African indigenous astronomy of Batswana in Botswana
and South Africa
MT Koitsiwe
•
orcid.org/0000-0001-8904-9959
Thesis submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree
Doctor of Philosophy in Indigenous Knowledge Systems
at the North-West University
Promoter: Prof MA Masoga
Co-promoter: Prof JSS Shole
Graduation ceremony: October 2019
Student number: 16126564
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/ACC.NO.: / (\; 0 rC::::b P.:--:.-V'i:::'l=Es=T:-:U�N� I-V-E R-s-,T-Y�-DECLARATION
I, Motheo Koitsiwe, declare that the thesis for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Indigenous Knowledge Systems (]KS) at the North-West University, hereby submitted, has not been previously submitted for a degree at this or any other university; it is my own work in design and execution and that all material herein contained has been duly acknowledged.
Motheo Koitsiwe
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I am of the opinion that this study would have not reached its logical conclusion without the contribution and moral support of many people. My special thanks are due first and foremost to to baitseanape ba kitso ya setso who participated actively in this study from Mochudi (Botswana) and Moruleng (South Africa) and for making the dream come true. They provided me with the inspiration, motivation, infonnation, ideas and knowledge to strengthen the study. I would like to .thank them for their acceptance, collaboration and support of this project. I also thank Mme Grace Masuku, Ntikoe Motlotle, Mmapula Rrapekeneke, Stoutwe Ntou Matlhaga, Piet Koitsiwe, Ntoka Gouwe, Tladi Bojelo, Kwape Mogotsi, Lebotsang Molefe, Rre Tshime Metsileng, Rre Rasepae and many other IK experts who provided and shared their knowledge of bolepa-dinaledi without hesitation. Special thanks goes to Rre Nthuseng Sefara and Mme MJ Malatji, the IK experts from Mouleng who participated in this study but unfortunately they passed away before its completion.
I would like to express my appreciation to the Bakgatla -Baa-Kgafela Tribal Authority/ Council in Mochudi (Botswana) and Moruleng (South Africa) for their wonderful welcome, generous support and helped to identify of some of the IK experts who participated in the study. Most importantly I would like to Kgosikgolo Kgafela Kgafela II, Kgosi Segale Linchwe, Kgosi P Modise, Kgosana Molatlhegi Rramoitoti, Kgosana Magae Molefe, Kgosana Kgaodi Thebe from the Tribal Authority of Bakgatla -Baa- Kgafela in Mochudi including Kgosi Moeketsi Tosh Kgotlele. I also thank Kgosi Nyalala Pilane from Bakgatla -Baa- Kgafela Traditional Council in Moruleng.
Special thanks also goes to Mme Virginia Pilane, manager of Mphebatho Museum in Moruleng, Rapoo Phuthadi, Segakweng Monowe, managers of Phuthadikobo museum including Mme Ditshaba, Aobakwe Moroke, Lesego Maano, Nene Koitsiwe, Ronald Lesejane, research assistants from Phuthadikobo museum in Mochudi for their relentless support. The IKS unit in Moruleng represented by L Chabeli, Roselyn Molotsi, Olebogeng Mmapitsa, Joyce Pule and Joyce Motlhatlhedi including Pilanesberg National Game Reserve represented by Mme Sarah Maoka were instrumental in ensuring the success of this study.
I would also like to thank the NRF / DST IKS Centre based at the University of Kwazulu Natal for their financial support of this study. It is also fundamental to thank the IKS Centre and the Faculty of Natural and Agricultural Sciences, at North - West University, especially the Deanery, Prof Eno
Ebenso and Prof David Modise for providing an enabling environment, time, opportunity to conduct, overcome all obstacles to complete this study succesfully.
As indicated above, this work was not just a personal journey, there are people who made valuable inputs and contributions to this study, especially the language experts who translated the collected data from Setswana to English and those who transcribed the audios into written documents. They include Rre MK Molebaloa, Tsietsi Peter Mekgwe, Mme Kelebogile Tiro, FK Matimela, C Moyake and Mmaserame Mabitle. I would also would like to acknowledge Cossa Sarah, Seile Boinelo and Leshley Mashego for ensuring and cleaning the list of references. I also woud like to thank Ndlovu Tshepiso and Muriel Mokoto for their technical skills wich include final layout of the thesis. It is crucial also to thank Dr Dave Kawadza for running the Turnit software and produce the report including Prof O Ruzidzo who took his time to read the entire thesis, ensure that all spelling and grammatical errors are addressed.
