The perceptions of Setswana parents regarding the disclosure of child sexual abuse

The perceptions of Setswana

parents regarding the disclosure of

child sexual abuse

SB Chabeletsane

20436513

Dissertation submitted in partial fulfillment of the

requirements for the degree Master of Social Work in

Forensic Practice at the Potchefstroom Campus of

North-West University

Supervisor:

Dr AA Roux

Co-supervisor:

Prof CC Wessels

DEDICATION

This study is dedicated to all the children in South Africa who still suffer silently at the hand of sexual abuse, on a daily basis. This study is also dedicated to the many that are still unable to disclose the abuse to anyone as a result of many barriers, such as fear, stigma and poor social circumstances. Remember that it is never too late to reach out for a hand, and seek assistance. This research is also dedicated to all the stakeholders who are doing everything in their power to see this pandemic come to an end.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I would like to thank Lord God my Saviour for giving me strength, wisdom and endurance to complete this study. I would also like to express my sincere gratitude to the following people:

 My husband Tshepo Kalanko for his unconditional support, undying love, encouragement and patience during the good and difficult times.

 My daughter, Boitshepo, for her patience during my studies.

 My mother Susan Chabeletsane, and my sisters Nomonde and Sanele for their loyal support during all the years of my studies.

 My cousin Mosa Madiehe for all her assistance and support, I don‟t know what I would have done without you. You truly are God sent.

 Dr AA Roux and Prof CC Wessels for their patience, guidance and support.

 The Department of Social Development and SAVF (Potchefstroom, Klerksdorp and Carletonville) for their permission to interview the Social Workers and the Setswana parents that were identified.

SUMMARY

Title:

Key words: Setswana, parents, disclosure, child, sexual abuse

The researcher is employed as a social worker by the Department of Social Development at Tlokwe Service Point. She was first designated to the child care and protection programme, and thereafter was transferred to restorative services. During her years in the child care and protection programme, she was able to observe that many Setswana children who were believed to have been sexually abused displayed difficulties in disclosing the sexual abuse. While interviewing these children, it became apparent that their parents and their culture may play a role in their decision to refrain from disclosing the sexual abuse. Literature has shown that the parent-child relationship plays a significant role in the disclosure of child sexual abuse. This relationship is able to make the child feel safe, rebuild trust, and feel secure enough to disclose. If the care-giver of the abused child lacks these qualities, the chances are very slight that the child will feel „safe‟ enough to disclose. This may in turn result in a number of negative consequences, which includes the investigation being withdrawn, the recantation of a disclosure from the child and - most importantly and most concerning - the continuation of the sexual abuse. There may be several reasons for parents not wanting to disclose the sexual abuse of their child, and thus the researcher wants to explore the role of Setswana parents in the disclosure of child sexual abuse.

Unfortunately, no research is available regarding the parents‟ role in the disclosure or non-disclosure of child sexual abuse within this specific culture. Thus the aim of the research was to describe and explore the perceptions of Setswana parents regarding the disclosure of child sexual abuse: To find out from them what might be the contributing factors, or barriers which may restrict the disclosure of child sexual abuse. This information will aid social workers to empower Setswana parents with knowledge and insight on why they need to disclose child sexual abuse for forensic investigations, and how to prevent the recanting of that disclosure - thus ensuring

the successful prosecution of the alleged perpetrator. The social worker will also be able to structure their interviews in such a way that they can recognize – and overcome - these barriers during their interviews with the alleged sexually abused children. Purposive sampling was conducted among social workers from the Department of Social Development (Tlokwe Service Point) and Setswana parents from two organizations (the other being SAVF).

The results of this research have revealed that Setswana parents still do not have adequate information on what constitutes child sexual abuse. They seem to regard only rape as a form of sexual abuse, and they also do not seem to have knowledge of the fact that boy/girl children can get sexually abused as well. There were also a number of parents who felt that the manner in which female children dress may provoke the sexual abuse. However, none of the parents felt that culture should in any way hinder a child or their parents from reporting sexual abuse. The social workers believe that the Potchefstroom community needs to be made aware of the issues around child sexual abuse. They are of the opinion that more programmes should be implemented in the community, in churches, schools, social clubs and other relevant places.

They also believe that parents should be made aware that it is part of their rights and responsibilities as parents, to report any abuse against their children – and, if they do not adhere to this obligation, that they may also be held liable.

OPSOMMING

Titel:

Sleutelwoorde: Setswana, ouers, onthulling, kind, seksuele misbruik

Die navorser beklee „n betrekking as maatskaplike werker by die Departement van Maatskaplike Ontwikkeling by Tlokwe Dienspunt. Die kindersorg en -beskermingsprogram is aanvanklik aan haar toegewys, waarna sy oorgeplaas is na hersteldienste. Tydens haar werksaamhede by die kindersorg en -beskermingsprogram het sy opgelet dat heelwat Setswana kinders wat vermoedelik seksueel misbruik is dit moeilik gevind het om hierdie misbruik bekend te maak. Gedurende onderhoude met hierdie kinders het dit duidelik geword dat hulle ouers en kultuur „n rol mag speel in hulle besluit om nie die seksuele misbruik bekend te maak nie. Die literatuur toon dat die ouer-kindverhouding „n betekenisvolle rol speel ten opsigte van bekendmaking van seksuele misbruik. Hierdie verhouding kan „n kind laat veilig voel, dit kan vertroue herbou, en hom of haar sodanig gekoester laat voel dat hy/sy die misbruik kan bekendmaak. Indien die versorger egter nie hierdie gevoelens by die kind wek nie, is daar weinig kans dat die kind „veilig‟ genoeg sal voel om misbruik bekend te maak. Op sy beurt mag dit lei tot „n aantal negatiewe gevolge wat onder meer insluit dat die ondersoek onttrek word, dat die kind sy of haar bekendmaking terugtrek en - die belangrikste en mees kommerwekkende gevolg - dat die misbruik mag voortgaan. Daar is waarskynlik „n hele aantal redes hoekom ouers nie „n kind se seksuele misbruik wil bekendmaak nie, en daarom wil die navorser vasstel watter rol Setswana-ouers speel ten opsigte van kinders se bekendmaking van seksuele misbruik.

