The Portrait of an American Terrorist

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Arguments Begin on Shifting Site of Oklahoma Bomb Trial

By JO THOMAS

New York Times (1923-Current file); Jan 31, 1996;

ProQuest Historical Newspapers: The New York Times with Index pg. A12

New York Times (1923-Current file); Apr 19, 2010;

pg. A22

pg. A12

ProQuest Historical Newspapers: The New York Times with Index

E.W.M.J. Scheerder # 11355972

eva.scheerder@student.uva.nl

University of Amsterdam - Faculty of Humanities

E.F. van de Bilt

The Portrait of an

American Terrorist

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Table&of&Contents&

Introduction ……… p. 3

Research Question ……… p. 5

Why This Research ……… p. 9

Methodology ……… p. 18

Background Information of the Oklahoma City Bombing ……… p. 21 Characteristics of a Lone Wolf Terrorist ……… p. 29

NYT Articles Introduction ……… p. 33

NYT Articles Subgenre Military ……… p. 34

NYT Articles Subgenre Anti-Government ……… p. 39

NYT Articles Subgenre Character ……… p. 44

NYT Articles Subgenre Right Wing ……… p. 48

NYT Articles Subgenre Looks ……… p. 53

NYT Articles Subgenre Race ……… p. 58

NYT Articles Subgenre Religion ……… p. 61

NYT Articles Evaluation ……… p. 65

Conclusion ……… p. 67

Bibliography ……… p. 69

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Introduction&

Several newspapers and social media users these days claim that there is a difference in the media between reports on white criminals versus those of color. The article “Why Does The Media Refuse to Call White Murderers Terrorists?” on the website BigThink, for instance, calls attention to the fact that during the Paris shootings of November 2015 media

immediately spoke of terrorism without concrete evidence. In comparison, the media was careful not to call the white suspect of the June 2015 Charleston shooting a terrorist. While in these types of attack those of color are immediately labeled criminals, terrorists and

extremists, white people are presented as perhaps mentally unstable, an unexpected source of violence, and in general a good person. That is until they commit the attack. This is further visible in reports on the Charleston shooting. CNN wrote a short biography on the

perpetrator, Dylann Roof. He is responsible for killing 9 people in 2015 in a deliberate shooting in Charleston, South Carolina, in the Emanuel African Methodist Episcopal Church. In this biographical sketch, he is not called a terrorist; it does not call him a racist while having multiple sources saying otherwise and reports on family and friends claiming he was not violent.

This trend is of scholarly importance in regard to racism, journalism, sociology and more. But most articles seem to focus on the more recent cases in which this trend is noticeable, and there is no clear indicator of how far this might go. To deepen the

understanding of this trend and some other scholarly topics, I’ve chosen to research the case of the Oklahoma City Bombing and the domestic terrorist Timothy McVeigh.

To start it is necessary to explain the history and terminology that are associated with the Oklahoma City Bombing. The background is essential not only to comprehend the severity of the case, but also to deepen the understanding of it. By examining important terminology within other research topics there is also a higher probability of reaching conclusions that contribute to further research.

To accomplish a deeper understanding of the difference between a white and non-white person in the media, all relevant articles on the Oklahoma City Bombing and Timothy McVeigh will be analyzed. The articles will stem from the national newspaper The New York

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religion, military, right-wing, anti-government, positive or negative indication of looks, and positive or negative mentions of character.

The data gathered from the news articles is important because it represents the information the public receives about McVeigh and in what capacity. Each of the focus points is meant to showcase what kind of influence it might have on the reader, while also being examples of what the consensus on McVeigh might be. Each of the points will be explored so there is an explanation for its presence in the articles, or if that is the case an explanation why it is not representative of the case. The data found within the articles will be examined next to primary sources from Timothy McVeigh. The sources are a book, American

Terrorist, written by Lou Michel and Dan Herbick based on 75 hours of interviews with

McVeigh. Another source is an interview with McVeigh with 60 Minutes. By comparing the different sources there will be cases of equal representation or unequal representation of a topic, and either of those results will require an explanation as to how it came to be.

So overall this thesis will first give an outline of the history and the important terms of the Oklahoma City Bombing and its perpetrator, Timothy McVeigh. Next will be an explanation of the methodology that will be used to analyze this case study. Afterwards the notable discoveries from this analysis will be assembled and organized and their significance will be explained. In the end, the results will be explained and conclusions will be drawn.

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Research&Question&

Terrorism comes in many forms and it should be reported on as such, but this is not always the case. There is a longstanding trend of different reporting on terrorist attacks based on religion or race. Georgia State University has discovered a bias within media through their own research. Islamic terrorist attacks are reported on far more often than other kinds of attacks, specifically ones committed by Caucasian counterparts1. There is an evident media bias in the fact that the number of attacks is not equal to the amount of news coverage.

This thesis will examine the different ways in which the media reported on a perpetrator of a terrorist attack. Do the journalists reporting on a terrorist attack differentiate between attackers on the basis of skin color, religion or other factors in their articles? There seems to be a trend of portraying white people “positively” when they commit a crime and non-white people more negatively, especially in the context of terrorism. Therefore a case study will be undertaken to look for discrepancies in the news reports compared to (alternative) facts or given motivations in other sources such as a biography or interview. The different ways in which media portray a terrorist will separate fact from fiction and theory from reality. This study will focus on one of those moments this by looking into the news articles about the Oklahoma City Bombing by Timothy McVeigh.

For clarification, since “the media” involves too many newspapers, periodicals, and other modes and types of public communication, here, in order to narrow down the topic, the focus is on one “representative” institution: the New York Times. In the case of McVeigh’s attack, it is possible that there is no sign of a religious or racial motivation in his actions and that the

New York Times accurately represents McVeigh’s motivations. If that is the case, this study

becomes, in a way, superfluous. But it is also possible that the newspaper does not offer an accurate portrayal of McVeigh’s motives. This omission, or failure, will then have to be explained.

The phenomenon at issue has been noted in many scholarly publications and has drawn increasing interest, focusing especially on the difference between races. But the factor of !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!

1_{Erin Kearns, Allison Betus, and Anthony Limieux, "Why Do Some Terrorist Attacks Receive More Media}

Attention than Others?" By John Cigno :: SSRN, , accessed November 23, 2017, https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2928138.

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religion for example has not received the same kind of attention. While non-white terrorists are connected to their religion, usually Islam, white terrorists are not or only rarely, unless the motivation is obviously religious. While these two factors are examples that one cannot dismiss, there are a wide variety of possible factors that necessitate further analysis.

The literature about this case of domestic terrorism is vast yet also remarkably limited.

Journalism and Justice by Chad Nye focuses on the publications on the trial, in a work that

partially coincides with this study. In his book, Nye interviews the journalists and lawyers involved in the case to showcase how the media influenced the public perception of the suspects and explored the possibilities of the unique situation of a closed circuit broadcast. While also looking into the media, this project includes these articles but also goes beyond them. The influence of the media on public perception will be an important topic, but is not the main goal.