My intellectual debts and sincere gratitude goes to Prof MA Masoga and Prof JSS Shole for their boundless support and generosity as the promoters, inc_luding Prof DS Matjila, Dr O Ntsoane and Dr TPE Tondi as external examiners of this study. I would like to thank them for their critical, constructive comments, positive suggestions and remarks.
Closer at home, I extend my thanks to my beloved parents, Mme Dipuo, Rre Tlhapi Koitsiwe, my young brother, Phetogo Koitsiwe, my soul mate, Tiragalo Zaitsu Sekgoro for their moral support, motivation, courage and confidence they instilled in me during moments of despondency and enthusiasm. The tolerance of my two children or the ghetto youths, Mosireletsi and Khanya Koitsiwe while I was going through this journey is greatly appreaciated. Selah.
DEDICATION
This work is dedicated to all baitseanape ba kitso ya tlhago among the Bakgatla -Baa- Kgafela in Mochudi (Botswana) and Moruleng (South Africa) who participated and shared their knowledge, without any hesitation. This study is also dedicated to dikgosi, dikgosana, lekgotla, dikgoro tsa Bakgatla -Baa- Kgafela who gave permission for the study to continue due to the fact that no research can be conducted without their blessing in their own communities.
AC-Al - AIR-A C- ASSA- ATR- AW- BBKTA- BBT- CMB- CMC- CRL- CWA- DST- EWS- FAOIAU IK lKS Langtag - NASA-African Cosmology Appreciative Inquiry ABBREVIATIONS
African Indigenous Researchers African National Congress
Astronomical Society of Southern Africa African Traditional Religion
African Worldviews
Bakgatla -Baa- Kgafela Tribal Authority Big Bang Theory
Cosmic Microwave Background Contemporary Maasai Cosmology
Commission for the Promotion of Cultural, Religious and Linguistic Communities Contemporary Western Astrology
Department of Science and Technology Early Warning Signals/ Systems Food and Agricultural Organisation International Astronomy Union Indigenous Knowledge
Indigenous Knowledge Systems Language Plan Task Group
National Aeronautics and Space Administration NDM - Natural Disaster Management
NLPF - ational Language Policy Framework PA SALB - Pan South African Language
COE - Education Centre for Development and Enterprise SD - Sustainable Development
Traditional Health Practitioners
GLOSSARY OF SETSWANA TERMS
Baitseanape -experts
Baitseanape ba htso ya bolepa-dinaledi -indigenous astronomy experts Baitseanape ba kitso ya tlhago - indigenous knowledge experts
Balemirui -agricultural society Bogwera- initiation for boys Bojale- initiation for girls
Bolepa-dinaledi - indigenous astronomy
Difaqane -crushing, scattering, forced dispersal, forced migration Dikgoro -clans
Dinaledi -stars Dinawa -beans
Go Jet/ha pula -ritual of rainmaking Go tlhapisa lefatshe -land ceremony Kakanyo -philoshophy
Kgabo -monkey
Kgogamasigo -night dragger Kgosi- king
Kgosikgolo - paramount leader
Kgosing, More ma, Tshukudu --clans of Bakgatla -Baga- Kgafela Mabodisa, Manamakgote -clans of Bakgatla -Baga- Kgafela Kitso -knowledge
Kopadilalelo -venus Lebelebele - millet
Letlhodi -small green beans
Lotlatlana -dusk, or early evening twilight
Maabanyane -the evening after sunset, towards night Mabele -sorghum,
Magapu -melons
Mahube -reddish sky, i.e. early dawn Masimo -field
Mma-Pula - mother of the rain Mmopo - maize,
Moro/ca - rainmaker Maso -sunrise
Mpho ya badimo -gift of god Mpye - sweet reed
Naka -canopus Phirimane -sunset Pulanyana -little rain Selemela -pleaides Sereto - totem
ABSTRACT
Although astronomy is the oldest of all the sciences, African indigenous astronomy, especially of the Batswana has to date not received the attention it deserves from scholars and researchers. Nonetheless, there is scattered, disconnected documentation of aspects of this knowledge studied by scholars in a variety of disciplines. This study followed a case study approach to investigate African indigenous astronomy of Batswana in Botswana and South Africa. The research report in this thesis has focused on the African indigenous astronomy of Bakgatla -Baa- Kgafela in Mochudi (Botswana) and Moruleng (South Africa). The Bakgatla -Baa- Kgafela were chosen for this study due to fact that they share the same history, culture, tradition, totem and philosophy. However, due to historical and political developments they were separated by artificial borders, hence some are found in Botswana while others are in South Africa.