Daar is ongelukkig geen navorsing beskikbaar ten opsigte van die ouers se rol in die bekendmaking van seksuele misbruik van kinders in hierdie spesifieke kultuur nie. Daarom was die doel van die navorsing om die persepsies van Setswana-ouers ten opsigte van die bekendmaking van seksuele misbruik van kinders te beskryf en te ondersoek. Die onderneming was om by hulle te hoor watter faktore of hindernisse daar mag bestaan wat die bekendmaking van seksuele misbruik van kinders sou

kon beperk. Hierdie inligting sal maatskaplike werkers help om Setswana ouers te bemagtig met kennis en insig oor hoekom hulle die seksuele misbruik van kinders moet bekendmaak vir doeleindes van forensiese ondersoeke, en ook hoe om die onttrekking van sodanige bekendmaking te voorkom sodat die vermeende oortreder suksesvol vervolg kan word. Die maatskaplike werker sal ook dan by magte wees om haar onderhoude so te struktureer dat mense hindernisse kan erken - en oorkom - tydens hierdie onderhoude met vermeende seksueel-misbruikte kinders. Doelmatige steekproewe is onderneem onder maatskaplike werkers van die Departement van Maatskaplike Ontwikkeling (Tlokwe Dienspunt) en Setswana ouers van beide organisasies.

Die bevindinge van hierdie navorsing toon dat Setswana ouers steeds nie oor voldoende inligting beskik ten opsigte van wat seksuele misbruik van kinders behels nie. Dit wil voorkom asof hulle slegs verkragting as „n vorm van seksuele misbruik beskou, en hulle dra skynbaar ook nie kennis van die feit dat seuns ook kan ly onder seksuele misbruik nie. Daar was ook „n aantal ouers wat gevoel het dat die manier waarop dogtertjies aantrek, seksuele misbruik mag uitlok. Desnieteenstaande het geen van die ouers gevoel dat kultuur op enige wyse in die pad van ouers moet staan om seksuele misbruik aan te meld nie. Die maatskaplike werkers glo dat die Potchefstroom se gemeenskap bewusgemaak moet word van die aangeleenthede wat betrekking het op seksuele misbruik. Hulle voel verder dat meer programme geïmplementeer moet word in die gemeenskap, sowel as in kerke, skole, sosiale klubs en ander relevante omgewings.

Verder glo hulle dat ouers bewus gemaak moet word dat die aanmelding van enige vorm van misbruik teen hulle kinders hul reg en verantwoordelikheid as ouers is - en dat as hulle nie optree en ag slaan op hierdie verpligting nie, hulle ook skuldig gehou kan word.

FOREWORD

The article format was chosen in accordance with regulations A.7.2.3 for the degree MA in Social Work: Forensic Practice. The article will comply with the requirements of the journal Social Work/Maatskaplike Werk.

INSTRUCTIONS TO THE AUTHORS

SOCIAL WORK

The journal publishes articles, brief communications, book reviews and commentary articles already published from the field of Social Work. Contributions may be written in English. All contributions will be critically reviewed by at least two referees on whose advice contributions will be accepted or rejected by the editorial committee. All refereeing is strictly confidential. Manuscripts may be returned to the authors if extensive revision is required or if the style of presentation does not conform to the practice. Commentary on articles already published in the Journal must be submitted with appropriate captions, the name(s) and address(es) of the author(s), preferably not exceeding 5 pages.

The entire manuscript must be submitted, plus one clear copy as well as a diskette with all the text, preferably in MS Word (Word Perfect) or ASSII. Manuscripts must be typed, doubled spaced on the one side of the A4 paper only. Use the Harvard system for references. Short references in the text: When word-for-word quotations, facts or arguments from other sources are cited, the surname(s), year of publication and the page number(s) must appear in parenthesis in the text. More details concerning sources referred to in the text should appear at the end of the manuscript under the caption “References”. The sources must be arranged alphabetically according to the surnames of the authors.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

DEDICATION ... I ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ... II STATEMENT ... ERROR! BOOKMARK NOT DEFINED. SUMMARY ... IV OPSOMMING ... VI FOREWORD ... VIII INSTRUCTIONS TO THE AUTHORS ... IX

THE PERCEPTIONS OF SETSWANA PARENTS REGARDING THE DISCLOSURE OF CHILD SEXUAL ABUSE... 1

1. INTRODUCTION ... 1

2. PROBLEM STATEMENT ... 2

3. AIM OF THE RESEARCH ... 4

4. CENTRAL THEORETICAL ARGUMENT ... 5

5. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY ... 5 5.1 LITERATURE REVIEW ... 5 5.2 RESEARCH DESIGN ... 6 5.3 RESEARCH CONTEXT ... 6 5.4 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY ... 7 5.4.1 Participants ... 7 5.4.2 Data collection ... 9 5.4.3 Research procedures ... 10 5.4.4 Data Analysis ... 12 5.5 ETHICAL ASPECTS ... 13

5.5.1 Informed written consent ... 13

5.5.2 Confidentiality ... 13

5.5.3 Avoidance of harm ... 14

5.5.4 Debriefing ... 14

5.5.5 Benefits and risks ... 15

5.5.6 Release and publication of the findings ... 15

6. TRUSTWORTHINESS ... 16

8. DEFINITION OF TERMINOLOGY ... 18 8.1 CHILD... 18 8.2 PARENT ... 18 8.3 DISCLOSURE ... 18 8.4 SEXUAL ABUSE ... 18 8.5 PERCEPTIONS ... 19 9. DISCUSSION OF RESULTS... 19

