Military decision making

The (politico-) military decision making has various levels, each with its own specific characteristics which obviously affect the decision making. That is why specific decision-making models have been developed over the years for and at these levels.

4.2.1 Military-strategic level

This level involves the decision making prior to any actual deployment. Because the Dutch armed forces conduct complex combined and joint operations in association with other instruments of power of the Dutch state, often in an international context, the focus in both the preparation and execution of operations is on achieving mission results. This requires fully integrated and cohesive preparations between unit training, mission-oriented planning and political decision making, all of which needs joint planning by the various actors, based on a common focus in the operation. Control of the planning, preparation and execution of the military contribution to operations, including the required decision making, is set out in the CHOD (Chief of Defence) Field Manual 2: Operational Planning Process (OPP). This is based on set tasks, powers and responsibilities and is designed to achieve optimum harmonisation of national and international political and military decision making. This harmonisation is simplified by the fact that the Netherlands itself also plays a role in international decision making, for example in NATO as a member of the North Atlantic Council / NATO Military Committee and of the Permanent Security

Committee / EU Military Committee. It is a dynamic, generic planning process, which must be applied with flexibility in each operation.

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CHOD Field Manual 2 contains a flowchart based on the main national products (such as the Article 100 Letter to Parliament and the OPLAN). Specific national organs are also men-tioned, such as the Military Operations Steering Group (SMO). CHOD Field Manual 2 therefore provides information ‘upstream and downstream’. It also includes formats of important documents that result from the process and gives ideas (interim briefings, for example) for aspects which could have an impact in the course of the OPP. The relation to unit training is also shown. This is designed to clarify what those taking part in the CHOD OPP can expect from each other in the different phases of the process.

4.2.2 Operational and higher tactical level

It is true that decision making at operational and higher tactical level is based on a generic decision-making model, but it is characterised by a high degree of complexity. This is brought about partly by the many civil and military actors, each with their own interests, the time factor (short term versus long term), desired and undesired effects, existing relations and the role of the media.

At operational level, the decision making normally focuses on operations over a prolonged period. On the basis of the stated end, the ways determined at strategic level and the required means, the operational level will seek ways to achieve this objective. After careful consideration, a decision will then be taken. The reality of operating in a joint and multi-agency environment will play a major role in this respect.

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97 NATO’s OPP (see Annex 4-2 for a brief overview) serves as the basis for the decision-making

process at operational and higher tactical level and is described in detail in Allied Joint Publication (AJP)-5 for operational planning. The Allied Command Operations (ACO) Guidelines for Operational Planning (GOP) serve as the primary planning instrument. These describe all relevant aspects of operational planning; they provide guidelines concerning the planning factors to be taken into account when formulating an operation plan and include the standard structure and content of this plan.

4.2.3 Tactical level

At tactical level, decisions are taken about the execution of actual activities which contri-bute to the objectives formulated at operational level. The availability of a staff will often determine the way in which a commander conducts the decision-making process. Although the NATO OPP can also be useful in the decision-making process at tactical level, there are at that level other, more fitting process models that can be used. Examples of domain-specific models at tactical level are the tactical decision-making model or tactical estimate, the mari- time OPP, the seven-questions model (designed by the British armed forces and also called the combat estimate) and what the Netherlands calls the OATDOEM model (Dutch acronym for orientation, analysis, terrain, threat, other factors, own assets and capabilities)⁴².

Certain aspects of the various models can be combined. Decision-making models must, therefore, be used with flexibility and never as a rigid set of rules. The commander will decide on the basis of his own knowledge, experience and style, as well as the capabilities of his staff, what method he will use for his decision making. Experience of working at higher tactical levels and proficiency in carrying out the OPP are required for a successful

application.

4.2.4 Different decision-making methods

These military decision-making models are based on the rational synoptic model, where the aim is to make as rational and substantiated a decision as possible on the basis of the information available. This decision-making model has a set of norms, values and predic-tions: the emphasis is on professional knowledge, reasoning, processes and procedures.

Military commanders must, however, be aware that there are also other ways to reach a decision, with more emphasis on perceptions, views, interests and power. Many actors, both in and outside a coalition, are used to acting in this way.

42 These decision-making models are elaborated upon further in the Field Manual on Command and Control and the Maritime Doctrine and Tactics Centre’s publication ‘The Maritime Operational Planning Process – methods and techniques’.

Military decisions are thus seen in a wider context, where they are merely a factor, some-times even a secondary one, in the overall situation. To understand what happens in a complex environment and to be able to continue to operate effectively, therefore, other factors must be taken into account in the decision making. When evaluating the decision making, approaches other than the strictly rational approach might offer better solutions.

Flexibility and creativity in spirit on the part of commanders and their staffs are, therefore, essential.