shows that most employees are productive and satisfied and have no intention to leave the institution.

iii

The study recommends that the institution adopts a focused approach to nurturing multiculturalism. In order to improve multiculturalism, it is recommended that the institution creates awareness and trains employees about diversity. It is also recommended that the North-West University enhances job satisfaction through team building activities.

Key terms: Multiculturalism, North-West University, organisational commitment, job satisfaction

iv

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I would like to thank God the almighty for the strength, wisdom, courage and perseverance to pursue this challenging period of completing my MBA program and this dissertation. It was not an easy journey but yes, it is completed.

I drew all my strength and enjoyed support from the following pillars:

 My beautiful and loving wife, Smangele Princess for being so supportive and motivating, especially when I wanted to quit my studies. You took care of the boys when I was away busy with my syndicate group work.

 My supportive and understanding boys, Katlego and Oarabille Victor Jnr for giving me the space and allowing me to steal their precious time to complete my studies. I love you boys.

 My study leader Prof. Leon Jackson for his expertise and professional support provided for the duration of my studies. I wish you a speedy recovery Prof. Leon.

 In my study leader’s absence due to ill health, Prof Christoff Botha for your support and understanding, this is much appreciated.

 Ms. Lynette Ferreira for all your unconditional support during the duration of my studies, you were really managing my life and programme in the office. God bless you and your family.

 Mr. Rudzani Mudau for your unconditional, selfless and immeasurable support. You really took it upon yourself to make sure that you guide me in completing this dissertation. God bless you and your family.

 Mr. Sibusiso Ndzukuma for your support in your area of specialisation - statistics.

 The Potchefstroom Business School staff members for being there for me and making the MBA program workload to be much more bearable.

v

TABLE OF CONTENTS

ABSTRACT ii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS iv

LIST OF TABLES vii

CHAPTER ONE: NATURE AND SCOPE OF STUDY

1

1.1 INTRODUCTION 1

1.2 PROBLEM STATEMENT 2

1.2.1 Literature review 3

1.3 OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY 7

1.4 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY 8

1.5 RESEARCH DESIGN 8

1.5.1 Brief outline of the research methodology 8

1.5.2 Empirical study 10

1.5.3 Population 10

1.5.4 Statistical Analysis 11

1.5.5 Statistical techniques employed 11

1.5.5.1 Inferential statistics 11

1.5.5.2 Effect size 11

1.5.5.3 Reliability analysis 12

1.5.5.4 Post-hoc tests 13

1.6 DEMARCATION OF STUDY 13

1.7 LAYOUT OF THE STUDY 14

1.8 SUMMARY 14

CHAPTER 2: SCIENTIFIC ARTICLE

16

2.1 INTRODUCTION 16

2.2 LITERATURE REVIEW 17

2.2.1 Definitions of multiculturalism and diversity 17

2.2.2 Characteristics of a multicultural workplace 20

2.2.3 The effects of multiculturalism in the workplace 21

2.2.4 Multiculturalism and job satisfaction 22

vi

2.2.6 Interventions to address multiculturalism in the workplace 23

2.2.6.1 Diversity training 23

2.2.6.2 Creating common understanding 24

2.2.6.3 Build trust 24 2.2.6.4 Leadership 25 2.2.6.5 Decision making 26 2.2.6.6 Mentoring 27 2.3 RESEARCH OBJECTIVES 26 2.4 RESEARCH METHODS 27 2.4.1 Empirical study 27

2.4.2 Research design and procedure 27

2.4.3 Sample and sampling method 28

2.4.4 Measures (questionnaires) 30 2.4.5 Statistical analysis 31 2.5 RESULTS 32 2.5.1 Frequencies 32 2.5.2 Regression analyses 41 2.6 DISCUSSION 44 2.7 SUMMARY 46 LIST OF REFERENCES 48

CHAPTER 3: CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

52

3.1 INTRODUCTION 52

3.2 CONCLUSIONS 53

3.3 RECOMMENDATIONS TO THE INSTITUTION 56

3.4 LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY 57

3.5 AREAS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH 58

3.6 SUMMARY 59

LIST OF REFERENCES 60

ANNEXURE A: QUESTIONNAIRE 65

viii

LIST OF TABLES

Table 1: Cohen’s d-values for practical significance 12

Table 2: Cronbach’s Alpha parameters 12

Table 3: Characteristics of the participants 29 Table 4: Results summary of the structured questions 33

Table 5: Reliability Statistics 38

Table 6: correlations between variables measured 40

Table 7: Model Summary 41

Table 8: Model Summary 41

Table 9: Coefficients 43

Table 10: Anova 44

1

CHAPTER ONE

NATURE AND SCOPE OF THE STUDY

1.1 INTRODUCTION

Mergers in institutions of higher learning are generally aimed at addressing the fragmentation and inequality in the distribution of academic resources (Harman & Harman, 2003). The South African education system began its restructuring in 2003 in order to widen access to tertiary education. This was done with a view of resetting the priorities of the old apartheid system, which barred the majority of citizens the access to high quality education. The process of restructuring the higher education system involved the incorporation of the smaller universities and technikons into larger Institutions to form Comprehensive Universities.

Mergers and acquisition are common features of life, especially in the 21st century, where organisations strive to be competitive through acquiring smaller competitive organisations. Due to expanding clientele and its needs as well as the expansion of emerging markets, the market has become less diversified as some organisations merge with others while some are acquired by those that either have the financial muscle to take over others or those that are positioned well to become the holding organisations. While most mergers have occurred within the business realm, this phenomenon has not eluded academia. In this sector, especially in South Africa, most mergers occurred due to the need to distribute the academic resources equitably among the advantaged and those who are less advantaged.

Mergers, irrespective of the sector and industry, have always posed challenges to the merging institutions and their management. The challenges are due to, on the one hand, the common difficulty of fusing divergent cultures and needs into a comprehensive prevalent culture. On the other hand the challenges may be caused by opposing interests that must be met by the comprehensive organisation that will emerge from the merger.