Another important work in this context is Killing McVeigh by Jody Lyneé Madeira. She researches how the widespread infamy of McVeigh sparked new interest in the death penalty debate, and how the broadcast of his execution was seen by a record number of people. This was possible through interviews with victims and the family of victims of the Oklahoma City Bombing. Her book showcases how his public arrest shaped McVeigh’s image from the start, and uses McVeigh as a case study to describe the behavior of people after a traumatic event. She approached 33 victims of the bombing for interviews to piece together a book about the efforts to reach closure and processes of mourning after the McVeigh attack. As the case was nationally infamous, this book is another aspect that required many years of work but does not focus on the media in general.

As Hannah Arendt has it, a depiction of people’s motives is a notoriously difficult endeavor2. What “truly” motivated McVeigh to stage his attack remains a tricky question and might never be resolved. In my interpretation of his actions, I will rely on his own statements. But these statements can be misleading, one-sided, and not exactly self-reflective. In a

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2_!_{Johanna ‘Hannah’ Arendt was one of the most important philosophers of the twentieth century and was mostly}

known for her work on political theory and her belief that human freedom will triumph over a system supressing freedom. She is also well-known for explaining how regular people can become actors of a totalitarian system during the trial of Adolf Eichmann. He was a Nazi-SS officer and a mayor contributor to the Holocaust, so Arendt’s statements drew controversy.

In regards to motivation according to Arendt the following works are applicable:

Arendt, Hannah. The Human Condition. New York: Doubleday, 1958. Arendt, Hannah. Between past and Future. Faber and Faber, 1961. Arendt, Hannah. The Life of the Mind. London: Secker & Warburg, 1978.

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somewhat similar vein, it will be difficult to assess what drove the New York Times’ coverage of the McVeigh attack.

Nonetheless, I have opted to offer an in-depth analysis of one terrorist attack instead of studying several cases. Needless to say, uncovering the motives of an individual’s actions is a notoriously tricky affair, as you simply cannot read a person’s mind. The “conclusions” that one is tempted to draw are inconclusive. Yet the relevance of the topic is such that this focus on motives appears justified. Religious convictions could be absent in the contemplations and actions of white Western terrorists, but then another motivation must drive them. To get a better grip on, and understanding of, terrorism, one has to know what drives those engaged in it: one has to know the roots, causes, and motives of their terrorist actions. Madeira, who wrote a book on closure regarding the Oklahoma City Bombing, echoes this sentiment as she states: ‘[w]hen we learn about the personalities and life histories of the perpetrators, it is often because we hope to identify the origins of their antisocial acts, both to understand them and to prevent such actions in the future’3. Hannah Arendt has written on the topic of motivation and how difficult it is to research. Nonetheless the importance of discovering the motivation can trigger a ripple effect in research and help law enforcement in their efforts against terrorism.

After 9/11 the media adopted a different frame to discuss attacks like the one McVeigh staged in 1995. Can we expect the newspaper to be clairvoyant and take into account

elements and aspects of the McVeigh attack that later terrorist acts made us aware of? Or is it a case in which the underlying beliefs of society shine through in a negative way?

This research looks into the motives McVeigh used to justify his acts and into the media depiction of his motivation. The sources I will use to depict his motives are the book

American Terrorist by Herbeck en Michel, as well as a television interview with McVeigh by

the program 60 minutes. This thesis also shows what the New York Times found important in McVeigh’s domestic terrorist attack and tries to explain the choices and selections the newspaper made. I will look into the articles on McVeigh’s attack published in the period of 1995 until 2013, the year the event happened until 5 years before the writing of this thesis. The moment there are discrepancies between the New York Times’ coverage and the other primary documents (particularly McVeigh’s own statements), the question of why these discrepancies exist becomes relevant.

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3_{Jody Lyneé Madeira, Killing McVeigh: The Death Penalty and the Myth of Closure (New York: New York}

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I want to argue that the propensity of media to engage in sensationalism differs in cases of white and a non-white terrorist, especially in regard to Timothy McVeigh. As LaVerle Berry explains, there is a certain need for media to use sensationalism to sell papers and attract viewership4. However, this is not an accurate representation of reality and can therefore give a distorted view of an event or a person.

All things considered there is an argument against this thesis in regard to how useful the information in it might be. What use is a thesis that to a certain degree relies on interpretation and tries to showcase something that is incredibly difficult to display? I believe that it is necessary to evaluate our past and the choices that were made, so we as a society can hopefully learn from them. My personal point of view and an established theory in

philosophy is also that no research is completely without bias. But just because there is no true objectivity, does not mean that certain research cannot be valuable. It might be a stepping-stone for further research. Nonetheless I will strive to limit subjectivity as much as is possible. I want to showcase the difference between given facts and media depictions as well as I possibly can in my research.

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4_{LaVerle Berry, Amanda Jones, and Terence Powers, Media Interaction with the Public in Emergency}

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Why&This&Research&

There is a constant fear of a new terrorist attack in the current political climate. The media can be seen as partially responsible in the battle against terrorism. Not only are they

responsible for the given news and vital in the reporting of terrorism, they also decide how to do it. Whether or not to include shocking images or horrifying details is a balancing act. The general public does not always gain something from knowing everything, but at the same time it is necessary that the media investigate stories5.

The difference between what the media portrays versus what the facts are is a known phenomenon in scholarly work. As LaVerle Berry, who wrote on media interactions during an emergency situation, explains, the media has a tendency to sensationalize stories to help sell newspapers and magazines. Admittedly sensationalism as a term is subject to debate, as it usually depends on context6. Nonetheless, there is also research into why and how this

analysis of sensationalism is important and even possible. But the scholarly narrative seems too focused on religion and race to factor in some of the other possible causes and

motivations. Important to note is that there are also scholars arguing against this kind of perspective. Haberfeld, a professor of Police Science, argues that research should not judge the motivations of a terrorist or focus on a specific region, time or religion. Rather it is important that scholars try to increase the understanding and enhance the perspective of a reader7.

The media has an impact on victims as well as readers. Madeira argues in Killing

McVeigh that the media and the criminal justice systems actually are similar institutions with

similar roles. She states that both bring finality, one in verdict and the other in reputation, and each has authority on who speaks and who doesn’t, and who will be held responsible for what. Aside from all the commonalities that she mentions, the biggest difference according to her is how the institutions handle emotions of those participating. Because emotion can !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!

5_!_{T.M. DeSa and K.E. McCarthy, "The Solo Crusader: Theodore Kaczynski and Timothy McVeigh," in A New}

Understanding of Terrorism Case Studies, Trajectories and Lessons Learned (New York: Springer, 2009). p. 54.!

6_{LaVerle Berry, et al., Media Interaction with the Public in Emergency Situations (Washington, D.C.: Division,}

1999). p. 56 – 57.