The study followed a qualitative approach and indigenous knowledge paradigm. The Afrocentric, phenomenography and appreciative enquiry theories were used as appropriate and relevant frameworks which underpinned this study. Research data was gathered from "baitseanape ba kitso ya tlhago' or the IK experts by means of in-depth interviews, focus group discussions (using Lekgotla or indigenous talking circle strategy), narratives and document analysis. The data collected from the participants was analysed thematically.
The findings of the study revealed that, generally, the Bakgatla -Baa- Kgafela generally are rich with indigenous knowledge of the stars, moon and other constellations. This knowledge was used in agriculture, reproductive health, time calculation, calendar making, rainmaking and thanksgiving ceremonies and natural disaster management. Furthermore, oral traditions such as songs and poems were used as vehicles to transmit knowledge of indigenous astronomy using their local language to the young generations. The elders were and are the sources, custodians of this knowledge and used stories and mythology to teach the young about indigenous astronomy.
The evidence and examples provided in this study can be used to demonstrate that indigenous astronomy is relevant in modern times and can be interfaced with modern astronomy. Indigenous astronomy is not just in the minds of the elders, it is often hidden and expressed in the arts such as pottery making and architecture. Bakgatla used to make pottery and build traditional homestead with decorations of celestial bodies. However, this art is also fading away due to the fact that there are few elders in the community who possess this skills.
Within the study communities, there are heritage sites which have astronomical significance and needs to be restored and preserved. Astronomical heritage is also one of the themes which emerged in this research. In summation, the domination of Western knowledge marginalised the role of indigenous astronomy in the community. Despite this marginalisation, the Bakgatla -Baa- Kgafela in Mochudi and Moruleng, like other African tribal groups in South Africa preserved this knowledge and used it for their community's livelihood. Community members in the research were given the opportunity to express their knowledge of indigenous astronomy in their own Setswana language.
It is on the basis of the above findings that the following recommendations were made for the study: African indigenous astronomy is an interesting field which needs to be adequately documented, developed and promoted; African indigenous astronomy is part of indigenous knowledge systems was subjected to Western research methodologies and methods; there is a need to develop a critical mass of African indigenous researchers and scientists to conduct holistic indigenous research on African indigenous astronomy, building collaboration, partnerships and networks among relevant stakeholders is critical and finally the co-existence of African indigenous and modern astronomy should be encouraged.
Key words: Afrocentric, Batswana, indigenous knowledge systems, indigenous astronomy, constellations, celestial bodies, heritage, oral traditions, livelihoods, phenomenography.
LIST OF TABLES
Table 2.
1:The Significance of Batswana Stars (Fabian, 2001) ...
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... 85
Table 2. 2:
Lingui
stic terms de
scribing phases
of the moon (Matumo,
1993)
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... 92
Table 2.
3:
The description of Batswana months ...
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Table 2. 4:
Celestial images
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Table 2.
5:
Animal images
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103
Table 2. 6:
Religious images ...
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103
Table 5.
1:Concepts of time in
Batswana Co
smology
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Table 5. 2:
Months of the year
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217
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure
1. 1:
Dikgosi
tsa
Bakgatla
-B
aa-
Kgafela:
... 5
Figure
1.
2:
"
Sereto
"
Totem
of
Bakgatla
-Baa-
Kgafela:
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Figure
1.3:
"
Leisa
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Place:
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Figure 2.
1
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Conceptual framework: The phenomena
of
bolepa-dinal
ed
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Figure 4. 1:
Map
s
howing Moruleng
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Figure 4. 2:
Mphebatho Mu
seum,
Moruleng
,
South
Africa ...
