Environmental communication in the Star : an exploratory biosocial study

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ENVIRONMENTAL COMMUNICATION IN

THE STAR:

AN

EXPLORATORY BIOSOCIAL

STUDY

E.E.EASTON BL.

Mini-dissertation submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree Magister Environmental Management in Geography and Environmental Studies at the Potchefstroomse Universiteit vir Christelike

Supervisor: Assistant supervisor: November 2002 Potchefstroom

"

Hoer Onderwys Dr. L.A. Sandham Prof. J. Froneman

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ABSTRACT

Environmental communication in The Star: an exploratory biosocial study

The aim of this study is to investigate the biosocial linkages between South African society in a developing country and the biophysical environment by means of environmental communication i.e. the environmental themes presented in a South African newspaper The Star.

The investigation takes the form of a review of research published in the field of environmental communication, a quantitative analysis of

environmental communication published in The Star over a period of 12 months, and an assessment of biosocial connections between man and biophysical environment.

The major findings of this study are that amongst all environmental themes dealt with in the newspaper, resource use receives considerable

coverage, which indicates significant functional biosocial linkages

between So~th African society and th.e biophysical environment. Another finding is that as a mass medium The Star contributes to more effective social interaction with the biophysical environment.

Key words: Environmental communication, mass medium, biosocial approach, resource use, developing country.

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OPSOMMING

Omgewingskommunikasie in The Star: 'n ondersoekende bic>sosiale studie

Die doel van hierdie studie is om die biososiale skakels tussen die Suid-Afrikaanse samelewing in ontwikkelende verband en hul biofisiese

omgewing te ondersoek deur middel van omgewingskommunikasie, dit wil se omgewingstemas soos voorgestel deur 'n Suid-Afrikaanse koerant, The Star.

Die ondersoek behels 'n oorsig van bestaande navorsing in omgewingskommunikasie, 'n kwantitatiewe ontleding van

omgewingsberiggewing in The Star oor 'n tydperk van twaalf maande, en 'n waardebepaling van die biososiale skakels tussen die mens en die biofisiese omgewing.

Die belangrikste bevindinge is dot die omgewingstema van hulpbron gebruik beduidende dekking in die koerant verkry, wot dui op

betekenisvolle en funksionele biososiale skakels tussen die Suid-Afrikaanse gemeenskap en sy biofisiese omgewing. 'n Verdere bevinding is dot The Star bydra tot die bevordering van doeltreffende sosiale interaksie met die biofisiese omgewing.

Sleutelterme: omgewingskommunikasie, massamedium, biososiale benadering, hulpbron gebruik, ontwikkelende land.

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FOREWORD

An expression of appreciation is due to the following persons:

• Dr. L.A. Sandham for his dedicated guidance as supervisor.

• Prof.

J

. Froneman for his valued contribution as assistant supervisor.

• Family and friends whose enduring support contributed to the

completion of this study.

• Christ the Lord through Whom all things are possible.

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31

Table 2.2 Selected categories

32

Table 2.3 Population sample

34

Table 2.4 Definitions of categories of content

36

Table 2.5 Results of themes found in The Star

38

Table 2.6 Groups of content categories and frequency

45

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CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION AND OBJECTIVES

1.1 Introduction

Due to environmental degradation the environment has been called a contemporary social crisis (Beck, 1992, as quoted by Myerson & Rydin,

1997: 377), and the use of the term "social" functions here to introduce the man-environment connection, or the biosocial perspective, of this study. McMichael (1994, as quoted by Fiedeldey-Van Dijk et al., 1998: 4) ascribes the contemporary view of the earth in crisis to the fact that people are destroying and polluting their way towards a global

catastrophe. Luhmann (1989, as quoted by Peterson, 1998: 371 - 372), points out that the degradation of the environment has resulted in a dissonant relationship between mankind and the environment - and vice versa. Environmental problems relate to human behavioural questions such as air pollution, water pollution, waste production, depletion of biodiversity, food supply shortages, and natural resource misuse (Miller, 1998: 20). Initiatives to address environmental problems move the world towards the goal of sustainability and this may lead to a desired state of beneficial man-environment interaction. Sustainability may be

categorised within a prevalent approach, the answer culture model, which interprets reality as a set of problems to be solved (Myerson & Rydin, 1997: 377).

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1 . 1 .1 Definitions

A number of concepts need to be defined.

• Environment

In this study "environment" is intentionally limited to the biophysical

environment. The biophysical environment is that part of the environment, which did not originate with, and is not dependent on humcin activities e.g. biological, physical and chemical objects and processes

(Department of Environment Affairs, 1992: 3).

• Communication

This is a process of exchanging mutually understood symbols, resulting in the stimulation of meaning in another (Steinfatt, 1977, as quoted by Infante et al., 1990: 197).

• Environmental communication

The definition applied in this study is that of Peterson. According to

Peterson (1998: 371 -372) environmental communication is the language used to structure the relationship between society and the biophysical environment. The meaning is that people use language to conceptualize and discuss the natural systems on which they rely. Environmental

communication expresses the interaction between society ond the biophysical environment. Here is an example: May I suggest that our newspaper companies start planting trees every month to replace those

they use in making the paper they print on?(pu Preez, 2000). According to Luhmann, 1989 (as quoted by Peterson, 1998: 371 - 372) environmental

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communication occurs when society is no longer able to ignore

environmental disturbances, in other words when a state of dissonance reigns between society and its biophysical environment. Luhmann's term

"ecological" communication lacks the human-centred meaning of environmental communication, where "environment" refers to the surroundings within which humans live (NEMA, 1998: 8).

• Mass medium and related definitions

All large-scale media of print, radio, film and electronic networks (e.g. the Internet), that disseminate communication to large audiences are termed mass or public media (Williams, 1989: 35 - 36). The communicator is

generally an institution (e.g. a newspaper) that acts collectively to vastly multiply messages. The medium is the technology used to convey news and information, to interpret and comment on news to assist people to make sense of their world, and to warn and entertain people. News

represents actuality occurrences, information deals with the public's need to be informed, warnings are aimed at protecting people, and

entertainment addresses people's need for pleasure.