7_{M. R. Haberfeld, A New Understanding of Terrorism: Case Studies, Trajectories and Lessons Learned (New}

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determine how newsworthy a story is, the media has a tendency to preserve and enhance the emotional value of a story8_{. The recognition that there is even a slight chance that media}

might embellish, enhance, or otherwise alter a story to fit a certain narrative should in itself be enough reason for research into a topic.

This research project is meant to showcase how terrorism is not solely dependent on skin color or Islamic religion, but also as a possible case that shows that the media should not be seen as an all-knowing source.

Lone-wolf attacks, such as McVeigh’s, especially are very dangerous because they are hard to identify. The study of lone wolves should be a more established field of research. A lone wolf is a sole individual who, while influenced by a group or belief to commit a crime but not instigated, acts with methods and tactics that are relatively idiosyncratic. The term “lone wolf” is based on the Federal Bureau of Investigation’s (FBI) Operation Lone Wolf, which was an investigation into white supremacist Alexander James Curtis9. The difficulty in identifying lone wolves before they attack has to do with their modus operandi: the lack of communication that characterizes their endeavors, as they often do not contact the group they identify with. Regular counter-terrorism surveillance fails to notice them. This makes them an interesting but also a lacking research topic.

The very first parameter for this thesis is to limit the research to independently executed (also known as lone wolf) attacks, as this is an underdeveloped field. Ramón Spaaij has written several articles on lone wolf terrorism, and encourages scholars to further investigate this phenomenon. According to Spaaij, current research is lacking on several fronts including quality and rigor10_{. Here, the goal is to research an area of terrorism that is still relatively}

unexplored regarding this topic. This is to further deepen the understanding about these terrorists, and hopefully inspire and motivate others to also investigate this phenomenon from new perspectives.

Haberfeld states a similar sentiment as Spaaij, who wrote about key issues in the scholarly field of lone wolf terrorism, indicating a lack of research in a topic that is very relevant in the current society. He argues that a lone wolf is perhaps the most frightening kind of terrorist, as they are capable of creating massive damage while working alone. They are !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!

8_{Jody Lyneé Madeira, Killing McVeigh (New York: New York University Press, 2012). p. 55 – 56.} 9_{Staff, "Operation Lone Wolf," FBI, June 28, 2011, accessed January 19, 2017,}

https://archives.fbi.gov/archives/sandiego/about-us/history/operation-lone-wolf.

10_{Ramón Spaaij and Mark S. Hamm, "Key Issues and Research Agendas in Lone Wolf Terrorism," Studies in}

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also difficult to track for law enforcement agencies, as they do not have the external risk of a group. But he also argues that ‘[n]evertheless, the analysis of their motivation and actions provides for a useful template for awareness and customized response’11_{. Some other}

scholarly work on the topic and their findings will be discussed more in-depth at a later point in the thesis.

The second choice of parameter is also to focus on articles from the New York Times, as there needs to be a reputable and available source as a point of reference. Local newspapers are more likely to be biased and are not read nationally, which is an important factor in spreading general knowledge on a perpetrator. During the McVeigh trial it was also proven through research that out-of-state news organizations were less biased and less frequent than news organizations in Oklahoma State12. This parameter is essential to prevent a conclusion that has already been made. The choice for national instead of local is also important because readers outside of the locals also want to understand why such an event could happen and the motives behind it. These people are generally dependent on newspapers, besides television and radio, to get this kind of objective information. The number of articles must be contained to a certain amount to make any research possible, but also the case study must have been infamous enough to make national headlines.

While these parameters will already significantly diminish the list of case studies and the scope of this study, there is still a large selection of terrorists to choose from and plenty to write about. There is already a significant amount of research about the relationship between Islam and violence and it is not relevant for the current goal of this thesis. As stated before, I will look into the possibility of other motivations for violence that are not mentioned within the media.

I will not explore moments and examples that are obvious in their religious motivation, such as shootings or bombings at abortion clinics and gay nightclubs. I have chosen not to look into anti-abortion and anti-LGBT (Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual and Transgender) violence, since this subject is already being researched and a Christian-based religious motivation behind these terrorist attacks is easy to find. In these cases, there was a large amount of papers, books and other material to be found on those within this group that committed such !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!

11_{M. R. Haberfeld, A New Understanding of Terrorism (New York, NY: Springer New York, 2011). p. 4.} 12_{During the trial, an expert was called that had done research on the difference between the news reporting of}

the Oklahoma City Bombing in local newspapers versus national newspapers. Chad F. Nye, Journalism and Justice in the Oklahoma City Bombing Trials (LFB Scholarly Publishing LLC, 2014). p. 95 – 96.

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crimes. Rather than repeat what others have said, I would like to focus on those who do not have an immediately obvious Christian motivation for their actions13_.

On the topic of terrorism in general, there is a notable amount of research and interest in the terrorist within the context of Islam. Just a few examples are Jihad and Death by Roy Olivier, who looks into the appeal of the Islamic State, Global Alert by Boaz Ganor, who studies the rationality of modern Islamic terrorism, and Reclaiming Jihad by M.A. ElSayed, which focuses on a critique of terrorism from the perspective of Islam. Why there is a lack of interest in other kinds of religion as part of the history of terrorism is unclear, but a large reason is of course the general public (but also scholarly) interest in Islamic terrorism in a post-9/11 world. The general public (in the West), moreover, does not see its religion, in this case Christianity, as the problem: Christianity is good and does not stimulate violence. It is difficult to imagine that someone with similar views and ideals as yourself would be capable of horrendous acts.

Clearly, being self-reflective and honest about one’s own faults and vices is difficult. Furthermore, there is a long history of blaming ‘The Other’ for negative events, problems, and disasters. The source often credited with stimulating this idea of ‘Otherness’ is Edward Said’s book Orientalism. It showcases the fascination and ‘idealization’ of (Middle) Eastern culture by the Western world, but this was at the same time stereotypical and inaccurate. An example would be that Western cultures would acquire Asian furniture for their homes, while at the same time portraying these same people as exhibitionists in their paintings.

However, it is important to return to the scholarly field regarding terrorism committed by religiously motivated individuals. As scholars, such as McCauley and Moskalenko, operating in the domain of terrorism studies have argued, the field has to be expanded to include non-Islamic terrorists and lone wolf actors.

In this research, because of the specific case study, there is a probable chance that right-wing affiliations become an apparent motivation for the terrorist. While these will be discussed, they will not receive more attention than other focus points. As Wright states in

Patriots, Politics and the Oklahoma City Bombing, there is a lack of research into right-wing

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13_{In case of interest in these subjects, I would suggest the following books and articles:}

Cobb, Michael L. God hates fags: the rhetorics of religious violence. New York: New York University Press, 2006.

Haugeberg, Karissa. “How Come There’s Only Men Up There? Catholic Women’s Grassroots Anti-Abortion Activism” Journal of Women's History, 27 (2015) 4, 38-61.

Burack, Cynthia. Sin, sex, and democracy: antigay rhetoric and the Christian right. Albany: State University of New York Press, 2008.

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movements in the sociological field. Current research focuses on left-wing movements, so it is difficult to assess if given models and analyses are applicable to right-wing movements14_.