9.1 RESEARCH RESULTS OF SETSWANA PARENTS... 19

9.1.1 Profile of Setswana parents ... 19

9.2 THEMES AND SUB-THEMES ... 20

9.3 THEME 1: PERCEPTIONS OF CHILD SEXUAL ABUSE ... 22

9.4 THEME 2:FACTORS THAT MAY CONTRIBUTE TO SEXUAL ABUSE ... 23

9.4.1 Sub-theme 1: Modern dress code ... 23

9.4.2 Sub-theme 2: Relationship with an older men ... 23

9.4.3 Poverty 24

9.5 THEME 3: PERCEPTIONS OF PARENTS REGARDING DISCLOSURE OF SEXUAL ABUSE BY CHILDREN ... 25

9.5.1 Sub theme 1: Disclosing of sexual abuse by children is important ... 25

9.5.2 Sub-theme 2: Disclosure is essential in the healing process ... 27

9.5.3 Sub-theme 3: Trauma experienced ... 27

9.6 THEME 4:FACTORS WHICH MAY INFLUENCE DISCLOSURE OF CHILD SEXUAL ABUSE ... 28

9.6.1 Sub theme 1: Boundaries of culture ... 28

9.6.2 Sub-theme 2: Fear of perpetrator ... 30

9.6.3 Sub- theme 3: Parental support ... 30

9.6.4 Sub-theme 4: Do not believe the child ... 31

9.6.5 Sub-theme 5: Socio-economic status ... 32

9.6.6 Sub-theme 6: Stigma/labeling from society ... 32

9.7 THEME 5:SETSWANA PARENTS’ ROLE IN ASSISTING CHILDREN TO DISCLOSE ... 33

10. RESEARCH RESULTS OF SOCIAL WORKERS ... 34

10.1 PROFILE OF THE SOCIAL WORKERS ... 34

10.1.1 Age and gender of social workers ... 34

10.1.2 Qualification of social workers ... 35

10.1.3 Experience of social workers ... 35

10.2 THEMES AND SUB THEMES ... 36

11. THEME 1: SOCIAL WORKERS’ PERCEPTIONS REGARDING DISCLOSURE OF CHILD SEXUAL ABUSE ... 36

11.2 SUB-THEME 2:FEAR OF THE PERPETRATOR ... 37

11.3 SUB-THEME 3:FEAR OF SECONDARY VICTIMIZATION ... 38

12. THEME 2: SETSWANA PARENTS ASSISTANCE IN THE DISCLOSURE PROCESS ... 39

12.1 SUB-THEME:SEX EDUCATION FOR CHILDREN ... 39

13. THEME 3: REASONS WHY PARENTS DO NOT WANT TO DISCLOSE ... 40

13.1 SUB-THEME 1:SOCIO-ECONOMIC STATUS OF FAMILY ... 40

13.2 SUB-THEME 2:STIGMA/ LABELLING BY THE COMMUNITY ... 41

14. THEME 4: THE SOCIAL WORKER’S ROLE IN IMPROVING DISCLOSURE... 41

14.1 SUB-THEME 1:EMPOWER THE COMMUNITY THROUGH INFORMATION DISSEMINATION (E.G. ADVOCACY, SUPPORT GROUPS, PARENTING SKILLS PROGRAMMES) ... 41

14.2 SUB-THEME 2:TRAINING FOR SOCIAL WORKERS ... 45

14.3 SUB-THEME 3:AMENDMENT OF LEGISLATION ... 46

15. THE RESEARCHER’S OBSERVATION ... 46

16. RECOMMENDATIONS ... 47

17. CONCLUSION ... 48

REFERENCES ... 50

ANNEXURE 1: ETHICAL APPROVAL ... 60

ANNEXURE 2: PERMISSION DEPARTMENT OF SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT ... 61

ANNEXURE 3: PERMISSION SAVF ... 62

ANNEXURE 4: CONSENT SETSWANA PARENTS ... 63

ANNEXURE 5: CONSENT SOCIAL WORKERS ... 68

ANNEXURE 6: AGREENMENT OF CONFIDENTIALITY ... 73

ANNEXURE 7: INTERVIEW SCHEDULE - PARENTS ... 76

LIST OF TABLES

TABLE 1: SEXUAL OFFENCES IN NORTH WEST PROVINCE ... 2

TABLE 2: SEXUAL OFFENCES IN NORTH WEST PROVINCE ... 6

TABLE 3: STANDARDS, STRATEGIES AND APPLIED CRITERIA TO ENSURE TRUSTWORTHINESS ... 16

TABLE 4: AGE AND GENDER ... 19

TABLE 5: THEMES AND SUB-THEMES ... 20

TABLE 6: AGE AND GENDER OF THE SOCIAL WORKERS ... 34

TABLE 7: QUALIFICATION ... 35

TABLE 8: EXPERIENCE ... 35

THE PERCEPTIONS OF SETSWANA PARENTS

REGARDING THE DISCLOSURE OF CHILD

SEXUAL ABUSE

(Ms SB Chabeletsane is a Social Worker at the Department of Social Development in the North West Province (Tlokwe Service Point). She was originally under the programme Child Care and Protection Services, but was transferred to Witrand Rehabilitation Unit in February 2014 under Restorative Services. Both Dr AA Roux and Prof CC Wessels are senior lecturers in the School of Psychosocial Behavioural Sciences, Social Work Division, Potchefstroom Campus of the North-West University.

Keywords: Setswana, parents, disclosure, child, sexual abuse INTRODUCTION

The Children‟s Institute at the University of Cape Town (Berry & Guthrie, 2003:31-32) conducted research for a fact sheet in 2003. It reported that the second most common crime committed against children falls under the category sexual assault - which includes rape, sodomy, indecent assault and other sexual offences. This fact sheet also stated that, in 2000, a total of 25 000 sexual crimes against children were reported in the country. South Africa was indicated to have the highest rate of child rape in the world, and it was estimated that 60 child rapes were reported on a daily basis. Sexual crimes, according to the South African Police Service (SAPS), increased from 64 514 to 66 387during 2012/2013(SA 2012/2013). According to the Department of Social Development, more than 50 000 crimes were reported against children during 2011/2012, of which 52% were of a sexual nature, 61% against children younger than 15 years of age, and 29% against children under 10 years.Sexual abuse happens to children of every class, culture, race, religion as well as gender (Meadow et al., 2007:42; Spies, 2006:45).

2. PROBLEM STATEMENT

In 2004-2005 alone, the number of reported sexual offences against children in South Africa was an astonishing 22 486 (Reyneke & Kruger, 2006:74). In 2009, Childline reported that they received one million calls relating to children suffering abuse in South Africa (Ncana, 2009:1). Despite these alarming statistics, a report by Solidarity Helping Hand, in June 2009, stated that more than 88% of cases in South Africa were not being reported (Mashaba, 2009:2). Confirming this, Collings et al. (2005:282) state that only about 12% of all sexual abuse cases are reported to authorities.

In North West (SA, 2012/2013:54), sexual offences increased during 2012/2013, with 549 more cases in a year in the province. No statistics are available on sexual offences in the Setswana population specifically.

Table 1: Sexual offences in North West Province

PROVINCE 2011/2012 2012/2013

NORTH-WEST 4,972 5,521

Police statistics show that 47,6% of the sexual abuse cases reported to the police were referred to court after investigation. However, of those cases referred to court, 45,6% were withdrawn in court, and an additional 4,5% settled out of court. Of the 22 121 reported cases that went to court, only a fifth (19,8%) resulted in the conviction of the accused (SA, 2001). Consequently, in the cases that were not prosecuted, the child could continue to be at risk of continued abuse and other risk factors which may arise from the child‟s attempt to disclose, thus decreasing the likelihood of the child ever disclosing again (Paine & Hansen, 2002:272). Child sexual abuse, according to The Criminal Law Sexual Offences and Related Matters Amendment Act 32 of 2007 (SA, 2007) is defined as any person that engages a child (by definition, a person under the age of 18) in a sexual act without the child‟s consent. It is very important for the alleged victims of child sexual abuse to be able to disclose the incident themselves. This step is critical in rendering legal and therapeutic intervention (Fouché, 2006:211).

Disclosure, according to Hollely and Müller (2009:125), is “a clinically useful concept to describe the process by which a child who has been abused gradually comes to inform the outside world of his plight”. Unfortunately, lengthy delays caused by children who do not want to disclose the sexual abuse are common. Many investigations - according to the experiences of the researcher as social worker - have been hindered because of the child refusing to disclose, denying that the abuse had ever taken place, or recanting after previously disclosing. These incidents may even lead to the investigation being closed.