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Figure 4. 3:
Mphebatho Museum
,
Moruleng
,
South Africa:
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Figure
4.
4
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Map
of
Botswaa
(Botswana.
Cartography by Book
comp,
Inc
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Figure
4. 5:
Map
of
Botswana
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howing Mochudi ..
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Figure 4.
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Phuthadikobo Museum, Mochudi, Bot
swa
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Figure
6.
1:
Stone
at
Phuthadikobo hill.
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Figure 6. 2:
The
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Modipe hill. ...
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Figure 6. 3:
Lengetane from Modipe hill.
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Figure 6. 4:
The hole
where
Mat
s
ieng
and animals came
from
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Figure 6. 5:
Symbol
s of celestial
bodies
at
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ieng ...
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Figure
6.
6:
Botlhapela bojale
at
Pilane
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berg National Game Re
se
rve .
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Figure
6.
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Thaba
ya
Dit
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hwene
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Figure
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halakane
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Figure 6.
9:
From
left
is
picture A
of
dinkgwana
s
howing the phase
of
the
moon facing down.
The
other
picture
is of
the
full
moon
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Figure 6. 10: From left i
s
picture of dinkgwana
with
s
tars
such as kopadilalelo, mphatlalatsane
or
naka
. The other picture on
the right
is
molalatladi
or
Milky Wa
y ...
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Figure 6.
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Picture
of
bloompot
s
howing
celestial bodies
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ANNEXURES
Annexure A: Letter of permission to conduct research ... 322
Annexure B: Letter of response from Bakgatla-baa-Kgafela in Mochudi (Botswana) ... 323
Annexure C: Letter of response from Bakgatla-baa-Kgafela
in
Moruleng (South Africa) ... 324Annexure D
:
Interview guide ... 325Annexure E: Focus group discussion guide ... 329
Annexure F: Informed consent (Mochudi) ... 333 Annexure G: Informed consent (Moruleng) ... 335
CONTENTS
Declaration ... i
Acknowledgements ... ii Dedication ... iv Abbreviations ... v
Glossary of setswana terms ... vi
Abstract ... v111 List of tables ... x
List of figures ... xi
Annexures ... xu Contents
1.
1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 1.92.
2.1 2.22
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3
2.3.1
2.3.2
2.3.3
2.3.4 2.3.52.3.6
2.3.7 2.3.8 ... x111CHAPTER
ONE: INTRODUCTION ...
1
Background of the study ... 1
Problem statement ... 9
Aim of the study ... 14
Specific objectives of the study ... 14
Research questions ... 15
Rationale of the study ... 15
Significance of the study ... 18 Conclusion ... 19 Division of chapters ... 20
CHAPTER
TWO:
LITERATURE
REVIEW ...
22
Introduction ... 22
A conceptual framework of the study ... 22
Definitions, examples and debates on indigenous knowledge systems ... 25
Defining the indigenous peoples ... 25 Conceptualizing the term indigenous knowledge ... 28
The role of indigenous knowledge in sustainable development ...
32
The meaning and history of astronomy ... 34 The IKS policy and African indigenous astronomy ... 37 The definition and history of cosmology ... 39
The definition and examples of African cosmology ... 40 An overview of Batswana cosmology ... 42
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C
o
m
e
t
s a
nd m
e
t
eo
r
s
show
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rs ...
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10
4
Ind
ige
n
o
u
s
as
t
ro
n
o
m
y a
nd n
a
tu
ra
l di
sas
t
er
m
a
n
age
m
e
nt..
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106
B
akga
tl
a -
B
aa-
K
gafe
l
a
l
e g
o
fet
lh
a
pul
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T
he s
i
g
ni
fica
n
ce of rai
nm
a
kin
g cere
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o
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ies ...