Therefore, to avoid confusion, the focus point of right-wing belief will not be discussed more in-depth than any other focus point.

The kind of attack also served as selection criterion. For example a weapon such as a knife has less range than a handgun, and a semi-automatic gun will likely hit more targets than a handgun. The choice in this case has fallen on attackers with bombs. A bomb not only aims to target a wide group of people, but also has a high risk of injuring or killing

unintended or innocent bystanders. A necessary condition is that the bomb made multiple victims. There are multiple cases of bombers who did not succeed in injuring anyone or in detonating their device. While in no regard meant to be offensive, the more interesting and significant occurrences are when the assault succeeds: there will be more reports about and research into those cases.

As stated before the case of Timothy McVeigh is a classic example of a lone-wolf terrorist attack, a kind of terrorist attack that is difficult to act against by counter-terrorism officials. McVeigh is generally believed to have acted (mostly) by himself, carrying out the eventual bombing alone. Though known for anti-government sentiments that he shared with other Americans, he was not affiliated with any anti-government groups. Some key militia leaders even completely denied being involved with McVeigh15.

Important to discuss are some of the circumstances surrounding McVeigh and his attack. Noteworthy is that his ideas and the way he executed his plan are not unique to him. As Wright argues, he is a product of his time and has been influenced by patriot identity

movements and the culture during his time. He defines McVeigh as just an actor that plays a part in the grand scheme that was written by others16. In this thesis the history of McVeigh and his surroundings will be taken into account, but this is not the main goal of the thesis.

He is the subject of this thesis on the relationship between the media and reality regarding terrorist attacks. He is perhaps the most obvious choice for a case study as he committed the largest domestic terrorist attack in the United States before 9/11, has no obvious religious motivation (if we are to believe the media) and is a white male. For this !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!

14_{Stuart A. Wright, Making War: Patriots, Politics, and the Oklahoma City Bombing (Cambridge: Cambridge}

University Press, 2007). p. 24.

15_{Stuart A. Wright, Making War (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2007). p. 209.} 16_{Idem, p. 191.}_!

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study and the eventual choice for the Oklahoma City Bombing, several selection criteria and boundaries are relevant that were not mentioned before.

The first one is that, within the list of nationally recognized lone wolf terrorist attacks, the attack occurred within the United States of America. Moreover, the perpetrator has to be white and an American by birth. Simply put, this is to prevent any possible racism in the reporting. This will prevent some notable lone wolves from recent memory, such as Elliot Rodger, from being part of the project. The time frame will be set for before 2010, to make sure all investigations on the part of the police or other official reports are completed. One of my professors even once remarked that no good research is created within 5 years after the event, because the scope of the events is not clear within this period. There are usually cultural and social implications that do not appear until later.

The chosen modus operandi of the terrorist has to be a bomb. Possible cases involving lone wolves that used bombs and lived up to the other criteria included, next to Timothy McVeigh, Luke Helder, Eric Rudolph and Ted Kaczinsky.

Rudolph, also known as the Olympic Park Bomber, was quickly excluded as a case study, because of the targets he had chosen during his criminal career. As his nickname suggests, Rudolph was best known for his bombing of the Centennial Olympic Park in Atlanta on July 27th 1996. As he was captured, he confessed to three bombings, two in an abortion clinic and one in a lesbian bar. He also admitted that these bombings were part of anti-abortion and anti-gay activism in 200517. The religious rhetoric of these kinds of attacks is rather obvious and therefore Rudolph is not taken into consideration as indicated by an earlier parameter.

Theodore “Ted” John Kaczinsky, also known as the Unabomber, is excluded because of his age at the time of his attacks and the duration of those attacks. He is responsible for mailing or delivering several different kinds of bombs between 1978 and 1995, which caused the death of three people and injuries of 23 others.

While McVeigh and Helder were in their twenties and worked within a short timeframe, Kaczinsky was between the age of 36 and 53 during his long reign as the Unabomber. He was a child prodigy in math at Harvard, one of his assets that set him apart from the others. Since he differs from regular lone wolves, it would perhaps be more desirable to discuss him in a !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!

17_{The Associated Press, "Excerpt From Eric Rudolph's Statement," USA Today, April 13, 2005, accessed}

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separate study instead of incorporating him in this one. Also, his case drew quite a bit of attention: many articles were published about his attacks over a long period of time and the efforts to find him to make his inclusion into this study feasible.

There are similarities between McVeigh and Helder: both were American, white, used bombs in their attack(s), both were active before 2010, created multiple victims, were in their twenties and worked within a short timeframe. What is also significant is that they both left interviews and other written works about their actions and motivations. However, the amount of news articles in the New York Times about Helder is severely limited. This leaves

McVeigh as the only option for this case study.

As a final reason to choose this case study it is important to note what kind of impact the Oklahoma City Bombing had, as a terrorist attack and a media sensation. There was a large discussion on fair trial versus free press during the trial of McVeigh. The bombing was also the largest domestic terrorist attack at the time. The scale at which it was reported on was unique compared to any case before18. The kinds of sources available for this case are therefore unique but also of vital importance because they can be seen as a turning point in history.

As previously mentioned, there seems to be a lack of interest in the religious aspect of terrorism once it does not concern Islam, and the research tends to showcase issues of gender and race instead. Spaaij appears to be correct when pointing to the lack of (variety within) research into lone-wolf terrorism. This raises several questions in the case of McVeigh. What was his motivation for his attack? How far did religion or any other factor influence his decisions? How did the media report on the McVeigh attack: was there a stigma against reporting on the religion of someone who is white? These questions that look into the

relationship between media reports and terrorist violence, specifically in the case of lone-wolf terrorism, lead to the issue at the heart of this thesis: what were McVeigh’s motives for planning his attack and were these accurately represented in the media?

An unavoidable part of this thesis is a similar case, namely the World Trade Center Attack on February 26th in 1993. While this case will not be studied in-depth as the

Oklahoma City Bombing, it will make its appearance here because the two bombings have similarities. To be able to make clear why this choice was made, it is important to first explain the event itself.

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18_{Chad F. Nye, Journalism and Justice in the Oklahoma City Bombing Trials (LFB Scholarly Publishing LLC,}

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The bombing of the World Trade Center happened on February 26th 1993. There was an explosion at 12:17 at the base of the building. A truck with explosives had been parked in the basement and was set to detonate after the inhabitants were at a safe distance. 4 port workers and one restaurant worker were instantly killed in the explosion, while one victim died a few hours later due to smoke inhalation. At the time around 50.000 people were at the site and the electricity went out in the building. After the bomb went off within the next 15 minutes 911 was called and police, fire department and ambulances were dispatched. Around 12:45 the first news broadcast about the bombing commenced, even though at the time it was not officially declared a bombing.19

In the end, 6 people were killed and over 1000 injured, mostly during the hours long evacuation of the building. In the aftermath, four suspects were arrested and charged for the bombing of the World Trade Center. They were convicted on all counts in March 1994, while the suspected masterminds behind the attack were convicted in November 199720. Police arrested Mohammed Salameh first, believing he was he person who stole the truck used in the bombing. His arrest led to several more suspects, as well as a connection to Sheik Omar Abdel Rahman, a man previously believed to be responsible for the assassination of a rabbi. The police was not able to connect the sheik to the bombing, but they did uncover plans to bomb other locations in New York City. He was convicted in 1997 for conspiracy.