Children‟s disclosure of sexual abuse is a significant element in initiating intervention to stop the abuse, address its immediate effects, and decrease the likelihood of negative long-term outcomes (Cromer, 2006:1; Goodman-Brown et al., 2003:526; Hershkowitz et al., 2007:113; NSPCC, 2010:1). Many children will become adults who never disclose - or delay disclosing the abuse - because of the difficulty of revealing the secret (Paine & Hansen, 2002:271).

There are many variables, according to Lamb et al. (2008:196), Meyers and Milner (2007:2) and Olafson and Lederman (2006:35-36) why children do not want to disclose. Variables may be that children are not willing to share their secret with other people; that there is no maternal or parental support; that they have a good relationship with the perpetrator because of the duration of the sexual abuse; or because they are too young to disclose. Cultural norms and values may affect the likelihood that child sexual abuse will be revealed by an adult or disclosed by a child (Fontes & Plummer, 2010:491). However, understanding these norms and values held by people in a specific culture can help professionals, such as a forensic social worker, to overcome the barriers they experience in disclosing the sexual abuse of a child (Schaeffer et al., 2011:351). One might find that there are certain issues that present differently, or which weigh heavily in various cultures, which may silence disclosures from the victims (Fontes & Plummer, 2010:496).

The definition of child sexual abuse varies from culture to culture. Dawes and Higson-Smith (2005:98) and Ngubane (2010:27) argue that the notion of child sexual abuse depends sometimes on what a specific ethnic group validates as sexual abuse. It is traditional within the African culture that children are expected to adhere to the cultural beliefs and norms of the society. The implications of these beliefs are

that even though the Children's Act expands on existing human rights and norms, and focuses exclusively on children and their rights, some cultures still view it as a radical notion that violates the African culture and tradition (Shumba & Moorad, 2000:173). Child sexual abuse in the Setswana culture, according to Malimaba-Ramagoshi et al. (2007:445), “often results from the belief of „ownership of the other‟. Parents and society in general often regard children as their property in the same way that many men believe they 'own' women.” This is reflected in the Setswana saying Logong lo ojwa lo sa le metsi, which justifies the disciplining of children through physical punishment or deprivation. This is mostly done in the knowledge that they (the children) will not fight back or defend themselves. Thus, children who are being physically or sexually abused - or whose rights are being denied by their parents (or guardians/relatives) - are not entitled to seek assistance from the courts or Lekgotla (traditional court), and are usually left powerless, not knowing where to go for help. The results of the above-mentioned are that many children who are physically or sexually abused will go unheard, unassisted and unprotected (Fontes, 2008:136-139).

The decision to disclose or report child sexual abuse is not a solitary, individual decision. The influence of the parents, and their reactions towards the child, play a significant role in the child deciding whether he or she is going to disclose or continue giving the parents any further information (NCTSN, 2009:2; Plummer, 2006:2; Yancey & Hansen, 2010:415). One of the reasons children disclosed the sexual abuse so late, or not at all, was based on the attitude of their parents. Some children reported that they do not disclose out of fear of their parents‟ reaction (Schaeffer et al., 2011:344).

This being the case, the question this research paper aims to pursue, is:

What are the perceptions of Setswana parents regarding the disclosure of child sexual abuse?

3. AIM OF THE RESEARCH

The aim of the research was to describe and explore the perceptions of Setswana parents regarding the disclosure of child sexual abuse.

4. CENTRAL THEORETICAL ARGUMENT

More information on the perceptions of Setswana parents, in order to understand the non-disclosure of child sexual abuse, can assist social workers to empower Setswana parents with knowledge and insight on why they need to disclose child sexual abuse for forensic investigations; and on how to prevent the recanting of that disclosure and thus ensure the successful prosecution of the alleged perpetrator.

5. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

Fouché and Schurink (2011:323) define research methodology as a process that involves the application of a variety of standardized methods and techniques in the pursuit of knowledge.This research was centered on a qualitative methodological approach.

5.1 Literature Review

Literature review demonstrates to the expert reader that the researcher is aware of the breadth and diversity of literature that relates to the research question. It is important that the author is able to provide an integrated overview of his field of study. This means that they show awareness of the most important and relevant theories, models, studies and methodologies. According to Fouché and Delport (2011:134), the preliminary reading on the proposed topic is also important to provide the researcher with the necessary knowledge on the proposed research topic. Thus the researcher should read articles and books on concepts such as child sexual abuse, the disclosure process of sexual abuse, and factors influencing Setswana parents that may contribute to whether the child discloses or not. Very few sources could be found on the subjects listed above. It appears that no research has ever been conducted on the perceptions of Setswana parents as it pertains to the disclosure of child sexual abuse. Sources such as articles, Acts (that is, legislation), the internet, scholarly books, research reports and dissertations were consulted for this study.

Databases that were consulted include the following: EBSCO Host Web, South African and International Journals and Books, Google Scholar, SAGE publications and Science Direct.

5.2 Research Design

Grinnell (2001:231) defines research design as a plan which includes every aspect of a proposed research study, from conceptualization of the problem to the dissemination of findings. Research design is a plan, or a blue print, of how one intends to conduct research (Babbie & Mouton, 2001:647).

The interpretive descriptive design model was used to explore and describe the perceptions of Setswana parents in the non-disclosure of child sexual abuse (St George, 2010:1624). Interpretive practice engages both the how and what of social reality (St George, 2010:1626). According to Botma et al. (2010:110), descriptive designs are used when little is known about a topic. The objective of the interpretive descriptive design was to strive to describe or interpret the phenomenon of child sexual abuse disclosure within the Setswana culture (Fouché & Schurink, 2011:321). The research had an exploratory objective. Exploratory research was conducted to gain insight into this under-investigated field. Exploratory research often relies on qualitative approaches such as interviews, which was the data gathering technique for this study.

5.3 Research context

South African Crime Statistics indicate that in North West province sexual offences increased during 2012/2013, with 549 more cases in a year, which shows the seriousness of sexual offences in the province(SA, 2012/2013:54). No statistics are available on the experience of specifically the Setswana population.

Table 2: Sexual offences in North West province

PROVINCE 2011/2012 2012/2013

NORTH-WEST 4,972 5,521

The research was done in Potchefstroom,an academic city in North West province, South Africa. It is the site of the Potchefstroom Campus of the North-West University. According to the Tlokwe City Council Draft 2011 (2011:35-37)

Potchefstroom covers an area of approximately 2500 square km and is divided into two parts by the N12 route between Johannesburg and Cape Town.

The population comprises: Black African: 86 482

White: 33 690

Coloured: 3 705

Indian or Asian: 473

Most of the Black African people in the Potchefstroom area speak Setswana.