2

This study begins with a problem statement, which informs the shape this study has taken. Objectives of this study are also detailed. The study employs a quantitative research approach to gather data, the collection which is informed by the objectives of this study. Data was collected using a pre-developed questionnaire with closed-ended questions, which were administered by staff members of the North-West University; that is, at the Potchefstroom Campus and the Institutional Office. The collected data was analysed using the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences. The findings of this study are then provided in the results section, followed by the discussion of these findings. The study makes a few recommendations for the institution. An overview of a few limitations of this study is also provided.

1.2 PROBLEM STATEMENT

The Constitution of South Africa envisages a sexist, racial and non-discriminatory environment (Parliament of the Republic of South Africa, 1996). According to Jackson, Van der Veiver and Laure (2010), South African society consists of diverse ethnic and cultural groups with a slow progress rate in becoming a multicultural society. This is the society that forms part of the population of our tertiary institution as students, academic and support staff.

The restructuring process ended up with six Comprehensive Universities, which offers academic and vocational diplomas and degrees, and the six Universities of Technology which are focusing on vocational oriented education whilst the 11 traditional Universities offer theoretically oriented university degrees.

The national restructuring of the tertiary education system in South Africa witnessed, among others, the merger of two diverse universities, Potchefstroom University for Christian Higher Education and the University of North West (formerly known as the University of Bophuthatswana) as well as the incorporation of Vista Sebokeng Campus into what is now known as North-West University (NWU). The NWU has three campuses and an institutional office (which deals mainly with management and coordination of the three campuses), two in the North West Province, that is,

3

Potchefstroom and Mafikeng Campuses and one in the Gauteng Province, that is, Vaal Triangle Campus.

The merger and incorporation of the NWU brought with it diverse cultures into one. For example, on the one hand, the Mafikeng campus was predominantly black (with staff members as well as students from across African countries and the Asia, that is, India, Sri Lanka and other neighbouring Asian countries). On the other hand, the Potchefstroom campus was a historically white (Afrikaans) university with a significant percentage of white staff and students. Therefore, the NWU became a multicultural tertiary institution since 2004. With the merging of diverse cultures, job satisfaction and organisational commitment are likely to suffer as most employees are likely to feel not part of the mainstream culture.

With the institution becoming a multicultural workplace, concerns of cultural inclusion and equal opportunities for various cultures have become a reality, as is the case in most mergers. For instance, it is not known if the merger has advantaged some cultures while leaving others disadvantaged. This study will attempt to discover the extent to which the institution has become multicultural with the merger as well as the extent to which employees are committed to the institution and are satisfied with their job, factors that are likely to emerge when cultures tussle for space in a merged institution. The impact of multiculturalism on job satisfaction and organisational commitment is the overarching objective of the study.

1.2.1 Literature review

Multiculturalism, according to Heywood (2010) relates to communities containing multiple cultures. Heywood (2010) further asserts that the term “multiculturalism” may be used in two broad ways which can either be descriptive or normative. The descriptive connotation of the term multiculturalism refers to cultural diversity where it is applied to the general demographic make-up of a specific place like a school, business and neighbourhood or cities. On the other hand the normative connotation of multiculturalism refers to the ideologies or policies that promote the cultural diversity and its institutionalisation. In this sense multiculturalism is therefore a

4

society at ease with the rich tapestry of human life and the desire amongst people to express their own identity as they see fit.

From the two connotations above, descriptive and normative, it emerges that the latter builds on the former, or it is the extension of the former. For the purpose of this study the term multiculturalism will be used descriptively and normatively.

A closer look at the normative nature of multiculturalism informs us that multiculturalism is closely associated with “identity politics,” “the politics of difference,” and “the politics of recognition,” all of which share a commitment to revalueing disrespected identities and changing dominant patterns of representation and communication that marginalise certain groups (Young 1990; Taylor 1992; Gutmann 2003). Multiculturalism is also a matter of economic interests and political power; it demands remedies to economic and political disadvantages that people suffer as a result of their minority status.

Multiculturalists take for granted that it is “culture” and “cultural groups” that are to be recognised and accommodated. Yet multicultural claims include a wide range of claims involving religion, language, ethnicity, nationality, and race. Culture is a notoriously overbroad concept, and all of these categories have been subsumed by or equated with the concept of culture (Song 2008). Song (2008) further argues that language and religion are at the heart of many claims for cultural accommodation by those in the minority or immigrants. The key claim made by minority nations is for self-government rights.

Race has a more limited role in multicultural discourse. Antiracism and multiculturalism are distinct but related ideas: the former highlights “victimization and resistance” whereas the latter highlights “cultural life, cultural expression, achievements, and the like” (Blum 1992, 14). Claims for recognition in the context of multicultural education are demands not just for recognition of aspects of a group's actual culture, such as African American art and literature but also for the history of group subordination and its concomitant experience (Gooding-Williams 1998).

Examples of cultural accommodations or “group-differentiated rights” include exemptions from generally applicable law, such as religious exemptions; assistance

5

to do things that the majority can do unassisted, for example, multilingual ballots, funding for minority language schools and ethnic associations, affirmative action; representation of minorities in government bodies, for example, ethnic quotas for party lists or legislative seats, minority-majority congressional districts; recognition of traditional legal codes by the dominant legal system, such as granting jurisdiction over family law to religious courts; or limited self-government rights, like qualified recognition of tribal sovereignty and federal arrangements recognising the political autonomy of Quebec (Gooding-Williams 1998).

Typically, a group-differentiated right is a right of a minority group (or a member of such a group) to act or not act in a certain way in accordance with their religious obligations and/or cultural commitments. In some cases, it is a right that directly restricts the freedom of non-members in order to protect the minority group's culture, as in the case of restrictions on the use of the English language in Quebec. When the right-holder is the group, the right may protect group rules that restrict the freedom of individual members, as in the case of the Pueblo membership rule that excludes the children of women who marry outside the group (Gooding-Williams 1998).

The literature therefore reveals that multiculturalism impacts on the very heart of the individual as it touches the core of what the individual believes in and his way of life as well as how they go about doing what they do. It therefore impacts on the individual’s job satisfaction.