• Content analysis

Content analysis methods can be employed to categorise media content into quantitative data, or alternatively semiological (relating to signage and its application) data to uncover the communicator's presumed motives or communication rules underlying the message (Fourie, 1989: 35). Severin and Tankard ( 1988: 19 - 20) describe content analysis as an

objective, systematic and quantitative method to analyze message content.

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• Images and symbols

Symbols are representations of abstract or concrete entities in the. form of words, gestures, diagrams or emblems. Peterson ( 1998: 379) identifies symbols as a powerful force in shaping human attitudes and actions towards the natural world. People impose order and meaning on human experiences by using symbols to express their thoughts and actions

(Wood, 1992: 5). This capacity to symbolize concrete and abstract dimensions of existence - ideas, experiences, hopes, fears, passions, doubts, dreams and even themselves -is unique to humans. It enables them to persuade themselves to take new courses of action, make sense of their past and plan for their future.

• Biosocial

This concept relates to linkages between the social system and the environmental system (Bonnicksen and Lee, 1982, as quoted by Backes, 1995: 147).

• Environmental agenda of The Star

Environmental concerns which rank high enough in importance among

The Star's general news priorities to warrant repeated media coverage. See section 2.6 for a statement of The Star's environmental agenda.

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1 .1 .2 Environmental movement

Environmental concerns which benefit from man's bent for problem solving are at the root of the environmental movement, which today is a collective term for a variety of environmental organisations operating as moderators of human demands on the biophysical environment.

Environmentalism started in the USA in the 1960s (Miller, 1998: 43) and in its early years up to the early 1980s it was a radical resistance movement (e.g. Greenpeace) on the outer edge of society. This has since changed, according to Peterson (1998: 371 ). He quotes Senecah and Netzley

( 1996), who describe the impact of the environmental movement on society as considerable and "second only to the civil rights movement" in its ability to significantly change people's awareness, attitudes, lifestyles and public policies. As "the environment has become important" (Peterson, 1998: 371), one result is that environmentalism gives rise to environmental communication.

Today the environmental movement attracts both popular and academic identification within society. Recent examples of

environmentalism as practised by some environmental activists include the protest marches, concerts, teach-ins and people's tribunals staged by various groups, including Friends of the Earth, at World Trade Organization (WTO) meetings (Greenhouse, 1999: 19).

Official recognition of the seriousness of the concerns occupying the environmental movement occurred in 1992 when the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED) took place in Rio de Janeiro (DEAT, 1998). The Rio conference had broad support from

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more than 1 78 governments, which adopted its decisions, and it resulted in a number of influential publications. Agenda 21 is a blueprint for the 21st century for action in every area in which human activity impacts on the environment. Other tangible results of the Rio conference are the Rio Declaration on Environment and Development, the Convention on

Biological Diversity, and the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change.

The impact of the Rio conference 1992 and of environmentalism has continued with the World Summit on Sustainable Development in Johannesburg in August/September 2002 (Johannesburg Summit). It focused on a global issue -the needs of the developing world - and reflected a change in emphasis from environmental issues per

se

to sustainable social and economic development, in a context of

environmental stewardship (Anon, 2002). More than ever, people are the pivot in environmental concerns.

Social organisation (which has to be imagined through communication before it can happen) is vital for environmental solutions, as Peterson ( 1998: 372) points out. The environmental movement constitutes a social system, which interacts with other social systems, such as the media (Muir & Veenendall, 1996, as quoted by Peterson, 1998: 379). For example, more people taking up the environmental cause may have contributed to mass media exposure of environmental issues worldwide. The activist group, Greenpeace, was transformed from an unknown organisation in the 1970s

(Day, 1989: 44) to an environmental group with 2.8 million supporters worldwide in 2003 (Greenpeace, 2003). Its activism involves it in

controversy, which enhances its appeal to the news media. Without the benefit of communication, such a groundswell of public support would

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have been unlikely, and the environmental movement would possibly have remained obscure, for the media contributed to furthering people's exposure to the movement. Media images (powerful pictures) even more so than words, influence people's perceptions of the environment (Muir & Veendall, 1996, as quoted by Peterson, 1998: 379).

Communication is a process of exchanging mutually understood symbols, resulting in the stimulation of meaning in another (Steinfatt, 1977, as

quoted by Infante et al., 1990: 197). Communication is thus a cultural phenomenon, a process of information exchange by means of a set of symbols peculiar to a culture. Within the context of environmentalism the emphasis is on environmental communication (see section 1.1.1). It differs from other forms of communication in tenuously linking man's capacity to use symbols, and the biophysical capacities of the earth (Peterson, 1998: 384). The use of symbols is a social process, unique to man (Wood, 1992: 5). The link is tenuous because the social system depends on symbols, and the biophysical system is material (Peterson, 1998: 372). In this study the concept "environment" is limited to the biophysical environment (so excluding man-made aspects) in order to isolate social factors from biophysical factors, apart from the biosocial connections through communication investigated by the researcher.

This biosocial interrelationship was introduced with the publication of the book Silent Spring by USA biologist Rachel Carson in 1962 (Miller, 1998: 43),

an event that had a considerable influence on both environmentalism and on environmental communication. The book, popularly written, documents the pollution damage to the environment caused by

pesticides in the United States of America. It was the first publication that made people sit up and take notice of threats to the environment.

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The resulting public concern ensured that the environmental movement was well established in the USA during the 1970s, where a number of environmental groups were operating in different niche areas. For the first time the biophysical environment had a voice, or more precisely, a chorus of voices. Among these groups was a Washington-based anti-pollution group, Environmental Action, that became a co-initiator of the first Earth Day celebration in 1970 (Day, 1989: 216). Greenpeace started as an obscure organisation from Canada, achieved media prominence by conflicting with Russian whalers in 1975, and later achieved a high global profile (Day, 1989: 44), if only for a time.