The media and the general public almost immediately made the comparisons between the Oklahoma City Bombing and the WTC Bombing21. The cases are comparable because of the method of the attack, the time period and the intended purpose, which was attacking a symbol of America. For the WTC bombing this symbol was capitalism, while the Oklahoma City Bombing attacked the representation of the American government. Some differences are for example location and number of perpetrators, and the differences in race and religion.

The two bombings will not be compared in depth. There are too many differences to make a one-on-one comparison plausible, and if one does want to compare the two it is necessary to add other case studies. The number of variables is too high to state a convincing case, but the New York attack does come up as part of the history of the Oklahoma City

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19_{LaVerle Berry et al., Media Interaction with the Public in Emergency Situations (Washington, D.C.: Division,}

1999). p. 30.

1999). p. 36 - 37

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Bombing. The case of the WTC bombing was necessary to address in advance, to avoid confusion and unnecessary questions.

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Methodology&

To be able to find the differences between the known facts and the reporting on the facts, it is necessary to compare different sources. Generally speaking the sources would be divided into two categories: a source from McVeigh and a media source. It is important to discover which aspects of a perpetrator are equally represented in the different sources, while at the same time finding the discrepancies.

The main sources of this thesis are a biography and an interview produced by McVeigh and New York Times articles will represent the media. McVeigh gave 75 hours worth of interview material, which were turned into a book called American Terrorist, and an interview with the television program 60 minutes on his motivations. The book and the interview are the most reliable sources of information on McVeigh, as he cooperated in the making of these materials.

To narrow the research there will be 9 focus points to look for within the articles and book. Each of these points will be discussed to explain why it has been chosen and what the results are. The findings will be in one of three categories: equal representation, unequal representation or inconclusive. Whichever category it belongs to, arguments will be added to explain how these results came to be.

The New York Times articles stem from the years 1995 to 2013. Articles on the capture, incarceration, trial and death were taken into account. The analysis that follows is based on a close reading of the articles. The articles in the New York Times about McVeigh’s motivation and his portrayal are the most essential for the comparative analysis, but articles about the event itself are included as well. However, McVeigh had to be one of the main subjects, or the main subject, of the newspaper article for the piece to be included in this thesis. To decrease the number of articles several other criteria were selected. Furthermore, some types of articles are excluded. Content wise some examples of excluded articles would be reports on the declining or increasing support for the death penalty, background on important figures in the case other than McVeigh, and the fallout of the FBI failure to hand over the documents on the McVeigh case. There was also a significant number of articles dedicated to a gay marine with the last name McVeigh that was battling the ‘Don’t Ask Don’t Tell’ policy of the army.

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Regarding to format the exclusions are table of content, ads, banners, news briefs, letters to the editor and marriage that came up when entering either the search key ‘McVeigh’ or ‘Oklahoma City Bombing’. Most of these are excluded because they are not actually articles, or not written by a journalist of The New York Times. News briefs and table of content are excluded because they are not reporting a new piece of information and are just repeats of what articles have reported. The number of articles, after these requirements, is 688.

While reading the articles there are 9 focus points, military, anti-government, right-wing beliefs, religion, race, looks and character, that will be showcased in amounts and in

percentages of the 688. The first and second points are mentions of the military past of McVeigh and his anti-government rhetoric. These are mentioned the most in the newspaper articles and his anti-government attitude is listed as the biggest part of his motivation.

The following are the other focus points right-wing (extremist) beliefs, religion and race. The third is chosen because it is a focal point of counter-terrorism actions of the U.S.

government. It is also a different kind of motivation than anti-government sentiment, which is regularly but separately mentioned.

Religion, the fourth focus point, is included because of the focus on religion with foreign terrorists such as Jihadists. In this case, religion should be of equal importance even when it does not involve Islam. Also several scholars have already proven the link between religion and right-wing politics, and it is therefore not a stretch that sometimes the two get intertwined or mistaken for one another22. By including religion as a separate category the research can be more inclusive.

The fifth, race, is of importance because of the general connection between

stereotypes/prejudices and the color of a person’s skin. The history of racism and stereotypes, which has been studied extensively by many others, speaks for itself in this regard.

The remaining points are descriptions of looks and character in either a positive or negative fashion. These types of judgments can influence a reader into sympathizing, understanding or despising the criminal depending on how they are described23. Note that pictures are not included in the count, because these are all not readily available and are !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!

22_{Examples of scholarship on the topic are:}

Barkun, Michael. Religion and the racist right: the origins of the Christian Identity movement. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1997.

Blee, Kathleen M., and Kimberly A. Creasap. “Conservative and Right-Wing Movements.” Annual Review of Sociology, vol. 36, 2010, p. 269–286.

23_{Nichola Rumsey and Diana Harcourt, The Psychology of Appearance (Maidenhead, England: Open}

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highly susceptible to interpretation. To avoid interpretation regarding description in the text, any text that is not explicitly positive or negative is not accounted for in the percentage. It is also important to note that the characteristics usually involve how McVeigh is described by others and journalists, not how he might truly be as a person.

All focus points will only be counted once per article either as a single word or (a part of) a sentence, to exterminate the possibility of incorrect representation. Once they are

accumulated, the numbers will be represented through text and graph. This is because the thesis has to be confined to reasonably legible material, and it is not possible to realistically showcase all 688 articles separately.

For transparency and clarity the exact number will be given as well as the percentage of the total. This will also ease the process of comparison. Why this choice was made can best be explained through example. Note that these are simplified but accurate representations of the articles.

Regarding the choice to only count a focus point once per article, the following example applies. One of the articles qualified for all set parameters is mostly filled with comments made by family, friends and his lawyers. They mention McVeigh in a positive light multiple times in the same articles. Because the article contains interviews with 6 different people, McVeigh is mentioned positively 6 times. Meanwhile, there are 9 other articles that also fit all set parameters, but these articles only mention McVeigh negatively once and do not contain any other focus point.

Within this case the amount of times McVeigh is mentioned positively in all 10 articles would be 6, compared to being mentioned negatively only once. Once these are turned into general statistics, it would seem like 60% of the articles are positive, 30% neutral and 10% negative. As is mentioned, however, this would mean that one article is causing an imbalance in the amount while not being representative of the whole.

It is of the utmost importance that a single article focusing on an outlier situation does not drastically change the results. Therefore this method was chosen, as it seems to be the most appropriate way to handle the data.