Various research and models based on team work and job satisfaction have been conducted and developed with the view of addressing the relationship between factors that enhances the performance of a team and the team’s satisfaction in a job situation (Raiden, Dainty & Neale 2006). The quest for the outcome of the research has resulted in models such as the Ability, Motivation and Opportunity (AMO) model. The model developed by Borax and Purcell (2003) quoted by Raiden et al. (2006) advocates for the fact that teams or individuals perform well in organisations when the three aspects of the model (AMO) are addressed.

6

Coetsee (2002) classifies job satisfaction as an attitude that employees or managers have regarding their jobs. Their attitudes can either be negative or positive, depending on how employees perceive and experience their job and other factors like benefits, supervision style, pay, support and the fit between the individual and the organisation.

Comrad (1998) on the other hand argues that job satisfaction is an expression by employees on their feelings regarding their jobs. The feelings that are referred to are influenced by three factors, namely, job factors, individual characteristics and how people relate with one another out of work, that is, how an individual perceives the environment.

Cranny, Smith and Stone (1992) quoted by Comrad (1998) state that organisations have a continued interest in measuring job satisfaction as it is related to increased productivity, reduced absence and cost reduction.

A multicultural workplace is vulnerable to larger issues attributable to differences in religions and beliefs. Workplaces as such are difficult to avoid due to increasing globalisation. Looking at these differences objectively and practically can help you solve their problems. Active listening, negating nepotism and empowering your employees to understand each other’s backgrounds can help change their attitudes towards each other, for the better. This will bring your employees closer in thought and in sentiment, encouraging the importance of team-building. A workforce which works together by supporting individual dreams along with the larger picture derives the maximum job satisfaction from working (Comrad 1998).

From the literature reviewed it emerges that since the university is a community that is formed from diverse ethnic and culturally groups, it poses a challenge to not only “satisfy” the group or individuals in a job (university) set up but to form a multicultural society from the set-up.

Therefore the following research questions can be formulated based on the above-mentioned description of the research problem:

7

1. What is the impact of multiculturalism on job satisfaction and organisational commitment?

2. What is the prevalence of multiculturalism, job satisfaction and organisational commitment in an identified tertiary institution?

3. What is the extent to which job satisfaction and organisational commitment can promote multiculturalism in both work and non-work relationships?

4. What are the relationships between multiculturalism, job satisfaction and organisational commitment?

5. What is the extent to which organisational commitment can be achieved in a multicultural academic institution?

In order to answer the above research questions, the following research objectives are set.

1.3 OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY

The overarching objective of this study can be stated as to determine the impact of multiculturalism on job satisfaction and organisational commitment in the North-West University.

The overarching objective of this study was achieved by addressing the following sub-objectives, namely to:

 Establish the extent to which multiculturalism is related to job satisfaction, which can assist with policy interventions for the tertiary institution.

 Determine the relationship between multiculturalism, job satisfaction and organisational commitment. This objective has a further spin-off of unearthing real factors that may be playing a role in organisational commitment, besides multiculturalism and job satisfaction.

 Investigate the extent to which the three variables are related. The importance of this objective lies in the possibility of determining the link between the variables, which can become a tool for policy makers in addressing any challenges identified in this study.

8 1.4 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY

Multiculturalism has been cited as the biggest contributor to job satisfaction and lack thereof, which in turn can result in high turnover rates in organisations due to lack of organisational commitment. This study has a potential of highlighting the relationship between multiculturalism, job satisfaction and organisational commitment and suggests some possible ways of dealing with the negative effects of multiculturalism on job satisfaction and organisational commitment. Once the various relationships are documented and understood, this study can be used to inform policy regarding ways in which organisations in a similar sector can address multiculturalism, job satisfaction and organisational commitment.

The study will help organisations in general; and particularly the institution where the survey will be conducted, to know what are the relationships between multiculturalism, job satisfaction and organisational commitment. The study will also assist similar institutions in understanding the relationship between multiculturalism, job satisfaction and organisational commitment. An attempt will be made in this study to understand these relationships from the perspective of employees who will be surveyed. In addition, the study has a potential of helping the identified institution to identify mechanisms through which adverse effects of multiculturalism can be addressed. This will assist the institution in formulating plans in dealing with those adverse effects.

1.5 RESEARCH DESIGN

The aim of the research is to determine the impact of multiculturalism at work on job satisfaction and organisational commitment.

1.5.1 Brief outline of the research methodology

This research will make use of a quantitative research approach, where data will be collected and presented in the form of numbers and the aim is to generalise the

9

results from a sample group to the population as a whole. The rationale of employing a quantitative research approach is to determine the relationship between independent variables and dependent or outcome variables within the population. This study uses a descriptive research design, in which the researcher established associations or relationships between multiculturalism, job satisfaction and organisational commitment as perceived by employees in an identified academic institution.

A randomised cross-sectional survey design will be used in this study. This type of design is usually associated with exploratory and descriptive studies, which examines several groups of people at one point in time. This design is used to determine whether a particular problem exists within a group of participants and what the level of the problem is. Data collection will be conducted through a structured questionnaire with closed-ended questions, administered with 250 employees in various positions or levels within the academic institution. In this research, the aim of using the questionnaires will be to determine a relationship between various variables (dependent and independent variables), so that inferences could be drawn. Quantitative data will be analysed by means of descriptive and inferential statistics.

The literature regarding this study was obtained by means of an intensive electronic search on various publications on the subject in scientific and business journals, books and from the internet. The following key words were used: multiculturalism, diversity, job satisfaction, organisational commitment.

The library service of the North-West University (Potchefstroom campus) was consulted for assistance in this regard. Based on the descriptive nature and objectives of this study, a quantitative research approach was adopted. According to Leedy and Ormrod (2010) and Welman, Kruger and Mitchell (2005) quantitative research has three advantages:

• Through its descriptive nature, a quantitative research can help to reveal the nature of a situation or process, such as that which will be shown in the prevalence of multiculturalism in this study (which addresses objective 1 of this study).

10

• Due to its interpretative form, a quantitative research enables researchers to gain new insight about a particular phenomenon – multiculturalism, develop new concepts about the phenomenon and discover the problems that exist within the phenomenon (addresses objective 1 of this study).

• Through verification, a quantitative research allows researchers to test the validity of certain assumptions, claims and theories within businesses (related to objective 2 of this study).