The political arena also fell under the influence of growing

environmentalism. The environment was interpreted as a series of

problems crying out for resolution. Governments responded to the need to legislate to protect the environment and so became participants in environmental communication. In the United States of America this occurred in 1969 when the National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA) was promulgated. Some developing countries were relative latecomers. South Africa responded timeously to pressures on the environment by promulgating the Water Act 54 of 1956, the Atmospheric Pollution Prevention Act no. 45 in 1965 , the South African Environmental

Conservation Act in 1989, and the National Environmental Management Act in 1998. Exposure of parts of the developing world to the media

(including environmental communication) occurred later than in the case of the developed world, partly due to economic constraints such as cash strapped media institutions and inadequate communication infrastructure

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1. 1.3 Environmental communication

These proceedings - legislation, environmental activism, conferences and publications - are social responses to environmental problems and can not happen without environmental communication. The term

environmental communication is applied consistently throughout this study, although the literature search investigated other terms such as environmental reporting, ecological communication, green reporting, "ecospeak", environmental rhetoric or discourse, and environmental accounting or disclosure, as well as media. Environmental

communication has become prevalent in the past decade and more, as indicated by a report on institutional investor needs for corporate

environmental information (GEMi, 1992). According to the report the preceding two years had seen many companies responding to increasing public concern about the biophysical environment by publishing

documents on environmental issues. A growing economic imperative to communicate with corporate stakeholders about environmental

performance, is behind these efforts. Backes ( 1995: 147) refers to the growing emphasis in the mass media about such issues as global warming, the ozone layer, tropical deforestation, acid rain and the inconsistent management of national parks and forests. There are economic consequences to many of these environmental problems.

Couch ( 1993: 24) stresses the importance of environmental

communication. His company (Anheuser-Busch) has the firm belief that environmental communication is driving the company's successes and helping to turn its vision into reality. He quotes Sir Isaac Newton:

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"Communication is not reaction, it is an essential part of the action". This allocates a central role to communication in addressing environmental problems.

Myerson and Rydin ( 1997: 377) study the impact on society, or the social change, wrought by environmental communication. Their two models, or approaches to environmental communication, are relevant in the light of the biosocial perspective of this study.

The first (and prevalent) approach interprets the environment in terms of problems demanding solutions, which locates it within the a swer culture model (Myerson & Rydin, 1997: 377). Typical in this category is a Saturday Star report (Delmar, 1999: 6) quoting an official British research document that Southern Africa is among those areas facing growing water scarcity unless global warming is reversed. Uncontrollable global worming is expected to set in motion a further chain of problematic events such as threats to future crop yields. Fiedeldey-Van Dijk et al. ( 1998: 2) also detect a growing awareness of the "problematic nature" of environmental issues in official South African documents on the environment.

A second approach to environmental communication is thH culture of argument (Myerson & Rydin, 1997: 378), which they identify as a new paradigm. There is a movement away from the previous culture of problem-solution to a democracy of many empowered voices in

argumentative resolution. What transpires is a series of discussions with no single central concept, no simple opposition in debate, and no preset selection of ideologies. Here discussion is more than a means to an end -the goal is discussion, although it does not preclude resolution. While the

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debate continues, the environment {i.e. the biophysical system) "waits" {Myerson & Rydin, 1997: 37 6).

The culture of argument is not confined to environmental communication, but operates in a broader social context, for example ethics. Myerson and Rydin { 1997: 378) ponder the question of how this new culture of argument will suit environmental discourse. They speculate on new alliances and coalitions forming, which could challenge existing configurations and affect political action and change. Overlap between the two models is likely, as there may be a gradual transition from problem culture to culture of argument, or alternatively both approaches to environmental

communication may continue to co-exist.

Peterson { 1998: 373 - 37 4) also detects shifting alliances within the environmental debate. He quotes Killingsworth and Palmer { 1992) who explore a rhetorical connection between environmental activism and science. In this context they describe diverse "discourse communities" active in the environmental movement: the mass media, radical

environmental groups, government and even writers of fiction.

An interpretation of Myerson and Rydin's {1997: 377- 378) two models of environmental communication allows for every social response to the environment to slot into a continuum of social behaviour. At the one end of the continuum is a problem statement and search for solutions, and at the other end no action apart from exchanging symbols holding

environmental meaning. This interpretation will be applied in this study.

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1.2 Environmental communication in South Africa

The discussion up to now has dealt with environmental communication in general in the developed (Western) world as represented mainly by the

United States of America. However South African society displays a

unique combination of developed and developing world elements, which

complicates all communication, including environmental communication.

Environmentalism is alive and well in South Africa in the shape of a

number of active environmental groups such as the Wildlife and

Environment Society of Southern Africa, Earthlife Africa and the World

Wide Fund for Nature South Africa. These groups have specific agendas,

which vary between raising people's environmental awareness ( culture of argument) and taking action when threats occur e.g. getting a court

order to prevent pollution (answer culture).

1.2.1 Democracy

The democracy established in 1994 in South Africa when the previous

political dispensation came to an end through a general election, has

been characterized by a new culture of rights among a previously

marginalized majority. This includes environmental rights enshrined in the

Constitution of the Republic of South Africa, Act 108 of 1996, including the

right of every South African to an environment that is not hetrmful to their

health or well-being (Andrews, 1999: 3).

Democratization of the environment is supported by the National

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sustainable development are espoused and NEMA requires that community well being and empowerment be promoted by means of environmental education, the raising of environmental awareness, the sharing of knowledge and experience and other appropriate means. At the core of every one of these activities is the process of communication.

Environmental communication is further supported by the Access to Information Act No. 2 of 2000. One of the objects of this act is to give effect to the constitutional right of access to any information that is held by the State and by another person and that is required for the exercise or protection of any rights. In terms of everyone's right to an environment that is not harmful to their health or well-being such information may relate to environmental laws, to the state of the biophysical environment and to actual and future threats to the environment.

Democracy has given rise to a strong drive to encourage public

participation in developments potentially affecting people's rights to a non-harmful biophysical environment. South African environmental law demands public participation (e.g. NEMA, environmental impact

assessments under the Environment Conservation Act (ECA) of 1989, and the Minerals Act of 1991). Public participation answers to the description of the culture of argument: cognizance is taken of many different voices and not all problems brought to the discussion are solved. Some regard public participation as a synonym for communication, such as Jackelman and Britton ( 199 5: 9). They define public participation as both two-way communication to facilitate better decision-making, and as an iterative continuing communication process between an informed public and environmental planners.