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11
3
O
ra
l t
ra
d
itio
n
s
a
nd
i
n
dige
n
o
u
s as
t
ro
n
o
m
y
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5
Co
n
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sion
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1
24
CHAPTER THREE: PHILOSOPHICAL FRAMEWORK OF THE STUDY ... 125
In
tro
du
ct
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1
25
D
e
b
a
t
es o
n
t
h
e fo
und
at
i
o
n o
f
ph
i
l
oso
ph
y
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1
26
The
phil
oso
p
hy of
ph
e
n
o
m
e
n
ogra
ph
y
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1
29
The fo
und
atio
n
a
n
d begi
nnin
g of p
h
e
n
o
m
e
n
ogra
ph
y
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1
3
1
T
he epistemo
l
ogica
l
and o
nt
o
l
ogica
l
ass
u
mp
ti
o
n
s of
ph
e
n
o
m
e
n
ogra
ph
y ....
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The Afrocentr
i
c
ph
i
l
oso
ph
y .
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1
38
Appreciative
inqui
ry p
hil
oso
ph
y ...
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1
4
1
C
onc
lu
s
i
o
n
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4
6
4.
4.1
4.2
4.3
4.4
4
.
5
4.6
4.7
4.8
4.8.1
4.8.2
4.9
4
.
9
.
1
4.10
4.11
4.11.1
4.12
4
.
12.1
4
.
12.2
4
.
12
.3
4
.
12.4
4.13
4.14
4
.
15
4.16
4.17
4.18
4.19
4
.2
0
4.21
5.
5
.
1
CHAPTER FOUR: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY ... 147
Introduction
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14
7
Methodology ...
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Qualitative approach ...
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149
Reflexivity
in
qualitative re
search
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Research
design
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. 153
Indigenous paradigm
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154
Population of
study ...
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157
Brief
discussion of
study
communities
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158
The
hi
story
of
Bakgatla Ba
Kgafela,
Moruleng
(South Africa) ...
.
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158
The
hi
story
of Mphebatho
museum ...
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... 161
History of
Bakgatla
-Baa-
Kgafela,
Mochudi
(Botswana)
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163
Phuthadikobo museum
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164
Sampling technique ..
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166
Key participants of the study ..
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168
Qualitative
participants
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168
Data
collection
method
s ...
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169
In-depth interviews
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Narratives
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Focus group discussions
"Lekgotla
"
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171
Document analysis ...
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172
Data
analysis
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172
Thematic data analysis ...
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173
Pilot
study ...
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174
Ethical considerations
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176
Permi
ssion ...
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. 178
Informed consent.
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178
Confidentiality
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178
Validity, reliability/ trustworthiness
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179
Conclusion
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179
CHAPTER FIVE:
NATURE AND TYPES OF AFRICAN INDIGENOUS
ASTRONOMY ... 181
5.2.1
5.2
.2
5.2.3
5.2
.4
5.2.5
5.2.6
5.2
.7
5.2.8
5.2.9
5.2.10
5.2.11
5.2.12
5.3
5.4
5.5
5.6
5.7
5.8
5.9
5.10
5.11
5.12
6.
Kgogamasigo
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Selemela
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Dikgafela le Selemela ...
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Naka ......................................... 192Kopadilalelo ...
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Mphatlalatsane ....
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Dikolobe
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... 196
Molalatladi ...
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... 198
Serogabolopo
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... 199
Mots
he wa godimo
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... 199
Sedumedi
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... 200
Tl
ala le kgora
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Dipaka tsa ngwedi ....
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Ngwedi wa ditshwene ...
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... 204
Ngwedi le pula ...
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... 205
Ngwedi le boitekanelo
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.
206
Ngwedi le pelegi
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... 207
Letsatsi le nako
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.
... 209
Bolepa-din
aledi le matlhotlapelo a tlhago
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.... 211
Maina a ditlha le
dikgwedi ...
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213
Bokao le Botl
hokwajwa bolepa-dinaledi ....
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.. 218
Conclusion
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... 220
CHAPTER SIX:
ARTISTIC SIGNIFICANCE AND INDIGENOUS
ASTRONOMY ... 222
6.1
Introduction
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... 222
6.2
Dipi
na tsa bolepa-dinaledi ...
.
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... 222
6.2.1
Contextual commentary on
star songs ...
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... 223
6.2.2
Contextual commentary of mphatlalatsane so
ngs ...
...
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... 224
6.2.3
Contextual commentary of kgogamasigo song ...
...
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... 225
6.2.4
Contextual commentary of naledi
ya mariberibe song ...
...