A survey was therefore conducted using the employees of the North-West University (Potchefstroom campus and Institutional Office) as respondents to this study.

1.5.2 Empirical study

This study aims at determining the existence of multiculturalism as well as the impact of multiculturalism at work on job satisfaction and organisational commitment.

Data in this study was acquired by means of questionnaires developed and tested in previous research studies by Field (2009). This instrument was chosen for this study because the instrument was successful in getting the respondents to convict themselves to a particular behaviour in their respective business practices.

The respondents (employees within the Potchefstroom Campus and Institutional Office of the NWU) in this study were asked to respond to various multicultural, job satisfaction and organisational commitment scenarios by indicating the level of acceptability or unacceptability. Scenarios were related to each of the three categories of variables – multiculturalism, job satisfaction and organisational commitment.

1.5.3 Population

The study focused on African (Black, Indian and Coloured) employees at the Potchefstroom Campus and the Institutional Office of the NWU, where an African staff complement is 585 within the campus as well as the Institutional Office. Of the 585 employees 250 of them were targeted as a population of this study, who were

11

considered as respondents to this study. Therefore, the population of the study is (N=250). However, of the 250 respondents targeted 230 responses were received back from the respondents of the study, and this constituted a response rate of 92%. This study, therefore, comprised an availability sample of 230 (n).

1.5.4 Statistical Analysis

The Statistical Support Services of the North-West University (Potchefstroom campus) was consulted to assist in the statistical analysis of the data. The specific statistical analysis and software used is discussed in Chapter 2 of this study.

1.5.5 Statistical techniques employed

The following sub-sections discuss the statistical techniques employed in this study.

1.5.5.1 Inferential statistics

Sprinthall (2003) describes inferential statistics as the techniques used for measuring a sample (employees within the Potchefstroom Campus and the Institutional Office) and then generalising these measures to the population. In order to reach conclusions that extend beyond the data used in this study alone, the following techniques were employed.

1.5.5.2 Effect size

Effect size is a simple way of qualifying the difference between the groups that have many advantages over the use of tests of statistical significance alone. Effect size emphasises the size of the difference, rather than confounding this with the sample size (Sprinthall 2003). The focus of this study was on the existence or prevalence of multiculturalism and the impact it may have with job satisfaction and organisational commitment. Therefore, the difference between the groups regarding those who are multicultural, satisfied with their work and committed to the university was sought.

12

Subsequently the effect size, Cohen’s d-value was used to determine if the differences were practically significant. The interpretation of the parameters thereof is presented in Table 1 below:

Table 1: Cohen’s d-values for practical significance Cohen’s value Measure (effect size) Significance

d 0.2 Small No practical significant difference d 0.5 Medium Practically visible difference d 0.8 Large Practically significant difference Source: Sprinthall (2003:444)

1.5.5.3 Reliability analysis

For researchers to use the average score on a questionnaire, it becomes important to know that the items are sufficiently inter-relational, that is, it is crucial to test whether the questionnaire is reliable or not (Clarke & Watson 1995; Field 2009). Therefore to establish whether the questionnaire is reliable or not, Cronbach’s alpha (internal consistency estimate of reliability of test scores) is used and the parameters thereof is given in the table hereunder:

Table 2: Cronbach’s Alpha parameters Parameters (α) Description α ≥ 0.9 Excellent 0.9 ≥ α ≥ 0.8 Good 0.8 ≥ α ≥ 0.7 Acceptable 0.6 ≥ α ≥ 0.6 Questionable 0.59 ≥ α ≥ 0.5 Poor 0.5 ≥ α ≥ 0.4 Unacceptable Source: Field (2009:667)

Field (2009) believes that a value which is greater than 0.7 indicates that the questionnaire is reliable. To further test the reliability of the questionnaire, the mean inter-item correlation as well as the item total correlations was performed. To

13

ascertain reliability, the mean inter-item correlation needs to be greater than 0.15 (Clarke & Watson, 1995) while the item total correlation should be greater than 0.3 (Field, 2009).

1.5.5.4 Post-hoc tests

Post-hoc tests uses the Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) for situations in which the researcher has already obtained a significant omnibus F-test with a factor that consists of three or more means and additional exploration of the differences among means is needed to provide specific information on which means are significantly different from each other.

In this study, omnibus tests were conducted to determine if there were differences in the items. If this test (omnibus-test) indicated a statistically significant difference, that is if p < 0.05, post-hoc-tests were conducted to determine pair-wise which of the groups differed. In this pair-wise comparison (p < 0.05), indicated a statistically significant difference.

1.6 DEMARCATION OF STUDY

The demarcation of this study is limited to those employees whose tenure was at the time of this study in the Potchefstroom Campus and the Institutional Office of the North-West University in South Africa. From the 585 employees within the campus, 250 were targeted and 230 participated in this study.

The study intended to determine the existence of multiculturalism and its impact at work on job satisfaction and organisational commitment among the employees of the university. For research ethical purposes, the identity of these employees will not be revealed.

14 1.7 LAYOUT OF THE STUDY

The presentation of this study is the article format. In this regard, a scientific article is presented in Chapter 2 of the study. Where text and literature is deemed crucial, this will be repeated in Chapter 2. Chapter 2 will also have its own list of references. The layout per chapter follows below.

Chapter 1 provides the motivation for the study of the existence of multiculturalism and its impact at work on job satisfaction and organisational commitment, based on the reviewed literature. The chapter further outlines the overarching objective of the study, sub-objectives and the method of research.

Chapter 2, as the scientific article, constitutes the literature pertaining to the study. The literature attempted to outline multiculturalism, job satisfaction and organisational commitment as well the relationship among those variables. The chapter also provides an overview of the detailed research methodology that was employed in this study. The empirical results are also analysed and discussed. This chapter sought to address sub-objectives of this study.

Chapter 3 provides conclusions and recommendations. This chapter provides a summary of the overarching objective as well as sub-objectives that are stated in Chapter 1 this study.

With reference to the lists of reference, the scientific article (Chapter 2) has an individual reference list relating to the article itself. The complete list of reference pertaining to the study as a whole appears at the end of the study.