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Environmental law is an output of government in the ongoing

environmental discourse and is typified as problem solving. On the other

hand the South African mass media may have an important role as promoters of environmental debate (culture of argument}. In the past

two decades there has been a move away from earlier theories depicting

mass media as a powerful force of change "capturing" ancl influencing passive audiences. Contemporary theories acknowledge the active role of the audience in the communication process. Like other

communicators, the media face the challenge posed by the

heterogeneous nature of the South African people. This includes the problem that much remains to be done to improve environmental literacy

among South Africans (Ballantyne & Tooth-Aston, 1990: 99}.

Levels of education among South Africans vary widely: from those who are generally illiterate, those with a primary school education, some

secondary school education, to matriculants and at the top end,

graduates (The Star readers' profile in section 2.3.1 ). Many people depend on the media for their environmental information instead of

taking part in formal programmes of environmental education (Lipsey,

1977, as quoted by Fiedeldey-Van Dijk et al., 1998: 8). This indicates the potentially influential role of mass media in increasing people's

environmental awareness.

Other factors may also further the media role in positively influencing

people's environmental literacy. General illiteracy is decreasing in South

Africa - 21 % in 1985, 16% in 1997 (Dixon & Pretorius, 2001: 12) and in 1999

lowest in Gauteng 14.5%, highest in Northern Province 30.8% (Statistics SA, 2002). The fact that South Africa boasts five TV channels and numerous

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many South Africans theoretically have access to news even if they are illiterate. Groenewald ( 1992: 64} expresses the opinion that dire socio-economic circumstances ensure that it is the people who appear to most need the mass media who have least access to them, so there may be a need for non-mass media with access to the rural poor.

Another beneficial factor is that, in contrast to many other African

countries where the media are government owned, not geared towards audience needs, and generally short of money, the South African print media are corporately owned, consequently not without funds and independent of the government (Mukasa, 1998: 11}. This means government performance, also on environmental matters, may be

assessed openly, and people appear to receive information from diverse sources.

However Willers, 1996, (as quoted by Fiedeldey-Van Dijk et al., 1998: 8}, questions the extent to which black readers' attitudes may be influenced. He argues that environmental news is scarce in· local newspapers catering for mainly black readers. Support comes from Mukasa ( 1998: l O}.

According to him there is some doubt that the African print and

electronic media are capable of interpreting environmental issues for the public. His argument of "institutional mediocrity" and journalists untrained in dealing with environmental topics, may be weakened by recent

attempts at informing environmental journalists, such as the publication of a media handbook on the Southern African environment

(SADC/IUCN/SARDC, 1998).

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1 .2.2 Developmental communication

As a developing country South Africa also has proponents of

developmental communication, which is defined by Groenewald { 1992: 59) as planned social change to improve people's lives. Many journalists in developing countries advocate journalism independent of state

controls, but sometimes they experience great difficulty in practising it {Hachten, 1992: 34 - 38). The developmental communication concept emerged in the last few decades of the 20th _{century in deve}_l_{oping nations} after they gained political independence from their colonizers. This

concept essentially rejects the Western model of the press, which entails media operating outside state controls, backing diversity and supporting a free flow of information. Central to the concept is a didactic or

ideological role of guiding people in building a new social order, supported mainly by politicians and government officials.

According to the developmental communication concept all

communication media must be harnessed by the government towards the all-important goal of nation-building, which consists of promoting economic development, constructing a political consciousness {and a distinct South African image), and combating social ills like poverty and illiteracy. Problem solving is the objective and this correspo ds to the answer culture model {Myerson & Rydin, 1997: 377). The developmental communication concept is a variation of the authoritarian concept {Hachten, 1992) - information must be used to promote national goals, the media should not challenge authority but support the government.

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expression. The question arises to what extent the South African government is able to make use of independent media to promote national goals? The researcher's opinion is that this probably occurs to a lesser extent than the government would like to, but nevertheless not to an insignificant extent, as issues high on the government's list of priorities gain coverage in the media by virtue of its potential impact on society. Environmental issues do feature on the South African developmental communication agenda.

Within the unique set of social circumstances in South Africa, including its racial, cultural and socio-economic diversity, a mixture of developed and developing features, as well as remnants of past political and social

discrimination, it can be expected that environmental communication here will be influenced by these circumstances.

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1.3 Environmental communication research

Theory is the starting point in every scientific investigation, and also guides the investigation process (Jansen & Steinberg, 1991: 9). Existing theory affects the way every researcher deals with the relationship between the phenomenon he investigates and his way of looking at the phenomenon (Fiedeldey-Van Dijk et al., 1998: 2). According to the latter, the pervasive influence of theory occurs at all data steps during a study, from

conceptualization, through data collection, data analysis, data interpretation, to final reporting.

Two aspects of mass communication theory relevant to this study are the functional approach and agenda setting. Infante et al. ( 1990: 347 - 349) list five functions of mass media to society i.e. surveillance (information and news provision), correlation (selection, interpretation and criticism of news), cultural transmission (imparts a society's rules, norms and values, often through social role models), entertainment and mobilization (rallies the nation in crisis). Agenda setting is the media's ability to tell people which social issues are important and require their attention (Infante et al.,

1990: 349). An eventual outcome of the agenda setting process may be that people respond to media emphasis of particular issues by growing awareness and/or social action, although this is beyond the scope of this study. The Star's environmental agenda will form part of the empirical investigation of environmental news as this agenda is taken to refer to environmental concerns repeatedly represented by the newspaper. Such repeated representation is taken by the researcher to indicate that the newspaper selected these specific issues in preference to other (also

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general) news because it judged these environmental concerns to be more newsworthy (important) than other issues, which were not printed.

In 2001 a review by the researcher of environmental communication research found that one aspect of environmental communication i.e. corporate environmental reporting, was well covered. A total of 9 South African dissertations and theses both current and completed dealt with corporate environmental reporting, as did 22 other studies. These studies are not reviewed here, as corporate environmental reporting is deemed to fall outside the scope of this study, which focuses on media

environmental reporting. Apart from the work on corporate

environmental reporting a total of only five studies (all published abroad) were found that dealt with environmental communication and these are listed in the following paragraphs.