5.4 Research Methodology

The researcher pursued a qualitative research methodology approach. The qualitative approach is used to answer questions about the phenomena with the purpose of describing and understanding the phenomena from the participant‟s perspective (Leedy & Ormrod, 2005:94-95).

5.4.1 Participants

The researcher utilised the purposive sampling technique. All the participants were selected on the basis of their knowledge and experience of the topic and the perceptions of Setswana parents regarding the disclosure of child sexual abuse (Strydom & Delport, 2011:392). The selected participants were sourced from the databases of the Department of Social Development (a government department) and the NGO SAVF Family Care (or Suid Afrikaanse Vroue Federasie Gesinsorg). The participants consisted of two groups:

Group 1: Setswana parents

The Department of Social Development and SAVF Family Care in Potchefstroom connected the researcher with Setswana parents who attended parenting programmes. These were parents who had knowledge regarding the perceptions of Setswana parents pertaining to the disclosure of child sexual abuse, and who were all in the Potchefstroom area. The focus was on Setswana parents residing in and around Potchefstroom, which includes the Ikageng area and the extensions around Ikageng.

Group 2:Social workers

Social workers from the Department of Social Development as well as SAVF Family Care in Potchefstroom were included in the research because they were in touch with Setswana parents who at first did not want to disclose the sexual abuse of their child, but later did disclose the sexual abuse. These social workers were able to give an objective view about the perceptions of Setswana parents who did not want to disclose the sexual abuse, because they had counselled them. Only five social workers were willing to give informed written consent.

The criteria for selecting participants were as follows: Group 1: Setswana Parents

 Setswana parents, residing in the Ikageng area and the extensions around Ikageng in Potchefstroom.

 Setswana parents who attend or attended parenting or empowerment programmes run by social workers in the Department of Social Development or SAVF Family Care, and who had knowledge on the perceptions of Setswana parents regarding the disclosure of sexual abuse. Setswana parents that could speak and understand English or Setswana.

 Setswana parents who gave written consent to be part of the research, and who also gave informed written consent that the interview can be tape recorded were part of the research.

Group 2: Social workers

 Social workers of the Department of Social Development or SAVF Family Care in Potchefstroom who had worked with Setswana parents who at first did not want to disclose the sexual abuse of their child, but later did. These social workers, as a result of their services, had some insight into why Setswana parents did at first not want to disclose the sexual abuse of their child..

 Social workers who could speak English.

 Social workers who gave informed written consent to be part of the research.

 Social workers who gave informed written consent that the interview could be tape recorded.

5.4.2 Data collection

For the purposes of this study, a qualitative approach was utilized. The researcher used semi-structured one-to-one interviews (Greeff, 2011:351). Semi-structured one-to-one interviews were used in order to gain a picture of the Setswana parent‟s beliefs and their perceptions of child sexual abuse disclosure. The aim of semi-structured interviews in this study was to gain a detailed picture of the perceptions of Setswana-speaking parents as well as the perceptions of social workers regarding the disclosure of child sexual within Potchefstroom area until data saturation.

With regard to the semi-structured interviews of the parents, the researcher had a set of five open-ended questions on an interview schedule, and four for the social workers. (Annexures 7 and 8) The interview schedule was evaluated by experts in the Social Work Division of North-West University‟s Potchefstroom Campus to ensure quality control -and also evaluated with the help of three Setswana parents who were not research participants, to determine the clarity of the questions. After the schedule had been evaluated, the necessary adjustments were made to the schedule. The language used in the interview schedule for parents was in English as well as Setswana. Translations of the interview schedule, from English to Setswana, were done by a qualified translator.

Audiotape recordings were made during the interviews, with consent granted by both the parents and the social workers. The focal task of the audiotape recording, according to Monette et al. (2005:79) was to record the responses of the participants. Rubin and Babbie (2005:457) and Greeff (2005:234; 298) are of the opinion that a tape recorder is a powerful tool, as it allows the interviewer to keep full attention focused on the participant while also not missing any information provided by the participant. All the audiotape recordings were translated from Setswana to English by a translator who signed a confidentiality agreement, and was assisted by the researcher. Only two participant parents could not do the interviews in English. The researcher also made field notes after each interview in English as recommended by experts (Greeff, 2011:373).

5.4.3 Research procedures

The researcher pursued the following procedures in the study:

Group 1:Setswana parents

 The researcher wrote a letter to the Managers of the Department of Social Development (Tlokwe Service Point) and SAVF Family Care in Pretoria requesting permission to do the research and explaining the aim of the research.

 The researcher requested permission to contact the social workers who would be mediators and assist in providing names of Setswana parents who attended empowerment programmes in the Ikageng area and the extensions around Ikageng in Potchefstroom.

 The social workers then contacted the parents to discuss the aim of the research and enquired whether they were interested in being part of the research. The social workers then introduced the parents to the researcher.

 Once the participants had been identified, appointments were scheduled with the parents where they were all informed about the research project. They were given information regarding the aim of the study and the benefits and risks of taking part, as well as the ethical issues. This ensured that the participants made an informed choice on whether to continue taking part, or not.

 The parents were given enough time (five days) to read the consent form before they decided to take part in the study.

 The participants‟ informed written consent, to take part in the research as well as for the interviews to be audio recorded, was granted before the interviews started. (Annexure 4)

 The researcher, together with the social workers, arranged convenient dates, times and venues for the interviews with each of the participants, individually.

 The researcher conducted the semi-structured interviews with parents introduced by SAVF in a social worker‟s office where privacy could be assured. Interviews with parents from the Department of Social Development were conducted in the office of the researcher where confidentiality could be assured.

 After each interview, the researcher wrote a detailed report.

 All audio recorded interviews were transcribed by a research assistant who signed aconfidentiality agreement. All audio tape recordings were destroyed

after transcription.

 The reports and audio recorded tapes were stored in a locked cabinet in the researcher‟s office, and data on the researcher‟s computer was password protected.

Group 2: Social workers

 The researcher wrote a letter addressed to the Managers respectively of the Department of Social Development (Tlokwe Service Point) and SAVF Family Care in Pretoria, requesting permission to do the research and explaining the aim of the research. Permission was requested for the inclusion of social workers who had experience in Setswana parents‟ disclosure in child sexual abuse, as well as the provision of social workers‟ details. (Annexures 2 and 3).

 Once the participants had been identified, appointments were scheduled with the social workers, and they were informed by the researcher regarding the aim of the study and the benefits and risks of taking part, as well as the ethical issues raised by the research. This ensured that the participants made an informed choice on whether or not to continue taking part.

 The social workers were given enough time (a week) to read the consent form before they decided to take part in the study.

 Written permission of the participants to take part in the research, as well as for the interviews to be audio recorded, was granted before the interviews started.