1.8 SUMMARY

The literature reviewed in this study revealed the characteristics of a multicultural workplace. It also showed the impact of multiculturalism at work on job satisfaction and organisational commitment, both positive and negative. This literature also makes some recommendations for dealing with a multicultural workplace, by

15

suggestion such measures as diversity training, mentoring, and good leadership (King, Dawson, Kravitz & Gulick, 2012; Leveson et al., 2009).

Therefore, it becomes pivotal to pursue a study which tackles the relationship between multiculturalism, job satisfaction and organisational commitment. The study was aimed at gaining some insights on the existence of multiculturalism and the impact of multiculturalism at work on job satisfaction and organisational commitment (sub-objective 3). The next chapter contains the literature review and results of the study.

16

CHAPTER 2

SCIENTIFIC ARTICLE:

THE IMPACT OF MULTICULTURALISM AT WORK ON JOB

SATISFACTION AND ORGANISATIONAL COMMITMENT IN A

TERTIARY INSTITUTION

2.1 INTRODUCTION

Cranny, Smith and Stone (1992) believe that multiculturalism can have a profound effect on job satisfaction and organisational commitment while Song (2008) provides a contesting argument that multiculturalism in the workplace may lead to some vulnerabilities related to religion and beliefs. Supporting Song, Mosisa (2002) holds that multiculturalism may result in some groups or individuals feeling excluded from the mainstream culture of the organisation. Some ways to deal with multiculturalism have been advanced, such as diversity training (King, Dawson, Kravitz & Gulick, 2012), creating a common understanding (Terry, 2007), building trust (Leveson, Joiner & Bakalis, 2009) putting effective leadership (Leveson et al., 2009; Green et al., 2012), consistent decision-making (Leveson et al., 2009) and mentoring (Leveson et al., 2009).

This chapter presents the theoretical background about multiculturalism, job satisfaction and organisational commitment based on literature, followed by the statistical processing and analysis of the empirical results obtained by means of questionnaires administered to the participants of the study – employees of the university within the Potchefstroom Campus and the Institutional Office. The aim was to address the objectives of the study, to determine the existence of multiculturalism and its impact at work on job satisfaction and organisational commitment.

17 2.8 LITERATURE REVIEW

2.2.1 Definitions of multiculturalism and diversity

According to Heywood (2010), multiculturalism relates to communities containing multiple cultures. Heywood (2010) further asserts that the term “multiculturalism” may be used in two broad ways which can either be descriptive or normative. The descriptive connotation of the term multiculturalism refers to cultural diversity where it is applied to the general demographic make-up of a specific place like a school, business, neighbourhood or cities. On the other hand the normative connotation of multiculturalism refers to the ideologies or policies that promote the cultural diversity and its institutionalisation. In this sense multiculturalism is therefore a society at ease with the rich tapestry of human life and the desire amongst people to express their own identity as they see fit.

From the two connotations above, descriptive and normative, it emerges that the latter builds on the former, or it is the extension of the former. For the purpose of this study the term multiculturalism will be used descriptively and normatively.

Green, Lopez, Wysocki and Kepner (2012) define diversity as “acknowledging, understanding, accepting, valueing, and celebrating differences among people with respect to age, class, ethnicity, gender, physical and mental ability, race, sexual orientation, spiritual practice, and public assistance status”.

A closer look at the normative nature of multiculturalism informs us that multiculturalism is closely associated with “identity politics,” “the politics of difference,” and “the politics of recognition,” all of which share a commitment to revaluing disrespected identities and changing dominant patterns of representation and communication that marginalize certain groups (Gutmann 2003). Multiculturalism is also a matter of economic interests and political power; it demands remedies to economic and political disadvantages that people suffer as a result of their minority status.

Multiculturalists take for granted that it is “culture” and “cultural groups” that are to be recognised and accommodated. Yet multicultural claims include a wide range of

18

claims involving religion, language, ethnicity, nationality, and race. Culture is a notoriously overbroad concept, and all of these categories have been subsumed by or equated with the concept of culture (Song, 2008). Language and religion are at the heart of many claims for cultural accommodation by those in minority or immigrants. The key claim made by minority nations is for self-government rights. Race has a more limited role in multicultural discourse. Antiracism and multiculturalism are distinct but related ideas: the former highlights “victimization and resistance” whereas the latter highlights “cultural life, cultural expression, achievements, and the like” (Blum 1992). Claims for recognition in the context of multicultural education are demands not just for recognition of aspects of a group's actual culture, for example, African American art and literature) but also for the history of group subordination and its concomitant experience (Gooding-Williams 1998).

Examples of cultural accommodations or “group-differentiated rights” include exemptions from generally applicable law, such as religious exemptions; assistance to do things that the majority can do unassisted, such as multilingual ballots, funding for minority language schools and ethnic associations; affirmative action; representation of minorities in government bodies, such as ethnic quotas for party lists or legislative seats; minority-majority congressional districts; recognition of traditional legal codes by the dominant legal system, such as granting jurisdiction over family law to religious courts; or limited self-government rights, like qualified recognition of tribal sovereignty and federal arrangements recognising the political autonomy.

In such countries as Canada, some groups within the population felt that their rights were not accommodated in the mainstream culture. Typically, a group-differentiated right is a right of a minority group (or a member of such a group) to act or not act in a certain way in accordance with their religious obligations and/or cultural commitments. In some cases, it is a right that directly restricts the freedom of non-members in order to protect the minority group's culture, as in the case of restrictions on the use of the English language in Quebec. When the right-holder is the group, the right may protect group rules that restrict the freedom of individual members, as

19

in the case of the Pueblo membership rule that excludes the children of women who marry outside the group (Gooding-Williams 1998).

The literature therefore reveals that multiculturalism impacts on the very heart of the individual as it touches the core of what the individual believes in and his way of life as well as how they go about doing what they do. It therefore impacts on the individual’s job satisfaction.

Various research and models based on team work and job satisfaction have been conducted and developed with the view of addressing the relationship between factors that enhances the performance of a team and the team’s satisfaction in a job situation (Raiden, Dainty & Neale 2006). The quest for the outcome of the research has resulted in models such as the Ability, Motivation and Opportunity (AMO) model. The model developed by Borax and Purcell (2003) quoted by Raiden et al. (2006) advocates for the fact that teams or individuals perform well in an organisation when the three aspects of the model (AMO) are addressed.