Environmental communication: tales of life on earth (Peterson, 1998: 371 -386) deals with the association between environmentalism and

environmental communication. This work by Peterson as well as the

studies reviewed by him 1, deal with the environmental movement which is relevant to this study as it is linked to the development of environmental communication (see sections 1.1.2 and 1.1.3). In this context he reviews a number of books of which three are worth naming here. Peterson refers to Ecospeak: rhetoric and environmental politics in America (Killingsworth & Palmer, 1992, as quoted by Peterson) as a pioneer of the genre, which explores communication practices related to the environmental

movement. Two subject-related works appeared in 1996, namely Earthtalk: communication empowerment for environmental action

(edited by Muir and Veenendall, 1996, and quoted by Peterson) and

1 _Pe_{terson refers to a number of publications, which were}_no_{t accessed by the researcher}_.

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Green culture: rhetorical analyses of environmental discourse (edited by Hern di and Brown, 1996, and quoted by Peterson). Peterson quotes from Luhmann' s Ecological communication ( 1989) which is also referred to by other writers.

A second research piece, The future of environmental rhetoric (Myerson & Rydin, 1997: 37 6 - 379) explains two approaches to environmental

communication (see section 1.1.3), which are applied in this study to categorise concepts. A third study, Difficult questions about

environmental communication (Muir, 1997: 37 4 - 37 6), lists some oversights in studies on environmental rhetoric which add to an understanding of the field. A fourth piece of research, Media agenda setting with

environmental issues (Atwater et al., 1985), looks at the transfer of

environmental information to audiences and its relevancy to this study is the focus on the media environmental agenda. According to the fifth study, The biosocial perspective and environmental communication

research (Backes, 1995: 147 - 163), biosocial theory presents a conceptual framework for exploring communication linkages between society and the environment. This framework based on biosocial theory is applied in this study. Biosocial theory received its name from Bonnicksen

(Bonnicksen & Lee, 1982, as quoted by Backes) and refers to reciprocal relationships between the environment and society. This theory is

explained as a series of interactions between two different systems, the social system and the environmental system.

The interactions consist of two processes operating reciprocally. The first process involves social organisations changing structurally, behaviourally and also in their resource use practices, in reaction to input from both other social groups and from their physical environment. The second

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reciprocal process involves changes in the structure and function of environmental systems reacting to the resource use practices of social organisations. This two-way interaction happens through the exchange of material, energy and information.

Bonnicksen (Bonnicksen & Lee, 1982, as quoted by Backes, 1995: 149) built his biosocial theory on ideas developed by Firey, who argues that the most important link between society and the biophysical environment is not spatial but functional, referring to the way people use natural

resources. What was innovative was Firey's (1960, as quoted by Backes, 1995: 149) applying this definition of a natural resource in systems analysis. Human values and associated behaviour constitute the vital link between social and biophysical systems.

Research from a biosocial perspective investigates the functional links between the social system, which is typically innovative and determined by cultural processes, and the biophysical system characterized by biophysical processes. The particular relevance of Backes' ( 1995: 147 -161) work to this investigation, is his linking one aspect of the social system - mass communication - to biophysical systems through studying the ways

people perceive and behave towards the environment.

Two further studies were found that dealt with aspects of interest to this study. Towards a global knowledge for environmentally sustainable development agenda in 21st _century_southernAfrica (Mukasa, 1998: 1 -27) focuses on information and media in Southern Africa in a context of environmentally sustainable development. Complexity as reality: a cybernetic analysis of trans-cultural data on human perceptions of

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environmental change (Fiedeldey-Van Dijk et al., 1998: 1- 34) contains a section on media and environmental awareness.

A further body of work dealing with environmental communication consists of documentation generated by proceedings such as public participation (undertaken as part of development projects), as well as by conference proceedings dealing with environmental concerns. These publications are not included in this study as the focus of this study is the media.

It is evident that environmental communication research is the

emergence of a new field of study (Myerson & Rydin, 1997: 376) and in 1997 Muir ( 1997: 37 6) reported a rapid growth phase in the field. The phenomenon of environmental communication yet remains to be fully explored. Apart from numerous studies on corporate environmental reporting (see earlier part of section 1.3), a search of South African research has failed to reveal other work on environmental

communication. What is further lacking is environmental communication research done by environmentalists - of the five studies listed above, only one had the contribution of a researcher not identified as a

communications academic, namely a geographer. Peterson ( 1998: 371) nevertheless welcomes the contribution from communication scholars because they are well equipped, understanding symbolic interaction, to also understand environmental communication.

The conclusion of the literature search is that there is a considerable gap in work published on environmental communication, both in the South African context and elsewhere.

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1.4 Problem statement

The gap indicated in published research in this field is also pointed out by

Backes (1995: 147) and Myerson and Rydin (1997: 376), who say despite

extensive attention given to environmental issues in the mass media, the field of environmental communication research is still surprisingly small.

Backes also comments on the fact that environmental communication research in recent years has focused mainly on a few aspects such as news production, knowledge of and attitudes about issues, and the

dynamics of social conflict related to the environment. Aspects not

addressed include the environmental agendas of mass media, cross-cultural communication, the influence of specific mass media "save the environment" campaigns, and the watchdog role of mass media in

environmental communication.

In the field of environmental communication a lack in orientation towards

biophysical systems is the result of the social system orientation of researchers trained in the communication field. Backes ( 199 5: 147) comments on the irony of this, seeing that researchers involved in environmental communication, are likely to be motivated by environmental interest and concern.

The literature search as part of this study found media studies on social

issues such as development, but tracing published research on the phenomenon of environmental communication, and particularly on biosocial linkages, resulted in the total of five studies listed in section 1.3.

The research question posed by this study is intended to fill some gaps

relating to the contribution of a print mass medium to environmental

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communication, and in particular in its expression of biosocial interactions as it occurs in the South African context. The research question is

addressed by means of a content analysis to establish how one South African newspaper (The Star) deals with environmental themes. The outcome of the content analysis is applied to assess the pos~ible functional links between South African society and the South African biophysical environment.

The research question is: How does The Star represent South African environmental themes and what does this representation reveal about society-environment linkages (the biosocial perspective)?

1.5 Objectives

To answer the research question, the following objectives are formulated: • To examine existing literature on environmental communication and

relevant mass media theory.