(Annexure 5).

 The researcher arranged convenient dates, times and venues for the interviews with the social workers. The interviews took place in the social workers‟ offices.

 The researcher wrote detailed reports after each interview.

 The audio recorded interviews were transcribed by a research assistant who signed an agreement of confidentiality. All audio tape recordings were destroyed after transcribing the interviews.

 The reports and transcribed interviews were stored in a locked cabinet in the researcher‟s office, and data on the researcher‟s computer were password protected.

5.4.4 Data Analysis

According to Neuman (2006:459) a researcher‟s focus in a qualitative data analysis is to “organize specific details into a coherent picture”. The analysis of data by the researcher must represent the real experiences of the participants concerned. While analyzing the data, the researcher considered the following: the words, context, and frequency of comments; specificity of comments; what was said and what was not said; as well as striving to ascertain the main idea (Greeff, 2011:373). The researcher ensured that all the audio tape recordings were transcribed (Botma, 2010:220).The qualitative data was analysed by hand.

 Botma et al. 2010:213) and Schurink et al. (2011:402) identified the following guidelines when analysing data and the research project adhered to these, viz:

 The initial research was kept in mind.

 All voice data was transcribed.

 The correctness of transcripts was ensured by an external person who transcribed the data, and the researcher verified the correctness.

 Topics were coded.

 During transcription, enough space was left on both the left and right margins to allow the researcher to make notes during analysis.

 The processing and interpretation of the qualitative date was done by hand, and themes and sub-themes were identified.

 When translation was needed, an external person verified the information.

The researcher requested a social worker, who acted as external co-coder,to ensure the accuracy of the data, and to also verify the correctness by listening to the recorded data and working through the reports as stated in Botma et al. (2010:224; 232). The co-coder signed a confidentiality agreement. (Annexure 6) The researcher determined the accuracy of the findings with the participants by discussing the data received from them (that is, member checking). This was done by means of a follow-up interview with each participant, in private to ensure confidentiality (Botma et al., 2010:231).

5.5 Ethical aspects

Ethics relates to moral standards that the researcher should uphold at all stages of the research. Research ethics are developed to protect participants of research from abuse by researchers (Bless et al., 2006:140). Written permission number NWU-0027-09-A1 was obtained from The Health Research Ethics Committee (HREC) of the Faculty of Health Sciences of North-West University to conduct the research as part of an umbrella project. (Annexure 1). The ethical aspects pertaining to this study included, amongst others, informed consent, confidentiality, and avoidance of harm to respondents.

5.5.1 Informed written consent

Prior to the participants granting the researcher informed consent, they were told about the procedures that would be followed during the research. Participants were aware of the advantages and disadvantages and dangers to which they may be exposed during the study (Strydom, 2011:117; Monette et al., 2005:53). A preface outlining the research, its voluntary nature and statement of confidentiality was included on the consent forms of the participants (Babbie & Mouton, 2001:521; Creswell, 2003:64). These forms entailed a statement of confidentiality, privacy and anonymity. A written consent form was thereafter obtained. Only the social workers and the Setswana parents who agreed with the statements, and who gave written consent, were included in this research. The participants were also informed that they may freely participate in the study and that they were able to withdraw from research anytime without any consequences (Butz, 2008:249). Prior to obtaining informed consent, the researcher explained to the Setswana-speaking parents that, should a participant disclose sexual abuse of a child, the disclosure would be reported to the social worker for further investigation.

5.5.2 Confidentiality

Due to the sensitive nature of the subject of this research, the social workers as well as the Setswana parents were assured of confidentiality and also that no identifying particulars such as names would be used in the research report. The interviews were in the office of each social worker, and with the parents in the offices of the social workers where confidentiality could be assured. All completed interview schedules

were kept safely stored in a locked cabinet in the researcher‟s office (Babbie & Mouton, 2001:523). All audio tape recordings were destroyed. The researcher allocated a number in advance, such as participant 1, 2, etcetera, to maintain confidentiality, instead of using the participants‟ real names.

5.5.3 Avoidance of harm

The researcher made an undertaking to treat all participants with respect during the interview in order to avoid emotional harm. Participants in social research, according to Strydom (2011:115), can be harmed either physically and/or emotionally. One can accept that harm to respondents in social research will mainly be of an emotional nature. During data collection that was by means of an interview, the researcher was very attentive to whether any of the participants experienced any harm of an emotional nature when answering the questions. The researcher explained to the participants that another therapist, such as a social worker, may be contacted should the participant require more counselling after participation in the study. No participant experienced any harm.

5.5.4 Debriefing

If respondents, especially in qualitative research, are affected by problems generated by the research experience, debriefing sessions will be arranged to work through their experiences and its aftermath in order to handle their feelings, answer their questions and remove misconceptions (Babbie, 2001:475). Strydom (2011:122) emphasises that subjects should never be exposed to situations likely to cause any harm. The researcher always keeps in mind that, should there be any secondary trauma experienced by any of the participants, they would be given the opportunity to work through their secondary trauma by means of debriefing sessions by an appropriate therapist - such as another social worker, who would render counselling services free of charge (Bless et al; 2006:143; Strydom, 2011:122). The researcher was prepared to clarify, at any point, possible misunderstandings regarding the information received from respondents, but it was not necessary. No debriefing was required.

5.5.5 Benefits and risks

Indirect benefits for the participants in this study were that both the Setswana parents and the participating social workers were given knowledge on how to prevent the non-disclosure of child sexual abuse in the Potchefstroom area or, more specifically, in the Setswana culture. Benefits for the community may be that more cases would be reported, meaning that the alleged perpetrators would no longer be able to commit those crimes in secret after an intervention with the child.

Knowledge attained from this research project would assist social service professionals in, firstly, creating more awareness around the community about hindrances in the disclosure of child sexual abuse and, secondly, in developing empowerment programmes or groups for children and caregivers to enhance their knowledge and skills in how to prevent the non-disclosure of child sexual abuse. The Setswana participants would also gain more knowledge as to whether there are any cultural practices, beliefs or values that hinder their children from disclosing child sexual abuse. This knowledge might also contribute to an increase in the successful prosecution of alleged perpetrators.

Risk, according to Botma et al. (2010:22), "equates to harm or injury and implies it is something detrimental that may occur in the future". Participants could experience emotional discomfort as a result of discussions of the sexual abuse of a child. Every participant was given the opportunity to work through their embarrassment or trauma by means of debriefing sessions which would be carried out by an appropriate therapist, such as another social worker (Bless et al., 2006:143; Strydom, 2011c:122). No participant experienced any embarrassment. The researcher clarified any possible misunderstandings of the information received from participants after each interview (Botma et al., 2010:22).