Coetsee (2002) classifies job satisfaction as an attitude that employees or managers have regarding their jobs. Their attitudes can either be negative or positive, depending on how employees perceive and experience their job and other factors like benefits, supervision style, pay, support and the fit between the individual and the organisation.

Depanfilis (2006) on the other hand argues that job satisfaction is an expression by employees on their feelings regarding their jobs. The feelings that are referred to are influenced by three factors, namely, job factors, individual characteristics and how people relate with one another out of work, that is, how an individual perceives the environment.

Cranny, Smith and Stone (1992) quoted by Depanfilis (2006) state that organisations have a continued interest in measuring job satisfaction as it is related to increased productivity, reduced absence and cost reduction.

20

A multicultural workplace is vulnerable to larger issues attributable to differences in religions and beliefs. Workplaces as such are difficult to avoid due to increasing globalisation. Looking at these differences objectively and practically can help you solve their problems. Active listening, negating nepotism and empowering your employees to understand each other’s backgrounds can help change their attitudes towards each other, for the better. This will bring your employees closer in thought and in sentiment, encouraging the importance of team-building. A workforce which works together by supporting individual dreams along with the larger picture derives the maximum job satisfaction from working (Depanfilis 2006).

From the literature reviewed it emerges that since the university is a community that is formed from diverse ethnic and culturally groups, it poses a challenge to not only “satisfy” the group or individuals in a job (university) set up but to form a multicultural society from the set-up.

2.2.2 Characteristics of a multicultural workplace

Stahl, Makela, Zander and Maznevski (2010) argue that diversity can be associated with increased creativity, productivity, and adaptability within the workplace. They further posit that multicultural workplaces are characterised by increased creativity and satisfaction and mixed outcomes with regards to communication effectiveness depending on the setting of the team. This view is supported by Pasca and Wagner (2012), who advance that work environments that are multicultural encourage positive interpersonal relationships at work, promote forgiveness in the workplace, and discourage workplace mistreatment such as verbal abuse, work obstruction, emotional neglect, factors that subsequently may positively impact on the psychological health and mediate the conflict between work and health.

Cheng, Chua, Morris and Lee (2012) suggest that multicultural workplaces help individual employees with the ability to meet the demands of interdependence, coordination, and trust among culturally different team members, especially in self-managing teams. Armache (2012) details a multicultural workplace as providing a platform for various perspectives and talent sharing and nurturing, an avenue for

21

tolerance; enhances decision-making; provides equal opportunities for organisational members and elevates effectiveness and efficiency.

In addition, Council (2001) posits that multicultural workplaces are best recipes for staff retention as the more diverse the workplace the more entertaining and appealing. He further argues that in a multicultural workplace, employees realise their competitive edge as they are likely to be stimulated by their fellow employees. Council (2001) regards this as a cost saving for organisations. Ochieng, Price, Ruan, Egbu and Moore (2013) support Council and further advance this argument when they hold that multicultural workplaces are a learning avenue for managers to explore what various cultures can bring to the workplace.

2.2.3 The effects of multiculturalism in the workplace

Chrobot-Mason (2004) argues that multiculturalism can have negative effects in the workplace, especially for the individual employees who are members of the minority groups. According to Chrobot-Mason (2004) these individuals usually feel isolated and fail to identify themselves with others in interpersonal relationships in the workplace, which Mamman, Kamoche and Bakuwa (2012) argue that the negative effects of multiculturalism are exacerbated by minority identification and feelings. Mamman, Kamoche and Bakuwa (2012) further posit that in workplace interactions and policy development, proximal factors in racial-ethnic terms play a role. As Mosisa (2002) confirms, these individual employees feel excluded from networks of information and opportunity, which may affect their general sense of well-being, job satisfaction, and organisational commitment as well as their long-term tenure and retention within the organisation. Leveson, Joiner and Bakalis (2009) believe that the underpinning factor to job satisfaction and organisational commitment is the attitudes of employees and the support they perceive they get from their organisations. Mamman, Kamoche and Bakuwa (2012) support Chrobot-Mason and advance that, in a multicultural environment, employees from the minority feel disconnected and unsupported in the workplace. The authors posit this feeling of no belonging can lead to job satisfaction, absenteeism and turnover on the part of these employees.

22

Mor, Barak, Finder and Wind (2003) posit that a workplace in which individuals perceive themselves as accepted and included by co-workers is important not only to the employees’ psychological well-being, but also to their satisfaction at work. They further argue that the more multicultural or diverse the workplace, the more isolated and excluded employees feel. Therefore, isolated and excluded employees do not find satisfaction in the workplace.

Green et al. (2012) believe that diversity can be beneficial to both associates and employers. While associates are interdependent in the workplace, respecting individual differences can increase productivity. Diversity in the workplace has a potential of reducing lawsuits and increasing marketing opportunities, recruitment, creativity, and business image. In an era when flexibility and creativity are keys to competitiveness, diversity becomes pivotal for an organisation’s success.

2.2.4 Multiculturalism and job satisfaction

The social identity theory (Mamman, Kamoche & Bakuwa 2012) suggests that people categorise themselves and others in order to establish their own identity. The identities help to define the individual, which in turn facilitates his/her understanding of what to do, think and even how to feel. Categorisation is also aimed at achieving or maintaining perception of superiority over out-groups and enhancing self-esteem. Also, individuals enhance their self-esteem and self-concept through identity-congruent behaviour and expect their identity to be respected and protected by the organisation and the workgroup to which they belong.

Lok and Crawford (2004) argue that organisational culture has an influence on how people set personal and professional goals, perform tasks and administer resources to achieve them. Whether consciously or subconsciously, organisational culture plays a role when decisions are made, and in people’s perceptions, feelings and actions. Therefore, organisational culture can exert considerable influence in organisations, particularly in areas such as performance and commitment.

Research has associated job satisfaction with motivation to do job-related tasks. According to Pool and Pool (2007: 355), motivation is “a psychological process that

23

causes the arousal, direction, and persistency of voluntary action in reaching organizational and personal goals”.