... 226
6.2.5
Contextual commentary of selemela song ...
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...
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... 227
6.2.6
Contextual commentary of
rain
songs ...
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... 227
6.2.7
Contextual commentary of sun
songs ...
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... 228
6.
2.9
6
.2.
10
6.
2
.11
6.
2.
1
2
6
.2.
1
3
6
.2.14
6
.2.1
5
6
.2.16
6
.3
6
.3
.
1
6
.3.2
6
.3.3
6.
3.4
6
.3.
5
6
.3
.
6
6.
3
.7
6.4
6
.
5
6
.5
.1
6.5
.2
6
.
5
.2.
1
6.5.
2.2
6
.5.2.3
6
.
5
.2.4
6.5
.2.
5
6
.
5
.2.
6
6
.
5
.2.
7
6
.
5
.2.8
6.5
.2.9
6.6
6
.7
6
.8
6
.9
C
o
nte
x
tu
a
l
c
omment
ary
of M
o
t
s
h
ega
non
g so
n
g
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.
23
1
C
o
nt
ex
tu
a
l
co
mment
ary
of
s
t
ars
p
oe
m
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... 23
1
C
o
nte
x
tu
a
l comm
e
nt
ary
of b
o
l
e
p
a-
din
a
l
e
di poem
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.
2
32
C
o
nte
x
tu
a
l
c
omment
ary
of bol
e
p
a
dinaledi
s
on
g
.
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... 2
34
C
o
nt
ex
tu
a
l
c
omment
ary
of m
y c
hildren
co
m
e
home
s
on
g .
.
...
.
....
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....
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...
.
.
23
5
C
o
n
tex
tu
a
l
co
mm
e
nt
ary
of
c
r
eat
i
o
n
s
of G
o
d
s
on
g .
..
.
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... 23
6
C
o
nt
ex
tu
a
l
co
mmen
tary
of
co
m
e a
nd t
eac
h
t
he
c
hildr
e
n
s
on
g .
.
.
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.. 23
8
C
o
nt
ex
tu
al co
mm
e
nt
ary
of th
e e
ld
e
r
s a
nd b
o
lep
a
-din
a
l
e
di
so
n
g
.
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... 23
9
M
af
el
o a
n
g
w
a
o l
e
b
o
l
e
pa-din
ale
di
...
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... 2
40
Phuth
a
dik
o
bo hill ..
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. 2
41
Th
a
b
a ya
m
o
dip
e .
.
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... 2
4
2
M
ats
ien
g c
r
ea
tion
s
it
e ..
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... 2
44
B
o
tlh
a
p
e
l
a
b
o
j
a
l
e ...
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... 24
7
Th
a
b
a ya
dit
s
h
we
n
e ...
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... 24
8
L
e
tl
a
p
a
L
a
Rr
a
mon
o
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.. 2
50
A
rc
hitectur
e a
nd
bolepa-dinaledi
... ...
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.... 2
50
Dink
g
w
a
n
a
l
e
bol
e
p
a-
dinaledi .
.
.
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... 2
51
D
isc
u
ss
ion
s o
f th
e e
mpiric
a
l findin
gs ...
.
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2
54
V
iews o
n
Afr
i
ca
n indi
ge
nou
s astro
nom
y
.
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... 2
54
V
iews o
n
se
l
ec
t
e
d
ce
l
es
tial b
o
d
ies ...
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2
61
Th
e
c
ase of
k
o
p
a
dil
a
l
e
l
o ....
.
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... 2
61
Th
e c
a
se of
mphatl
a
l
a
t
sa
ne
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... 2
65
Th
e
c
ase of kgoga
m
asig
o
.
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. 2
66
Th
e case of
n
a
k
a
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0
6.11
Bokhutlo ba go fetlha pula ...
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CHAPTER SEVEN: CHALLENGES AND PROSPECTS OF AFRICAN
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Introduction ...
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Challenges of African indigenous
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Conclusion
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CHAPTER EIGHT: CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS ... 286
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Recommendations
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CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background of the study
Majola (2012) observes that since time immemorial indigenous cultures in Africa had developed a wealth of indigenous astronomy, which can be found in myths, legends, poems, proverbs, songs and stories. Indigenous peoples have been developing complex knowledge systems of the cosmos for tens of thousands of years. These knowledge systems which seek to understand, explain the sun, moon, stars and other constellations are passed to posterity through oral tradition.