• To investigate The Star's environmental agenda in terms of environmental themes presented in news reports.

• To examine if and how The Star links environmental themes to social perceptions, values and behaviours relevant to South African social problems.

• To assess the nature of linkages between aspects of the biophysical system and aspects of the South African social system.

The objective of this study is to address the existing gap in the

communication aspect of environmental research by doing a scientific investigation of links between social systems, as expressed in a mass medium in a South African context, and biophysical systems.

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The investigation will examine The Star's environmental agenda, as well as the connection of environmental themes to social perceptions, values and behaviours, leading to an assessment of these connections.

1.6 Central theoretical proposition

The central proposition is guided by the researcher's suggestion that The Star selects particular environmental themes for publication, and these themes throw light on social processes at work in contemporary South African society.

1. 7 Method of investigation

The field of study is introduced in chapter 1 of the dissertation. The

chapter further reviews environmental communication literature and sets the study objectives. This is followed in chapter 2 by an empirical

investigation of environmental news presented in The Star over a 12-month period from lJuly 1999 to 30 June 2000 (chosen as the sample of study material to narrow down the volume of material available). It covers The Star's environmental agenda and a quantitative content analysis on environmental news reports. Chapter 3 explores linkages between society and the biophysical environment through

communication in The Star. This is done by an exploration of media messages dealing with environmental concerns (themes the newspaper selects as part of its environmental agenda) and linking these to South African social values, perceptions and behaviours. Direct or indirect calls to social action or social choices are identified, and conclusions are

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made from these values and actions. Chapter 4 deals with the conclusions drawn from the empirical exploration results.

This introductory chapter explains the context and motivation for the empirical study on environmental communication, in terms of

environmental issues, environmentalism, South African social realities and published research on environmental communication. The following chapter will detail the content analysis conducted on a sample of environmental news from The Star over a period of 12 months.

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CHAPTER 2

EMPIRICAL STUDY: AGENDA SETTING AND CONTENT ANALYSIS 2.1 Introduction

The preceding chapter describes the evolution of environmental communication and identifies it as a largely unexplored area in

environmental management studies. This study has as its broad goal to investigate biosocial connections - linked by means of The Star, a mass print medium, which selects environmental themes relating to social issues facing South Africa. The literature review indicates a scarcity of published scientific studies on environmental communication in general, and in particular done from a biosocial perspective. This chapter will deal with the empirical part of the study, which has as its objective a content

analysis of environmental news in The Star over 12 months from 1 July 1999 to 30 June 2000.

2.2 Nature of the investigation

The investigation is based on the research question: How does The Star represent South African environmental themes and what does this representation reveal about society-environment linkages (the biosocial perspective)? This biosocial approach is discussed later in chapter 3. As analysis method an empirical study has been chosen. The content analysis is preceded by an examination of The Star's environmental agenda relating to the environmental issues it selects for publication. This leads to a proposition that the newspaper appears to effectively connect environmental themes to social perceptions, values and behaviours in the context of South African social problems and realities.

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In deliberating the choice between a qualitative or quantitative

approach, an early impression that The Star rated environmental news as important enough to give it considerable coverage, has been put to the test by an environmental theme count and percentages of theme representations (Table 2.5). The outcome is that this study is intended to be quantitative.

2.3 Method of the investigation

To establish a foundation of existing research in the field of environmental communication on which to construct this study, and to help channel the investigation, an extensive data base search was undertaken of the Repertorium for South African Journals, the Social Sciences Index, the National Research Foundation Nexus data base system, and ABI Inform.

The focus of this study is a biosocial perspective on the intricate connections between social systems and environmental systems, the latter interpreted here only as biophysical systems.

2.3.1 Selection of a mass medium

To study these connections, a mass medium The Star, a South African daily newspaper, was selected for an empirical investigation. The Star was selected because as a major daily newspaper its average circulation of

164 364 (last six months 2002) and 162 703 in Jul-Dec 1999 (The Star, 2003) ensures that it reaches a large sector of Gauteng. Demographic details of the 625 000 daily readers (AMPS, 2001 B Jan. to Dec., 2002) are given below. These demographics indicate a racially and socio-economically

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diverse readership, which typifies South African society. The newspaper

also has a tradition of environmental journalism (Clarke, 2002), 1

A newspaper was chosen for this study rather than a magazine, the radio or television because of the researcher's familiarity with the newspaper

medium. Other reasons for the choice were the apparent regularity and

diversity of environmental news covered in this newspaper. Magazines, and radio and TV programmes tend to cover environmental issues in greater detail, but may lack the diverse coverage of environmental issues in this newspaper.

Demographic details of The Star readers:

Ethnic groups: African 64% White 29% Coloured 4% Indian 3%

Education: Matric 40% Some high Post matric Some primary school 28% 27% school 5%

Monthly R7000+ 40% R2500- R900- R2499 Less than

incomes: R6999 31% 21% R900 8%

Employment: Full-time 48% Unemployed, Part-time 12% retired,

students 40%

Age (years): 35-49 33% 25-34 29% 16-24 19% 50+ 19%

Gender: Male 66% Female 34%

1 The Star has practised environmental journalism since 1971 when James Clarke became a full-time

environmental writer for the newspaper, and even in the early 1950s John Bond of the Africa News Service (part

of The Star) was a pioneer in the field of environmental journalism.

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2.3.2 Selection of environmental news reports

Newspaper reports were accessed in The Star library in Johcmnesburg. There was no need for the researcher to search newspapers from the chosen period for environmental news, nor to decide which report

matched which environmental issues. News clippings of the period l July 1999 to 30 June 2000 were filed according to a long existing indexed system of files or categories. Limitations of this system were that clippings did not indicate The Star page number, and no record was reportedly kept of the total of clippings filed. Cutting and indexing were done at the discretion of the chief librarian (Alexander, 1998: 3). There ore six basic file names. These are the South African files (the most important category according to the indexers), the biographical files (not subject-based), the subject files (including news not in the SA headings or alternatively of international importance). The other three heading categories are the country files (files about other countries e.g. Great Britain environment), the crime files and the company files (these are name, not subject-based and used mainly by Business Report - the business pages of the

newspaper). Some environmental reports indexed in the first three basic file names were included in the study.