2.2.5 Job satisfaction and organisational commitment

According to Findler, Wind and Mor Barak (2007), multiculturalism can affect workers’ perception of inclusion, fairness, stress and social support in the workplace, which in turn has a bearing on their sense of well-being, job satisfaction and organisational commitment.

Robbins (2005:20) defines job satisfaction as ‘a collection of feelings that an individual holds towards his or her job’. Job satisfaction is usually influenced by several factors. On the other hand, job satisfaction can affect levels of job dissatisfaction, absenteeism, grievance expression, tardiness and low morale.

Writing about the effects of restructuring in the tertiary education sector in South Africa, Arnolds and Boschoff (2004) argue that when employees are not satisfied and committed to an organisation, they are likely to show intentions to leave the organisation. They further hold that when organisational commitment is low, job performance and peer relations among employees tend to be low as well.

2.2.6 Interventions to address multiculturalism in the workplace

2.2.6.1 Diversity training

King, Dawson, Kravitz and Gulick (2012) regard training in multiculturalism or diversity as one of the interventions organisations can use in dealing with multiculturalism in the workplace, especially where multiculturalism has been observed to have adverse effects on job satisfaction and organisational commitment.

Beale (quoted by Chrobot-Mason 2012:2) links training in diversity with what he terms ‘multicultural competency’. He defines multicultural competency as “a process of learning that leads to an ability to effectively respond to the challenges and opportunities posed by the presence of social-cultural diversity in a defined social system”.

24

2.2.6.2 Creating common understanding

Terry (2007) argues that when a multicultural workforce has a common understanding, this lessens the chances of diverse attitudes, feelings, support and commitment. He believes that one way of developing a common understanding is to break down such barriers as communication (language) and other cultural barriers.

A manager over a multicultural workforce has to be aware of these communication barriers and work actively to overcome them constantly.

2.2.6.3 Build trust

Leveson, Joiner and Bakalis (2009) regard trust as a cornerstone for maintaining a multicultural workplace. Leveson et al. argue that trust is a two-way transaction in which both sides need to develop and show trust to each other. The basic attitude of a multicultural workforce is often one of distrust of management and also a feeling that one is not trusted. If organisations need to ensure positive results are realised with a multicultural workplace, it would be better to identify crucial issues that affect the multicultural workforce and deal with them, rather than avoiding the issues. Where language is an issue, this also needs to be addressed in a way that all parties will feel accommodated. For some cultures any question as to whether they did something correctly or an examination of their actions means that they are not trusted. One has to be aware of this kind of cultural training.

In companies where the workforce is diverse, managers need to work hard to build trust in the employees for them and the entire management and to show the individuals in the workforce that they are trusted. It must be realised that it takes a concerted effort to overcome the lack of trust. Nonetheless, the results of those concerted efforts are a great improvement in teamwork which shows up dramatically in the bottom line. When management makes efforts to address diversity, it portrays the organisation as conveying to its employees that it takes diversity management seriously and possibly also that it is willing to take initiatives that are over and above its mandatory obligations in this area (Leveson, Joiner & Bakalis 2009).

25 2.2.6.4 Leadership

Leveson et al. (2009) hold that, organisations need to understand that different cultures have different ideas about leadership. In some companies leaders are leaders simply due to seniority in the company and age, whereas in others, such as in the Anglo-American work environment, seniority tends to be based on competence and actual production demonstrated. In an Anglo-American work environment, it is important for a manager to make it clear that promotion occurs based on competence, not necessarily seniority or longevity. When there are no guidelines for how employees will ascend to positions of leadership, employees from cultures where leadership is based on age and seniority in society, might feel that they are being mistreated. It is also important for a leader of a multicultural workforce to be aware of how different cultures view leadership and what sort of qualities and factors engender respect and which do not. Green et al. (2012) argue that in dealing with a multicultural workplace, managers must recognise their own cultural biases and prejudices.

2.2.6.5 Decision-making

According to Leveson et al. (2009) decision-making is an issue with a multicultural workforce. The attitude among the workforce is often that the managers are responsible and they will make the decisions and the English-as-a-second-language employee is just a worker and not a decision-maker. It takes constant encouragement and persuasion to get such employees to start making the necessary decisions in their areas of responsibility. Once they do, the whole scene improves dramatically, of course. It is the responsibility of organisations and their managements to encourage employees to show decision-making capabilities in their tasks so as to lessen the chances of diversity in decisions. Management must also show consistency in decision-making.

26 2.2.6.6 Mentoring

In organisations where the workforce is multicultural, a mentoring program must be instituted, whereby employees who have been in the company for less than a year would be paired with managers or supervisors. These junior or new employees would communicate any problem or question with their mentor. They would work together, meet during lunch breaks, exercise together and generally have a chance to talk and solve any problems that arise. While this would be an informal sit-down session, it afforded new employees help in getting used to the company and their new job and can prove to be very effective in employee development and retention (Leveson et al. 2009).

2.3 RESEARCH OBJECTIVES

The study will help organisations in general and particularly the institution where the survey will be conducted, to determine the extent of the existence of multiculturalism and its impact at work on job satisfaction and organisational commitment among its employees. An attempt will be made in this study to understand the extent of this existence from the perspective of employees who will be surveyed. In addition, the study has a potential of helping the identified institution to identify mechanisms with which adverse effects of multiculturalism can be addressed. This will assist the institution in formulating policies in dealing with those adverse effects. The findings of this study have a potential of cultivating and promoting multiculturalism within the tertiary institution where the study will be carried out.

1. To establish the extent to which multiculturalism exist within the identified institution, which can assist with policy interventions for the tertiary institution.

2. To determine the impact of multiculturalism at work on job satisfaction among the employees of the identified institution.

3. To establish the impact of multiculturalism at work on organisational commitment among employees of the institution. This objective has a further spinoff of unearthing real factors that may be playing a role in organisational commitment.

27

4. To determine the relationships between multiculturalism, organisational commitment and job satisfaction.

2.4 RESEARCH METHODS

In this study, the literature reviewed informed the theoretical framework so as for the empirical study to have a basis from which to measure the variables. The review of literature was helpful in the formulation of research questions, research objectives and the formulation of questions in the questionnaire, which is attached to this report as Annexure A. This literature also assisted with the discussion of findings, where a comparison of what the literature cited hold and what the findings of this study show. In this study, literature is cited in various sections of the report in order to cement certain theoretical stances made within the report. The study then details the analysis methods. In this regard, descriptive statistics were used to analyse data that was presented in frequencies in order to show such respondents’ details as demographics and qualifications. In addition, correlations were used in order to establish the relationship among variables.