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Background&Information&on&the&Oklahoma&City&Bombing

In 1995, on April 19th, Timothy McVeigh parked a Ryder truck, a brand of rental trucks, full of explosives in front of Alfred P. Murrah building in Oklahoma City, lit the fuse and walked away. He had specifically chosen the time of 9 AM because the building would be at peak occupancy24. At 9:02 AM the bomb exploded, taking 168 lives, injuring over 680 people and crumbling about 1/3rd of the building, which was spread over several stories. Among the dead were 19 children who were at the day care center on the second floor.

President Clinton declared April 23, 1995, as a national day of mourning for the

bombing. The rescue operation lasted until May 4th, and on May 5th a memorial service was held for the victims25.

After the bombing the FBI and Department of Justice immediately established a task force. This group named the OKBOMB Task Force, consisting of over 200 investigators at its peak, had primary jurisdiction and was assigned to investigate the crime. Besides this group there was support from other FBI personnel from national and international offices and other law enforcement agencies26_.

The speculation within the first hours of the bombing was that Middle Eastern terrorists were responsible. Without evidence news channels CNN and CBS ran stories on possible (Middle Eastern) suspects. Law enforcement even pursued several suspects from this region without solid evidence27. The speculation seemed mostly caused by the comparison to the World Trade Center bombing 2 years prior, in which a group also used a truck bomb28.

A few hours after the explosion and about 80 miles north of Oklahoma City Timothy McVeigh was stopped by a highway patrol officer for driving without a plate. It was discovered that he carried a concealed weapon and he was subsequently jailed. He was !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!

24_{T.M. DeSa and K.E. McCarthy, "The Solo Crusader" in A New Understanding of Terrorism (New York:}

Springer, 2009). p. 48. LaVerle Berry et al., Media Interaction with the Public in Emergency Situations (Washington, D.C.: Division, 1999). p. 38. And Lou Michel and Dan Herbeck, American Terrorist: Timothy McVeigh & the Tragedy at Oklahoma City (New York: Avon Books, 2002). p. 243.

1999). p. 50.

26_{T.M. DeSa and K.E. McCarthy, "The Solo Crusader” in A New Understanding of Terrorism (New York:}

Springer, 2009). p. 50.

1999). p. 40 – 56. And Chad F. Nye, Journalism and Justice in the Oklahoma City Bombing Trials (LFB Scholarly Publishing LLC, 2014). p. 7.

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handed over to the FBI a few days afterwards, a short time before he was scheduled to be released on bail. He had submitted his own social security number and the FBI had been able to trace him through the rental records of the truck. It was rented under the name Robert Kling, which was an alias of his29.

In the beginning McVeigh denied involvement in the bombing, but circumstantial evidence made him the prime suspect. His friend, Terry Nichols, turned himself in and was also arrested due to suspicion of helping create the bomb. The men were charged with different crimes and were on separate trials.

On August 10th, 1995, McVeigh was indicted on eleven federal counts, which included but were not limited to eight counts of first-degree murder. The trial was presided by Judge Matsch. Initially McVeigh’s lawyers argued that he could not have operated alone. Before and during the McVeigh trial the fact that there was no witness at the scene was offered as evidence for this. Also the failed searches for a possible accomplice, who was only known as John Doe number 2, were used by the defense to shift the blame of the attack away from McVeigh.

As McVeigh claimed he was not guilty there was a general concern that the true mastermind behind the bombing had escaped. There was a leg found in the rubble not

belonging to any known victims, which the defense also used to claim the bomber had died in the blast. This leg was examined; forensics concluded that it belonged to a victim who was initially buried with the wrong leg. The leg originally buried with the victim has never been positively identified to this day30.

The Federal Bureau of Investigations was also involved in the trial, as the counts of first-degree murder were the result of the death of 8 federal agents in the bombing. They

discovered evidence of preparations for the bomb at locations that McVeigh frequented or rented.

Besides the circumstantial evidence there was also testimony that suggested McVeigh’s guilt. Michael Fortier, another friend of McVeigh, and his wife Lori testified against

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1999). p. 41.

30_!_{The leg has, as of August 2018, not been identified publicly and is part of an open and active DNA}

investigation. The leg is known as human speciment P-71.

Jeffrey Scott Shapiro, "Oklahoma City Bombing Secret: DNA Extracted from Unknown Leg," The Washington Times, December 07, 2015, , accessed August 6, 2018,

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McVeigh and his possible accomplice Terry Nichols in exchange for reduced sentences. They were not the most credible witnesses due to their involvement in drugs.

A different and very credible witness was McVeigh’s sister, Jennifer, who was apparently ‘pained to have to testify against him’31. The prosecution also used victims and survivors of the blast for testimony, to counteract the amount of circumstantial evidence. Judge Matsch warned the prosecution to not use emotional incitement to sway the jury in their favor, but they persisted even though it was not technically relevant to the evidence in the case32.

An item that was submitted and discussed as evidence for his motive was a book called

The Turner Diaries. The plan of the Oklahoma City Bombing is very similar to the plot of

this book. The main character, Earl Turner, makes a truck bomb and destroys the FBI Headquarters in Washington DC to initiate a revolution. He did this because he was a gun enthusiast that opposed stricter gun laws. It was one of McVeigh’s personal favorite books, and it is also a favorite among white supremacist and extreme right groups. He was known to distribute and sell the book to like-minded individuals33.

The reporting of the trial was unique: a consortium, a temporary organization, had been created to cover the trial. This type of organization was necessary to cover the entire trial. It was seemingly the first time that the press was organized to this degree34. Another factor contributing to the unique nature of the media involvement was the rise of the Internet, which allowed media to spread more of their reports faster and to a larger audience35.

During the trial McVeigh attorney Jones claimed that victims would speak to the press after every day’s testimony. Under the judge’s gag order those in the courtroom were not allowed to speak of the trial outside of the courtroom. The media access plan for McVeigh was denied, which meant he could not give interviews to reporters36. As attorneys were also under a gag order and were not allowed to speak to the press either, Jones claimed that this situation reflected negatively on the defense and did not give McVeigh a fair trial37. !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!

31_{Stuart A. Wright, Making War (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2007). p. 11.} 32_{Idem, p. 11 – 13}

33_{Lou Michel and Dan Herbeck, American Terrorist (New York: Avon Books, 2002). p. 113. And T.M. DeSa}

and K.E. McCarthy, "The Solo Crusader” in A New Understanding of Terrorism (New York: Springer, 2009). p. 47.

2014). p. 188.!

35_{Idem, p. 205.} 36_{Idem, p. 141.}

37_{Idem, p. 9, p. 55, p. 89 – 96, p. 202 and p. 205. And Jody Lyneé Madeira, Killing McVeigh (New York: New}

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The court stopped the sale of audiotapes of the trial due to information leaks, which mostly involved sensitive information being published in press reports. The earlier mentioned gag order was imposed due to this. Because of the large number of people and press that wished to follow the trial, a closed-circuit broadcast was proposed as the alternative38.