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The 17 heading categories used by The Star, which are relevant to environmental reports during the research period, are as follows: Table 2.1 Heading categories in The Star

South African files Biogra~hical files

SA pollution environment Jordan, Pollo

SA pollution water Moosa, Mohammed Valli SA refuse

SA reserves general Subject files

SA reserves Gauteng Sub pollution air

SA reserves Kruger National Park Sub pollution environment SA reserves Tvl Sub pollution water SA water general Sub refuse

SA zoology wildlife Sub water

Sub weather temperature

A limitation on the scope of the dissertation has necessitated selecting certain files or categories for the content analysis and excluding others from the study. In terms of the research question (i.e. how does The Star represent South African environmental themes and what does this representation reveal about society-environment linkages), the sample from the newspaper's environmental reports may be deemed to be representative to the extent that the sample covers South African environmental concerns during all 12 months of the study period ( 1 July 1999 to 30 June 2000).

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The following categories were analyzed. As environmental news in a South African context was well covered in the six categories and all 1 2 months of the study were found to be covered in the content analysis, the researcher is satisfied that the sample is representative.

Table 2.2 Selected categories

SA pollution environment

SA pollution water SA reserves general SA zoology wildlife Moosa, Mohammed Valli Sub refuse

There are some issues that receive extensive coverage as part of The Star's environmental agenda. Tourism as an aspect of the environment

receives much newspaper space and 12 news stories during the research period cover aspects of tourism and the benefits of tourism for South Africa. Another popular issue is the proposed ban on the use of thin

plastic bags which is exhaustively reported - a total of 9 stories deal

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2.3.3 Content analysis

Content analysis is systematic and the methodology involves a number of steps (Wimmer & Dominick, 1987: 171 ), which can vary in sequence. The researcher used the Wimmer and Dominick framework in the following sequence.

Formulation of the research question

Preliminary examination of environmental news clippings from The Star was done to list headings and content. A connection between the environmental issues in reports and the social context was readily

apparent. This led the researcher to formulate the research question as follows: How does The Star represent South African environmental themes and what does this representation reveal about society-environment linkages (the biosocial perspective)?

ii Definition of the population in question

Inspection of The Star environmental files revealed an abundance of news material and it was decided to narrow the study material down to

environmental news stories published in The Star over a period of twelve months as indexed in the newspaper files (see Table 2.1 ). The period 1 July 1999 to 30 June 2000 was selected as appropriate when the study

commenced early in 2000.

iii Selection of an appropriate sample from the population Environmental reports (also from Business Report, The Star's business pages) were selected from six heading categories of indexed files of clippings in The Star library. The files were then deemed to be suitably representative as they covered South African environmental issues

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reported over all 12 months of the study period. Issues include

environmental problems such as pollution and refuse, natural resources e.g. conservation areas and wildlife, and matters relating to the current Minister of the Environment and Tourism, Valli Moosa. These heading categories are:

Table 2.3 Population sample

SA pollution environment A pollution water

SA reserves general SA zoology wildlife Moosa, Mohammed Valli Sub refuse

These files were paged through in chronological sequence. Initially report headings were listed together with publication date, the file name, the writer if indicated, and a brief summary of the essence of the story. The decision was later made to copy reports to facilitate examination of the content. Although some preference was given to the longer reports because one of the indicators of a story's importance is the newspaper space allocated to it, shorter reports were also included. A total of 65 environmental newspaper reports and headings were analyzed from The Star files within the selected period.

iv Selection and definition of a unit of analysis

Studying the environmental news reports resulted in a crop of recurring phrases, themes, words, types of language, values and reasoning (Wimmer & Dominick, 1987: 171) which started to suggest a pattern of social concerns showing up in environmental context. The unit of analysis

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was every indicator of a separate social category, whether a single word (e.g. tourism), or a complex phrase.

v Construction of the categories of content to be analyzed

Mainly by a thorough reading of the sample stories as well as by

consulting a reference (Jonkheid, 1996: 93) which contributed the

category of emotional appeal, a preliminary list was drawn up of

categories of content. This list was changed during a process of

assessment as the coding itself progressed. Some categories were

discarded because they turned out to be of little importance in terms of

very low numbers. These categories of content occur in varying numbers

and combinations in every clipping taken from the six heading categories

in the newspaper archive. The categories chosen are given in Table 2.4.

vi Coding of the content according to established definitions

The researcher's definitions of what constitutes each of the categories of content are as follows (Table 2.4):

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Table 2.4 Definitions of categories of content

Code Definition

1 Indigenous values Qualities valued by African communities 2 Cooperation Constructive joint initiatives by diverse

groups

3 Resource use Utilising a natural resource towards fulfillment of a human need

4 Actions credited/ Approval or criticism of behaviour relating

discredited to environmental issues

5 Income from environment Financial benefit derived by people from

any aspect of the biophysical environment

6 Job creation or shortage New employment opportunities or a lack of employment opportunities

7 Environmental rights The right to a non-harmful environment

8 Tourism Foreign visitors to South Africa spending

foreign currency here

9 Hope or success A positive outcome to an event

10 Emotional content Language with the potential to trigger readers' emotions

11 Praise/criticism of Evaluation of official initiatives or action government

12 Status Attributing importance to SA or its people

13 Nation building Efforts to create national pride or unity 14 Previous political Identifying negative aspects of the

dispensation apartheid regime

The story headings listed were analyzed and the copies of stories were stuaied sentence by sentence to identify recurring social indicators. These were compared to the selected categories of content to identify phrases or themes, and fit each one into one of the 14 content categories. Code

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numbers (Table 2.4) were used to facilitate coding directly on the copies of news stories. A single sentence containing more than one category of content was coded for each category.

To check the repeatability of coding done by the researcher a self-check

was done five months after the first counting, which consisted of a repeat

theme count on a randomly selected sample of 5.6% of the previously

counted newspaper clippings. The results were as follows: 21 totals for the

clippings were identical to those in the first theme count (43.8% of the

check sample). In another 23 totals the variation was small and

insignificant ( 1 or 2) -47. 9% of the sample, and in the case of only 4 totals

the two results varied significantly (3 or more). This means that in 91.7% of

the check sample the coding of environmental themes was proved to be repeatable and therefore reliable.