2.4.1 Empirical study

The empirical study section discusses the research design, the participants, the measuring battery and the statistical analysis. The basis of this empirical study was the literature which was reviewed in relation to the research objectives.

2.4.2 Research design and procedure

A cross-sectional survey design whereby a sample is drawn from a population at one time was used to realise the preferred objectives of the study. Cross-sectional design means that the research is conducted within a brief period, such as one day or a few weeks (Du Plooy, 2001). The design is also used to evaluate the interrelationships among variables within a population and therefore helped to achieve the different but related objectives of this study (Struwig & Stead, 2001). This study employed a quantitative research approach, whose objective was to provide the responses in the

28

form of numbers. This approach enabled the quantification of the results. The collection of data for this study took three weeks, time in which questionnaires were distributed and administered by respondents.

2.4.3 Sample and sampling method

This study sampled from a population of 585 officials from Potchefstroom campus and the Institutional Office of the North-West University. From this population, a sample of 250 was covered using a random sampling technique. In this regard, a stratified sampling technique was employed. Welmanet al. (2005) define stratified sampling techniques as a sampling method in which a population is divided into subpopulation based on the homogeneity of the categories. This sampling technique was employed in order to ensure that the known categories of employees are adequately sampled. In this regard, the views of the academic and support staff could be captured without one category representing the other with views. The stratified sampling in this study consisted of academic and support staff from the Potchefstroom Campus and Institutional Office of the North-West University. There was no consideration for equal representation of strata in the sample and any stratum could have any amount of response within the targeted 250 respondents. From the 250 employees sampled, a response rate of 92% (230 questionnaires) was achieved.

29

Table 3: Characteristics of the participants

Item Category Frequency Percentage

Gender Male 91 29.6 Female 138 60.0 Age 21-30 years 71 29.2 31-40 years 108 47.0 41-50 years 49 21.2 51 years 1 0.4 Race Black 175 76.1 Coloured 41 17.8 Indian 12 5.2 Qualifications Grade 12 17 7.4 Certificate 17 7.4 Diploma 72 31.3 Degree 76 33.0 Postgraduate 42 18.3

Gender of the respondents

The sample of this study shows that more female employees were in the sample. They amounted to 138 (60%) respondents of the 230 respondents who responded in this survey. There was no intention on the part of the researcher to get more responses from women. On the contrary, this was based on the fact that the demographics of the institution are such that there are more female employees. Male respondents amounted to 91 (40%).

Age of the respondents

While the questionnaire did not have pre-determined age groups as responses, for purposes of grouping ages, the responses were grouped into age bands of 10 years. The majority (108) of respondents are in the age group of 31-40. This age group amounts to 47% of the total sample. The next age group which has a bigger

30

representation is the age group from 21 to 30 years, which amounted to 71 respondents, accounting for 29% of the 230 employees who responded. This shows that most of those who responded are relatively young employees.

Race of the respondents

Most respondents are Black, who amounted to 175 or 76%, followed by Coloureds who amounted to 41 or 18%. Indians within the sample amounted to 12 or 5% of those respondents who responded. It is not known if this demographical composition of the sample is based on the demographics of the country, especially as the objective of this study did not include demographical profiling of the sample in comparison with that of South Africa.

Qualifications

Employees with degrees have the highest representation in this study, amounting to 76 or 33% of those who responded in this survey. This is followed by those who hold diplomas, who are 72, representing 31% of those who responded. Employees holding postgraduate qualifications were 42, which accounted for 18% of the responding sample. The lowest groups are those with Matric and employees with certificates. These two groups had 17 employees each, representing 7% respectively.

2.4.4 Measures (questionnaires)

In this study a detailed, structured and self-administered questionnaire was designed for the purpose of collecting data for this study. This questionnaire has a title of multiculturalism, organisational commitment and job satisfaction. The questionnaire consists of multiple-choice, scale measured questions that were aimed at addressing the research objectives while also related to the research questions that inform this study. A five-point Likert scale was applied in order to solicit responses to close-ended questions in the questionnaire. Bailey (1987) describes close-close-ended questions as simple to complete and unambiguous. In this regard, participants were asked to select one of the pre-determined responses in the Likert scale, where the responses were scaled from one to five.

31

Part 1: Demographic Information was obtained, which is related to respondents’ age, gender, race and qualifications.

Part 2: Respondents’ opinions regarding multiculturalism norms were assessed which was aimed at determining the extent to which multiculturalism existed within the institution.

Part 3: Multiculturalism practices were assessed, using a five-point Likert scale. Part 4: Organisational commitment was also assessed, using questions related to

respondents’ behaviour in the workplace.

Part 5: Job satisfaction was assessed, in which respondents expressed their feelings at work.

Part 6: Three questions were also asked regarding the extent to which respondents were productive in the last three months, the extent to which they are satisfied in their job, and their intention to quit their job.

The self-administered questionnaires were distributed to 250 respondents in the Potchefstroom Campus and the Institutional Office of the North-West University. Of the 250 respondents targeted, 230 were able to administer and return the questionnaire while 20 of them could not return the questionnaires. Once the questionnaires were collected, they were sent to the Statistical Consultation section (Potchefstroom Campus) of the North-West University for data capturing and cleaning. This capturing precipitated the analysis of the collected data.

2.4.5 Statistical analysis

The data that was collected using the methods described above was captured and analysed by the Statistical Consultation Services (Potchefstroom Campus) of the North-West University, using the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (Version 22) (SPSS, 2013). Descriptive statistics (frequencies, percentages, standard deviations and means) was used to analyse the collected data. The Cronbach alpha coefficients were used to determine the internal consistency, homogeneity and uni-dimensionality of the measuring instrument (Clark & Watson, 1995). In this study the Cronbach alpha was applied to determine the homogeneity and reliability of the variables measured. Coefficient alpha provides crucial information regarding the