An argument made by McVeigh’s defense team was that the media was presenting him as a loner and a zealot and he was already convicted in the court of public opinion. When the FBI arrested McVeigh, he was in a fluorescent orange jumpsuit and shackles with no

bulletproof vest, and his walkout was timed with the evening news. This so-called ‘perp walk’ was the first impression of McVeigh the public received and became an iconic image in the case39.

At the start of the trial Judge Matsch had moved the case to a different location due to the amount of negative media attention. The defense team argued that research showed that during a survey 90% of people indicated that they had already decided that McVeigh and Nichols were guilty. They claimed the move as recognition for their statement40. It was also noted later in the trial that the local news had a distinct bias against McVeigh compared to national news reports41_.

Whatever inclination the public had, McVeigh was guilty of the crime. It is now known that McVeigh wanted his attorneys to claim a “necessity defense”. This type of defense would have allowed him to argue in court that the bombing was a necessary defense against the government. He wanted to openly admit to the crime and explain why he believed he and the country were in danger42. Because his attorneys decided on a different defense, this did not happen.

After the trial had lasted several years McVeigh was convicted on all eleven counts on June 2nd 1997 and sentenced to death on June 13th 1997. While there were no witnesses alive to place him at the bombsite, the circumstantial evidence and Fortier’s testimony were enough to convince the jury of his guilt. McVeigh stopped his appeals soon after his sentencing and after an execution date was set, he confessed to the crime.

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2014). p. 112 and p. 117.

39_{Jody Lyneé Madeira, Killing McVeigh (New York: New York University Press, 2012). p. 3 – 6.}

2014). p. 59, p. 72 and p. 133!

41_!_{Chad F. Nye, Journalism and Justice in the Oklahoma City Bombing Trials (LFB Scholarly Publishing LLC,}

2014). p. 95 – 96.!

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While on death row thousands of FBI documents were found regarding his case, which delayed his execution for a month but did not lead to any new appeals or evidence of his innocence. It was concluded that there was no ill intent from the FBI to withhold the information.

Until his death McVeigh did not express remorse for his actions. His choice for the Murrah Federal Building was not due to any personal grievances, but solely because it would be a great target; such an attack would receive media attention43. His belief was that it was also necessary to create a body count; otherwise the government would not listen44.

His only regret was towards Terry Nichols. His belief was that only he would be held responsible because he had detonated the bomb, a gross miscalculation on the part of McVeigh. He maintained that Nichols only cooperated under duress, because he had threatened his family45. Nichols was sentenced to life-imprisonment without the chance for parole in exchange for not receiving the death sentence.

McVeigh was executed on June 11th, 2001. This was an event televised on a closed circuit broadcast for victims and their families, per the request of prosecutors46. There were too many victims to give everyone a chance to attend his execution.

According to the prosecution and the newspaper articles McVeigh’s suspected motive was anger related to the incidents of Ruby Ridge and the Waco Siege, which both involved the American government. At Ruby Ridge, near Naples, Idaho, a white supremacist named Randy Weaver was approached because he had failed to appear in court for a firearms charge. The first encounter on August 21st, 1992, escalated to a shootout, in which a Deputy US Marshall, the Weaver family dog and Weavers’ son Samuel were killed. The following siege was a standoff for 11 days, and in the first 2 days Weavers wife, Vicky, was killed by FBI sniper fire. The siege ended on August 31st, when Weaver surrendered himself and his children. Supporters of Weaver, including McVeigh, believed he had been tricked by a government informant and was only defending his home. They believed that the government

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43_{Jody Lyneé Madeira, Killing McVeigh (New York: New York University Press, 2012). , p. 15.} 44_{Stuart A. Wright, Making War (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2007). p. 5.}

Springer, 2009). p. 52.

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did not hold itself responsible for the deaths of Ruby Ridge. This belief stemmed from the official statement that the federal agents in question were justified in their actions47_.

Waco, Texas, was the scene of another siege by the federal government, this time on the Branch Davidians compound from February 28 until April 19, 1993. The group was

considered a sect and was therefore under surveillance. The initial complaints were that the group was stockpiling a large amount of illegal firearms and explosives at their compound. The group believed the end of civilization was near and they needed the supplies to survive48.

The originally planned raid of the compound was a search warrant for illegal weapons and the arrest of the Branch Davidians leader David Koresh and a few others. The plan heavily relied on surprise but was accidentally leaked to the group. The Bureau of Alcohol, Tabacco, Firearms and Explosives (also known as ATF) still decided to move forward. The Branch Davidians were armed and prepared and an intense gun battle ensued. 10 people, 6 Branch Davidians and 4 government agents, were killed in the gunfire. A siege of the compound ensued, lasting 51 days. Through psychological pressure and negotiation a small number of people were willing to leave the compound, but a majority did not49.

During the standoff McVeigh traveled to Waco to demonstrate and sell right-wing literature. While there he was interviewed for a local college newspaper, The Daily Campus. He was quoted as saying that only the local sheriff had the right authority for the situation. He indicated that he believed that the government was afraid of citizens with guns because they could not control those citizens. He also stated his sentiment that American armed forces should not be used against civilians50.

On April 19, 1993, the Hostage Rescue Team (HRT) stopped the negotiations and the FBI launched an assault on the compound to break the siege. But for, at the time, unknown reasons a fire started in the compound. The compound burned down and collapsed, in which 76 people were killed including 25 children51. Later research confirmed that members of the sect most likely started the fire and multiple people were not killed by the fire itself but by

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Springer, 2009). p. 46.

48_!_{Kenneth G. C. Newport, The Branch Davidians of Waco: The History and Beliefs of an Apocalyptic}

Sect (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2006), p. 25 – 27.

49_{T.M. DeSa and K.E. McCarthy, "The Solo Crusader" in A New Understanding of Terrorism (New York:}

Springer, 2009). p. 46 – 47.

50_{Stuart A. Wright, Making War(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2007). p. 163.}

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gunshots from either the shootout or suicide. Some other people died because of head trauma caused by falling debris.

These two events were highly criticized by the media because the FBI did not seem to conduct itself properly, and McVeigh was among those who agreed. It is speculated but unconfirmed that McVeigh chose to kill children of FBI agents as an act of revenge for the children killed in the Waco siege.

There is a history on McVeigh from youth until just before the Oklahoma City Bombing. McVeigh grew up in upstate New York in a working-class family and was known as a

survivalist when he was young. His town was hit by a blizzard and his father believes that while they were trapped in the house he started his survivalist career by asking for a stockpile and to place a generator in the basement52.

From a young age McVeigh also handled guns and was generally known by friends, family and coworkers as a gun enthusiast. After his graduation in 1986 he became a security guard, but due to his increasing fascination with guns he decided to join the army. He enlisted in 1988 at age 20 and was trained as a tank gunner at Fort Riley, Kansas. He promoted

steadily through the ranks and became a sergeant. After his reenlistment he did a tour for the Gulf War in 1991 and qualified for the Green Berets, an elite Special Forces division of the Army. However, he dropped out early due to difficulties with the physical requirements of the job53.