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2.4 Discussion of theme count results

A sample of each theme is provided below in italic font. No newspaper page numbers could be ascribed.

Table 2.5 Results of themes found in The Star

CodeLTheme Number %

l . Indigenous interests 29 3.1

2. Cooperation 48 5.1

3. Resource use 212 22.5

4. Actions credited/discredited 45/67 4.8/7.l

5. Income from environment 32 3.4

6. Job creation/shortage 33 3.5 7. Environmental rights 40 4.3 8. Tourism 74 7.9 9. Hope/success 15 1.6 l 0. Emotional content 170 18.l l l . Criticism/praise of government 71/25 7.5/2.6 12. Status 38 4.0 13. Nation building 34 3.6

14. Previous political dispensation 8 0.9

Total 941 100

2.4.1 Indigenous interests and values (Code l)

There are many references to indigenous interests and values (29 in number, 3.1 %)for example: Ubuntu is not possible without treasuring our

planet (Du Preez, 2000).

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Moosa puts African unity ahead of profit (Yeld, 2000c). Issue: Local wisdom is celebrated

Rural folk see practical value of conservation (Anon, 1999e). Issue: Nurturing the biophysical environment, rather than exploiting it

Questioning sustainable utilisation - the West is rejecting its attitude of domination over nature, and reverting to beliefs held by indigenous people (Patterson, 2000).

In the researcher's opinion promoting indigenous values may encourage South Africans to develop pride in their own culture and heritage.

2.4.2 Cooperation (Code 2)

Various instances of cooperation (48 in number, 5.1 %) between

government, business organisations, local communities and international agencies are brought to readers' attention. Government .. .in partnership with the private sector is working on projects across the country to

develop competitive advantages that (could) make South Africa a country with huge tourism potential (Moosa, 2000a).

In the researcher's opinion cooperation, or team effort, can surpass the achievement of one single agency and may contribute to building a winning nation.

2.4.3 Resource use (Code 3)

Occurrences of this environmental theme (212 in number, 22.5%) far

exceed those of any other single theme: .. . Although greater use of paper bags would put additional pressure on forests, trees were a renewable resource if managed properly (Gainsborough-Waring, 1999) .... People who live and farm in areas which cannot sustain farming any longer (Du

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Preez, 2000). South Africa was not in favour of elephants being killed for their ivory ... (Anon, 20000).

The preponderance of representations of resou·rce use suggests that South African society depend greatly on natural resources i.e. on its biophysical environment for personal and economic survival.

2.4.4 Actions credited or discredited (Code 4)

This theme ( 45 credits 4.8% and 67 discredits 7.1 %) includes amongst others, environmental pollution, abuse of animals, and hunting for sport. Communities, groups or individuals harming the environment are

identified: Informal settlements pollute water sources (Cox, ·1999a). Official disapproval was expressed in the proposed punishment of environmentally harmful actions: Penalties for offences cover a broad

range, including fines, remedial costs, permanent or temporary cessation of operations, forfeiture of property, imprisonment, loss of income and devastation ... of corporate reputation (Patrizi, 2000). People who shot animals for sport were scorned: Do hunters have a sexual problem? (Van der Sandt, 1999). There was disapproval of animal abuse: Trainers given

-mnrch-tn-g--urdersufte, publi-cungerat-e-leptranHJe-atirrgs-(-Feris;-1-999-ai-.

By appearing to censure certain forms of social behaviour, and to approve of other behaviours, the newspaper may unwittingly be espousing a code of environmental conduct for its readers. Also

suggested are some lessons in environmental ethics: Conservation's future

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2.4.5 Income from environment (Code 51

This theme occurs 32 times and adds up to 3.4% of the total theme count. The perception is expressed that the South African environment is a

resource that can earn money for South Africans: Eco-tourism, handled sensibly, is our untapped gold, and much better for our earth than

agriculture (Du Preez, 2000), and Kruger Park ivory might be sold to Japan for cultural artefacts (Anon, 2000a).

2.4.6 Job shortage and job creation (Code 61

Here is a sample of this theme which numbers 33 (3.5%): Tourism ... can create and sustain jobs faster than any other economic sector (Moosa, 20000), .. . Government is under attack from trade unionists for not living up to job creation promises ... (Spence, 2000), and It has also become the accepted trend that residents of the township Zamani should benefit, not only in finding jobs through tourism but also in becoming entrepreneurs (Guy, 1999).

By persistently acknowledging people's need for work, The Star appears to ensure that it addresses many readers' number one problem, their daily struggle for economic survival.

2.4.7 Right to a non-harmful environment (Code 71

This theme occurs 40 times (4.3%). Readers are informed about their right to a non-harmful environment: Dust-up at dam (Anon, 1999b) and Stench and soot angers residents (Cox, 1999b).

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2.4.8 Tourism (Code 8)

Linked to the need for employment is tourism. Numerous references to tourism (74 in number and 7.9%) extoll the economic benefits tourism holds for South Africans. Because the views of opinion leaders carry

considerable weight, The Star frequently quotes the Minister of the Environment and Tourism, Valli Moosa, on tourism: There are hard economic reasons why the government has made tourism a national priority (Moosa, 20000). Moosa values the environment as playing an important role in tourism: To think we can have tourism growth without environmental protection is short sighted. The two go hand-in-hand

(Anon, l 999f).

2.4.9 Success and hope (Code 9)

Aspects of success and hope ( 15 in number, 1.6%) concerni g the

environment are reported: The Amanzi Water Treatment Project, that will produce 240-million litres of drinking water per day from underground mines around Johannesburg is on track to become the largest private water treatment project in the world (Feris, 1999c). The relatively small percentage of successes in this category can not be taken as a media tendency for negative reporting as a number of other cater;iories of content (e.g. cooperation, income from the environment, praise of the government) also refer to successful initiatives.

2.4. l O Emotional content (Code l Ol

Here is a sample (170 in number, 18. l %) found in The Star's language use, which is imbued with varied degrees of emotional content: The plight of Soweto garbage collectors (Eksteen, 1999) - eliciting sympathy.

Environmental communication in the Star : an exploratory biosocial study