Holbrook (2016) argues that humans have the mutual relationship with the the sky. These relationships include practical things such as timekeeping, weather prediction, seasonal calendars for agricultural activities, and navigation; artistic inspiration such as songs, poems, myths, stories, paintings, sculptures and metaphysical beliefs such as celestial deities (Holbrook, 2016). Africans have used the stars for centuries, be it for navigation, agriculture, even story telling (Campbell, 2002).
Baki (2006) ·argues that, knowledge of the sky was once part of everyday life in most of African societies. In addition, the Canadian Heritage Information Network (2003) indicates that knowledge of the stars is found in many aspects of culture including storytelling, symbolism and religious traditions. ln ancient times, indigenous astronomers used this knowledge to help guide the day to day affairs of their communities (Canadian Heritage Information Network, 2003).
The study of indigenous astronomical knowledge falls under the academic field of cultural astronomy (Nakata et al., 2014). Holbrook et al. (2008) state that Cultural Astronomy (CA) is the study of social understandings and applications of astronomical knowledge. The above is supported by Campion (2004) cultural astronomy is a recent discipline, defined only in the 1990s. It emerged out of the slightly less recent discipline of archaeoastronomy, the study of the astronomical alignment, orientation or symbolism embodied in (usually ancient) buildings and monuments.
Its antecedents may be traced back to the handful of enthusiasts who were fascinated by the Stonehenge's possible astronomical function. Allen (1993) points that it was customary for the ancient people to align their sacred monuments with precise solar, lunar and stellar positions. Campion (2004) points that cultural astronomy uses astronomical knowledge beliefs or theories, inspire and inform or influence social forms and ideologies, or any aspect of human behaviour.
However, this study does not use the term "cultural astronomy", but instead the term "indigenous astronomy" or bolepa-dinaledi in Setswana to refer to astronomy of the indigenous communities such as Batswana due to the fact that this study is on the discipline of indigenous knowledge systems, not anthropology or African studies. Hence, the study argues that African indigenous astronomy focuses on the knowledge, skills and philoshophies not the cultural practice of astronomy. The concept of indigenous astronomy include not only the buildings, monuments but a range of ideas, beliefs and understandings connected to the sky that may not be attached to a physical site (Bostwick & Bates, 2006; King, I 993 & Selin, 2000). African indigenous peoples developed myths, legends and stories ("Star Lore") which was also a reflection of their way of life.
It
is one of the argument of this study, that before the invention of sophisticated technologies such as the telescope, there were star lore in the ancient Egyptians, Ethiopians, the Akan, San, Zulu, Xhosa, Venda, Batswana and other Africans to name but a few with its own philosophical base. Bass (1990), Snedegar (2000) and Cuff (1997) relate how ancient African cultures had star lore / tradition about Pleiades, Sirius, Canopus and Sirius. Hence, African indigenous astronomy is a science in its own right.Focusing on the African continent, scholars such as Holbrook (2009) argues that the origin stories in cosmologies is scattered throughout Africa. An example cited by Holbrook (2008) is that African woman studied the phases of the moon to keep track of their menses and fertility cycles, while modern astronomy is quite new and unpopular in most parts of the continent. The above mentioned example clearly shows that, cultural astronomy had a long and rich tradition in Africa and a far more extensive cultural impact (Holbrook, 2008). Campbell (2002) points that Africans have used the stars for centuries, be it for navigation, agriculture and storytelling.
Glegg (1986) the Batswana had greater understanding, holistic knowledge of, and relations with the night sky and their cosmology was been handed down by oral traditions. Ruggles (2005) posits that cosmology is a shared system of beliefs about the nature of the world as it is perceived by a group of people. Baki (2006) argues that most African societies have developed their unique indigenous astronomical knowledge. Glegg (1986) points that indigenous astronomical knowledge has over time been corrupted by ideas / thoughts brought from Europe.
Alcock (2010) adds that oral traditions describing animals in the sky, beliefs, linguistic terms of stars, moon, calendar and other events that make up the cosmic knowledge were well known among