In a letter to his sister during his Army days, he expressed his worries about the government limiting the American people’s freedom trough gun laws. Specifically the Bradley law, which demanded better background checks for gun ownership, that was enacted during this time was particularly worrisome for him.

There is doubt on whether McVeigh was a formal militia member, but he and Nichols did attend militia meetings. Some militia material was found at the farm of Nichols in Michigan. It was known that McVeigh occasionally stayed at the farm54. McVeigh stated in an interview that he did attend some meetings, but found them disorganized and unfocused, and would have rather started his own militia with his Army buddy Michael Fortier55.

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52_{Lou Michel and Dan Herbeck, American Terrorist (New York: Avon Books, 2002). p. 68}

Springer, 2009). p. 44 – 45.

54_{Idem, p. 45 – 46}

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During the years after the Oklahoma City Bombing militia activity did reach an all-time high, but this did not last. Lawsuits, declining interest in the philosophy and law enforcement efforts against domestic terrorism are all considered factors in the decline56_.

On April 16, 1995, McVeigh planned to park a getaway car in Oklahoma City with Nichols, but Nichols failed to arrive to their designated place and time. It was Easter Sunday and he was with his family. After a heated phone call, Nichols left his family so he could join McVeigh on the trip from Kansas to Oklahoma City. After parking the car a few blocks from the Murrah Building they returned to Kansas around 2:00 AM the following Monday.

McVeigh went to his room at the Dreamland Motel, picked out his clothes for the next day and packed his other belongings before going to bed57.

In the early morning of Tuesday, April 18, 1995, McVeigh took his rented Ryder truck to a storage unit in Herington, Kansas. He proceeded to load the truck with the components for the bomb together with Nichols. They then moved their supplies to Geary Lake in Geary State Park, where they arrived around 7:30 AM. Over the next 3 hours McVeigh mixed the ingredients for the bomb until it was complete. Afterwards he cleans himself up and the interior of the truck as a forensic countermeasure. Once he has put on new clothes and a pair of gloves he drives south towards Oklahoma State and dumps his bomb-sullied clothes along the way. He spends the night before the bombing in a gravel lot in northern Oklahoma58. The next day, the Oklahoma City Bombing as described before ensues.

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Springer, 2009). p. 54.

57_{Lou Michel and Dan Herbeck, American Terrorist (New York: Avon Books, 2002). p. 230 – 233.} 58_{Idem, p. 245.}_!

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Characteristics&of&a&Lone&Wolf&Terrorist&

Timothy McVeigh is a lone wolf terrorist. It is a difficult phrase to precisely qualify. Several scholarly works have attempted to fully encompass the meaning, and in their attempt have deepened our understanding of this type of attacker. To prevent any confusion on the subject and to further the understanding of McVeigh, this thesis discusses the term and its definition so far.

The FBI first used the title of lone wolf terrorist in the 1990s, referring to white

supremacist Alex Curtis. Interchangeably this type of terrorist can also be called a lone actor, and as the title suggest lone wolf terrorists prepare and commit violent crimes by

themselves.59

Studies about this type of terrorists are significantly deficient, but Christopher Hewitt did one of the first of these studies or perhaps the first statistical study of lone wolf terrorism. He identified 27 lone actor terrorists from the U.S. between 1995 and 2001. He suggested that of these 27, 6 had a psychological disturbance, which was at a higher rate than among any other U.S. terrorists60_{. Therefore it is important to note that there is a chance that McVeigh might}

have had some mental problems, but as McVeigh has been dead for over 17 years, there is also no way to verify this theory. Hewitt’s research is still an important starting point, as it inspired other scholars to investigate the personalities and motivations of lone wolf actors.

For example, DeSa and McCarthy compared two lone wolf terrorists who were of completely different political background. These terrorists were Theodore Kaczynski and Timothy McVeigh, and they were held in the same prison and interacted with each other. McVeigh described himself as “far right” and Kaczynski as “far left”61. Kaczynski is also known as the Unabomber, a well-known American terrorist who planted bombs in mailboxes throughout the United States. He was active from 1978 until his arrest in 1995.

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59_!_{Staff, "Operation Lone Wolf," FBI, June 28, 2011, accessed January 19, 2017,}

https://archives.fbi.gov/archives/sandiego/about-us/history/operation-lone-wolf.!

60_{Clark Mccauley and Sophia Moskalenko, "Toward a Profile of Lone Wolf Terrorists: What Moves an}

Individual From Radical Opinion to Radical Action," Terrorism and Political Violence 26, no. 1 (2013): p. 81, doi:10.1080/09546553.2014.849916.

61_{CBSNews.com Staff CBSNews.com Staff, "McVeigh Vents On '60 Minutes'," CBS News, March 13, 2000,}

accessed June 20, 2018, https://www.cbsnews.com/news/mcveigh-vents-on-60-minutes/.

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DeSa and McCarthy analyzed the terrorists’ backgrounds and attacks as a means to hopefully help with future identification of these kinds of terrorists. They based their research on Kaczynski and McVeigh’s radical philosophies within the context of a crusader

perspective. This title of crusader comes forth from Hacker’s 1978 categorization of terrorists. He categorizes terrorists as criminals, crusaders or crazies. McVeigh and

Kaczynski are crusaders because they were loners and they believed that their actions were for the greater good62.

Other research has also been developed that has a different goal and therefore focuses on a slightly different topic. Some of this other research includes the work of Clark McCauley and Sophia Moskalenko. They have also been inspired by Hewitt’s work to investigate lone wolf terrorists in their book Toward a Profile of Lone Wolf Terrorists. They decided that they “sought to develop hypotheses about the characteristics of lone wolf terrorists by looking for the common characteristics of two kinds of mostly lone actor violent offenders: assassins and school attackers.”63 As sources they used existing research and statistics on these two types of criminals. This research is perhaps the most relevant, as they identify a few key components of a lone actor’s characteristics.

They identify several kinds of profiles of lone wolves, of which the most important are the disconnected-disordered profile and the caring-consistency profile. The first is the stereotypical lone wolf, a person who acts from self-interest. The second profile is less common than the first, and the motivation consists of a feeling of personal responsibility towards the suffering of others. Terrorists who fit into this type of profile will act because they want to reduce or revenge the suffering of victims64_.

Timothy McVeigh falls within the second profile, as it is indicated that he felt it was his personal responsibility and even his civic duty as a soldier. He believed, like many

paramilitary groups, that the involvement of the government was a sign of it turning against its citizens. He thought that as a soldier he had to punish those he deemed responsible for the crimes of a government turning against its people. Apparently he believed that the FBI and

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Springer, 2009). p. 37.

The research they use is Hacker, Frederick J. Crusaders, Criminals, Crazies: Terror and Terrorism in Our

Time. New York: Bantam Books, 1978.

63_{Clark Mccauley and Sophia Moskalenko, "Toward a Profile of Lone Wolf Terrorists" Terrorism and Political}

Violence 26, no. 1 (2013): p. 81, doi:10.1080/09546553.2014.849916.