5.5.6 Release and publication of the findings

Managers from the respective organisations (SAVF Family Careand the Department of Social Development) will be informed, via a report, on the outcome of the research study. The managers will inform the area managers in their organisation regarding the results of the study, who will then inform the participants. However, the researcher will make sure that she does not divulge essential information which

might hinder the confidentiality of participants. The findings of the study will also be introduced to the reading public in written form, by means of a dissertation as well as an article in an accredited journal.

6. TRUSTWORTHINESS

According to Botma et al. (2010:232), trustworthiness has four epistemological standards, namely truth value, applicability, consistently and neutrality. Truth value, applicability, consistency and neutrality were used as criteria to assess the value of findings and to ensure trustworthiness (Botma et al., 2010:234).

Table3: Standards, strategies and applied criteria to ensure trustworthiness Epistemological

standards Strategies Application

Truth Value Credibility Credibility refers to internal validity. The researcher must have confidence in the truth of the findings with regards to the participants, as well as the context in which the research was undertaken. For the purpose of the study, the researcher ensured credibility through prolonged engagement, member checking and peer examination (Botma et al., 2010:233; Shenton, 2004:64).

Consistency Dependability Dependability refers to the replication of the study in the same context. By making use of the same methods and with the same participants, the findings will stay consistent (Botma et al., 2010:233).

To enable dependability the researcher included the following:

Dependable audit: the researcher provided a detailed account on how data was collected.

Description of the methodology: the researcher included in the research design what was planned and executed during the study.

The researcher ensured that data was correctly coded.

Peer examination of the study was done (Botma et

al., 2010:233; Shenton, 2004:64).

Applicability Transferability Transferability is determined by the degree that findings can be generalized to the larger population. The findings in regard to this qualitative study were specific to a small number of individuals in the Potchefstroom area. The researcher improved transferability by the selection of resources and sampling, saturation of data, and the detailed description of the data (Botma et al., 2010:233; Shenton, 2004:64).

Neutrality Conformability Conformability entails that the research process and results are free from prejudice. The researcher ensured that, as far as possible, the study‟s results are objective and are not based upon the biases, motives and perspectives of the researcher. For the purpose of the study, conformability was in making field notes available for auditing (Botma et al., 2010:233; Shenton, 2004:64).

7. LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY

 The researcher was unable to commence with the data collection at the scheduled time, due to the fact that social workers from the Department of Social Development took longer than expected to submit their written consent.

 The researcher also experienced some difficulty in securing an appointment with some of the social workers from the Department of Social Development as they had to attend to other engagements such as workshops and meetings.

 The social workers also took longer than expected in identifying Setswana parents who could participate in the study.

 During the interviews at Department of Social Development, the researcher experienced minor interruptions such as the telephone ringing. However, the

researcher unplugged the phone and also put up notifications that sessions were taking place in the office in order to avoid interruptions.

8. DEFINITION OF TERMINOLOGY 8.1 Child

The Children‟s Act 38 of 2005 (SA, 2005) defines a child as any person under the age of 18 years. The New Dictionary of Social Work (1995:8), also defines a child as a person under the age of 18 years.

8.2 Parent

Free Online Dictionary (2013:1) defines a parent as one who begets, gives birth to or nurtures and raises a child, a father or a mother. The Children‟s Act No 38 of 2005 defines a parent in relation to a child, and includes the adoptive parent of a child, but excludes:

 the biological father of a child conceived through the rape of, or incest, with the child‟s mother,

 any person who is biologically related to a child by reason only of being a gamete donor for purposes of artificial fertilization, and

 a parent whose parental responsibilities and rights in respect of a child have been terminated.

8.3 Disclosure

Disclosure according to Hollely and Müller (2009:125) is “a clinically useful concept to describe the process by which a child who has been abused gradually comes to inform the outside world of his plight”. Lamb et al. (2008:203) define disclosure as a “clinically useful concept to describe the process by which a child who has been abused gradually comes to inform the outside world of his plight”.

8.4 Sexual Abuse

The Criminal Law (Sexual Offences and Related Matters) Amendment Act 32 of 2007 (SA, 2007)defines child sexual abuse as assault of a child, or allowing a child to be sexually abused or assaulted and encouraging, inducing or forcing a child to be

used for the sexual gratification of another person. Procuring, or allowing a child to be procured for commercial sexual exploitation, or in any way participating or assisting in the commercial sexual exploitation of a child. Using a child in or deliberately exposing a child to sexual activities or pornography.

8.5 Perceptions

The Longman Dictionary (2009:1289) defines perception as the way someone thinks about something and his/her idea of what it is like.

9. DISCUSSION OF RESULTS

The following discussions of results are based on categories of main themes and sub-themes that emerged from the data. The main aim of the research was to explore the perceptions that Setswana parents have on the disclosure of child sexual abuse. The participants who formed part of the study and who shared their perceptions regarding this matter were six (6) Setswana parents and five (5) social workers. For reasons of confidentiality, the researcher allocated a number to the social workers, and alphabetic letters to the parents. Social workers are indicated in the research as participants 01-05, while the parents were indicated as participants A-F.

An in-depth interview schedule was utilized during the interviews with all the participants, to collect the data. The following results of the interviews with the Setswana parents will be discussed:

9.1 Research results of Setswana parents 9.1.1 Profile of Setswana parents

9.1.1.1 Age and gender of Setswana parents Table 4: Age and Gender

Participant Letter Age Gender

Parent A Above 60 Female

Parent B Above 60 Female

Parent D 31-40 Female

Parent E 50-60 Female

Parent F 50-60 Female

The above table indicates that there were a total of 6 Setswana parents who took part in the research study. The Setswana parents were all females, three were above the age of 60, one was between 31-40 years, and the last two were between 50-60 years. The ages of the parents were thus between 30 and 60 years of age which indicated a good distribution of ages and experiences as parents.

9.2 Themes and sub-themes

Semi-structured interviews were used, guided by an interview schedule. After the completion of the interviews, the researcher identified five main themes, and all of the themes have their own sub-themes. The themes and sub-themes can be summarized as follows:

Table 5: Themes and Sub-themes

THEME NUMBER THEME NAME SUB-THEMES

1 Perceptions of child sexual

abuse

 Rape/engaging in sexual

relations with a minor who is not yet of consenting age

 Rape by neighbours

2 Factors that may contribute

to child sexual abuse

 Modern dress code

 Relationship with an older men

3 Perceptions of parents

regarding disclosure of sexual abuse by children

 Disclosing of sexual abuse by children is important

 Disclosure is essential in the healing process

 Trauma experienced

4 Factors which may influence

disclosure of child sexual abuse

 Boundaries set by culture  Fear of perpetrator  Parental support  Disbelieve the child

 Socio economic status  Stigma/labelling from society

5 Setswana parents‟ role in

assisting children to disclose

 Secure counselling  Assure safety of the child  Open communication

9.3 Theme 1: perceptions of child sexual abuse

The researcher asked the participants, what is their understanding regarding sexual abuse? It became apparent that the parents, Setswana speaking people, were more familiar with child sexual abuse only in the form of rape. Only one participant gave an answer that was different from the other participants. She mentioned that child sexual abuse is to engage in a sexual relationship with a minor who is not yet of consenting age. The following were the responses that the participants gave:

“It is abuse of a sexual nature, such as rape. Being raped perhaps by the man next door or boys in the streets”. (Participant D)

“Actually, let me say that I do not understand it”. (Participant C)

Child sexual abuse is to victimize children on the issue of forceful sex. As I see (it), it is rape by neighbours. You know for me as parent rape is a sin and it affects everyone in the family. (Participant F)

The participants‟ perceptions regarding child sexual abuse are vague. From these answers it was obvious that the parents have a different knowledge base regarding the meaning of sexual abuse. All the participants used the word rape to describe sexual abuse, and they see other people (not family members) as the perpetrators. A lack of knowledge places children in these homes at risk of being sexually abused especially by family members because they do not get the correct knowledge from their parents. From the answers received the participants do not really realized that people near tem can be the perpetrator such as the father, uncle or grandfather. The think it is people like the neighbor or the boy/man in the street.

According to Sanderson (2005:12), parents need to educate themselves about child sexual abuse if they want to keep their child safe. According to Ngubane (2010:27), sexual abuse of a child depends sometimes on what an ethnic group understands as sexual abuse. Perspectives and meanings vary from one ethnic group to another. Perceptions set guidelines that individuals inherit as a member of a particular society and that informs them how to experience and interpret their world – which is true also regarding sexual abuse (Dawes & Higson-Smith, 2005:98; Ncanywa, 2014:32). Educating children about sexual abuse and rape, according to Nqaphi (2013:26) will

help children to protect themselves against any form of sexual abuse. According to Nqaphi (2013:26) it has been revealed that in most cases children are being informed about sexual abuse after they were already being sexually abused.

9.4 Theme 2: Factors that may contribute to sexual abuse

When discussing what sexual abuse means, the participants started discussing the factors which may cause sexual abuse. Two of the participants put great emphasis on the behaviour of the child. They were of the opinion that the children may also play a role in encouraging the sexual abuse.

9.4.1 Sub-theme 1: Modern dress code

There seems to be an emphasis on the things children do to encourage sexual abuse and the censure is not placed on men. Participant B felt that the way girls are dressing nowadays might be sending the wrong message to men. She emphasized that short dresses are tempting the men to approach them, and that girls end up engaging in sexual relations with them.

“The problem is how these girls of today are dressing. They don‟t dress appropriately, even at school. They make it worse by how they dress.” (Participant B)

Even though only two participants alluded to the issue of the relationship- be it romantic or otherwise - with the perpetrator as an influential factor, it does seem to have an influence on non-disclosure of child sexual abuse. The researchers‟ findings correlate with those from the study conducted by Madu (2001:09) in the Northern Province of South Africa on sexual abuse and victim-perpetrator relationships. He recognized that the child‟s relationship to the perpetrator can affect their decision to either disclose or hide the sexual abuse.

9.4.2 Sub-theme 2: Relationship with an older men

There is a perception among some of the participants that the youth are less modest around older men, in terms of what they wear and their actions. This in turn attracts older men who can provide them with material things. The men use the promise of money or material things to get the co-operation of the minors.

“I can‟t say what are the reasons because personally I would not allow such a thing. You see, it is mostly when a man (is) married to a woman with children. Stepfathers are the ones who would do this and not an actual father”. (Participant A)

“I don‟t know how I‟d put it. You know what, if only these children behaved themselves. It‟s not that I am taking the side of the men. It‟s just that our grandchildren don‟t know how to carry themselves. They are not like you guys. You see children dating an old man or holding him. And it happens; you hear it on the radio that a child has had a child with her own father while her mother is living there with them in the house. If I was the mom that would never happened. I would have had him arrested”. (Participant E)

“Today‟s children love money, they drink alcohol and they are afraid of education. The thing with education is that it can‟t work unless you (are) completely dedicated to it. You can‟t be distracted. So when they have to study, they are more focused on alcohol and grown men who give them money. Even if it is her father, she will keep quiet‟‟. (Participant A)

9.4.3 Sub-theme 3: Poverty

Poverty contributes enormously to the sexual abuse of children. According to Coleman and Hagell (2007:11), poverty is certainly a factor that leads to increased vulnerability to sexual abuse of children; yet wealth may not necessarily lead to a positive outcome either. “Many children support their families, pay their school fees, and have their uniforms and books supplied by means of sexual favours.” (Van Niekerk, 2006:103). According to Evian (2006:21), young girls may sell sex to older men just to earn money to survive.

Two of the participants interviewed, mentioned grooming as one of the causes of sexual abuse. Some perpetrators, according to this participant, take advantage of the circumstances of these children, use money and lavish lifestyles to attract them, and end up abusing them sexually.

„‟Or they will tell them that if they do not disclose they will give them money and put them through school‟‟. (Participant B)

“At times men, mostly older men with money, ask children to help them with tasks - house cleaning or in the garden - and then pay them or bribe with sweets only to have sex with them later on”. (Participant F)

The perpetrator in grooming is usually an adult, for example an uncle, stepfather, or grandfather, who at first appears to be “friendly, trustworthy and non-threatening, and the child experiences a degree of favouritism” (Fouché and Yssel, 2006:249). Grooming or bribing, according to Gogela (2013:23), of the child by the perpetrator happens when the perpetrator gives gifts they know the child likes or which the caregivers are not able to buy. Ncanywa (2014:41) in her research concluded that grooming can be defined as the actions of the perpetrator deliberately aimed at establishing an emotional connection and trust with the child, in order to increase the likelihood of the child engaging in sexual behaviour.

9.5 Theme 3: Perceptions of parents regarding disclosure of sexual abuse by children

A central issue in child sexual abuse is the need for disclosure. Victims of sexual abuse are not always willing to disclose and, according to De Voe and Faller (2002:6), many children find it difficult to talk about their experiences of being sexually abused; and therefore the parents‟ reactions or anticipations are likely to affect the child‟s willingness to disclose. The researcher asked the parents what their perceptions are regarding children telling others that they have been sexually abused?

9.5.1 Sub theme 1: Disclosing of sexual abuse by children is important

The reactions of the parents regarding the importance of children disclosing their sexual abuse were:

“It is important because she might fall pregnant with that man‟s child.” (Participants A)

“It is important because when they don‟t disclose it will end up traumatizing them.” (Participant B)

“They have to speak up. They have to say so and so want to do this to me or has already done this to me. Then I would have to go to the alleged