Management Style and Institutional Pressure:
black pete in the semi-public sector
Master Thesis
University of Groningen, Faculty of Economics and Business MSc BA Organizational & Management Control
Marijn Wansink – S2233118 June 2016
Word count: 20.902
Thesis Supervisor: E. van de Mortel Co-assessor: M.P. van der Steen
Abstract
This paper investigates the organisations openness to institutional pressure and the role of the school manager herein. In this sense, institutional pressure is derived from the black pete discussion. The controversy surrounding “black pete” result in pressure on elementary schools; people are in favour and people are against black pete. The manager is caught in the middle, by having a final say in the utilisation of black pete. Accordingly, this paper draws on data gathered by interviewing school managers. In addition, the “Myers-Briggs Type Indicator test” is used to determine the management type. The results show a presence of local institutional pressure and national institutional pressure. Whereas local pressure can be seen as an influencing element, national pressure raises awareness to the discussion at hand. Furthermore, a manager scoring on the type “judging” might decrease an organisations openness to institutional pressure. In comparison, scoring on perceiving tends to increase the openness to institutional pressure. Also, scoring on either thinking/feeling does not appear to influence the organisations openness to institutional pressure. However, distinctive differences in this dichotomy were found nonetheless. Finally, the results are linked to literature and –by providing limitations- directions for further research are given.
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Index
1. Introduction ... 3 1.1 Background ... 3 1.2 Research question ... 5 1.3 Relevance ... 51.4 Outline of this paper ... 6
2. Theoretical Framework ... 8 2.1 Case description ... 8 2.1.1 Schools ... 8 2.1.2 Saint Nicholas ... 9 2.1.3 Public discussion ... 10 2.1.4 Regional approach ... 11 2.2 Isomorphism ... 12 2.2.1 Institutional pressure ... 12 2.2.2 Isomorphism ... 13 2.3 Management types ... 15 2.3.1 Field overview ... 15 2.3.2 Adaptor-Innovator style ... 16 2.3.3 Analysis-intuition ... 16
2.3.3 Myers-Briggs type Indicator ... 16
2.4 Isomorphism & management types ... 18
2.4.1 Environmental pressure ... 18
2.4.2 MBTI ... 18
2.4.3 Conceptual model ... 22
3. Methodology ... 24
3.1 Research type & method ... 24
3.2 Interview method ... 24
3.2.1 In-depth interviews ... 24
3.2.2 Interviewee selection ... 25
3.2.3 The interview in practice ... 26
4. Results ... 28
4.1 Background ... 28
4.2 Isomorphism ... 28
4.3 Management type ... 33
4.3.1 Overview key considerations ... 34
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4.3.3 Commitment to the agreed-on solution ... 37
5. Discussion & Conclusion ... 39
References ... 45
Webpages - 2015 ... 50
Appendix A - Myers-Briggs Type Indicator Test ... 52
Myers-Briggs score card ... 54
Appendix B - Interview questions ... 55
1. Algemeen ... 55
2. Structuur ... 55
3. Isomorfisme ... 55
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1. Introduction
1.1 Background
The topic of “black pete” has been reason for discussion in the Netherlands for several years; the discussion finds its origins in a national holiday called “Saint Nicholas (sinterklaas). Saint Nicholas arrives with a boat accompanied by characters called “black pete”, who are considered to be the “servants” of Saint Nicholas (Raboteau, 2014). While opponents argue that “black pete” glorifies slavery and racism1, supporters argue against this assumption. Even the Prime Minister got involved by indicating that the discussion is not a government matter and should be dealt with by the Dutch society (Pijl & Goulordava, 2014). As reassuring as this may be, organizations in the public sector are faced with a difficult task. Institutional pressure is exercised by two conflicting “ideas” and the statement of the Prime Minister acts as a layoff of decision power to the managers of school; by doing so, the decision making power is situated at the top management of individual schools (Hambrick, 1989). How do managers cope with this institutional pressure?
Past literature has studied the topic of institutional pressure (Pfeffer & Slancik, 1978; DiMaggio & Powell, 1983; Burns & Scappens, 2000; Ayharonson & Bort, 2015). Institutions can be defined as humanly devised constraints imposed on human interaction(Barnett, Hinich & Schofield, 1993: page 62). In addition, institutional pressure is thought to be the cornerstone of the actions of organizations (DiMaggio & Powell, 1983), since the actions of an organization are assessed by the institutional environment. Therefore, the actions are “just” when they are considered to be in line with the prevailing values and norms (Ayharonson & Bort, 2015). As a result, organizations acting in a “just” way appear to perform better and therefore are deemed more likely to keep existing (Deephouse & Suchman, 2008). Related to black pete, a school act’s within an area of tension caused by the black pete discussion. In order to act in a “just” way –and therefore perform better- difficult decisions have to be made by a school manager. Now, a consequence could be that parents react by choosing another school, since they perceive the school as not acting in a “just” way.
A possible explanation –of the above stated mechanism- can be found in the constrained-efficiency framework by Roberts & Greenwood. According to Robert & Greenwood (1997), the institutional environment influences an organisations choice to change its current design; this -in turn- is driven by efficiency. However, DiMaggio & Powell (1991) find that the search for efficiency cannot be applied to all organizations. Another theory provides insight by stating that educational entities are highly dependent on –and influenced by- the government and education related professional bodies (inspection); isomorphic behaviour is based on these influencing agencies (Rowan 1982). Although, recall that the Prime Minister indicated this is not a government matter. As a result, the difference in schools -that celebrate with and without the traditional black pete- are not driven by the influencing
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agencies. Another well-known institutional theory is provided by DiMaggio & Powell (1983). DiMaggio & Powell make a distinction between coercive-, normative- and mimetic- isomorphism. In doing so, actions are supposed to be based on pressure by larger forces (Bailey, 2013).
To continue on, schools could be confronted with coercive-, normative- and mimetic-isomorphic pressure. Coercive isomorphism can be defined as pressure by organizations where the company is depended upon and pressure to act in accordance to cultural expectations from the society. In addition, normative isomorphism is pressure exerted by professional bodies. Last, mimetic isomorphism is driven by uncertainty, that causes organizations to copy each other (DiMaggio & Powell, 1983 & 1991; Tsamenyi, Cullen & González, 2006). All these combined are involved in isomorphic change, resulting in organization that behave more alike. Back to black pete and schools. Many schools consult “het sinterklaasjournaal” and base their approach on the execution of the “Sint Nicholas” celebrations by "het sinterklaasjournaal” 2 (public discussion). In addition -according to a questionnaire among schools3- the schools change to “adapt to current times” and to please parents. In contrary, schools who did not change black pete reasoned that black pete was not discriminating. Another reason was that traditions should not be changed. Furthermore, similarities in approach are found in different areas; close situated schools often had a similar approach. Perhaps pressure exerted by parents caused uncertainty, which resulted in the mimetic behaviour of the organisation and –at its core- the manager. However, isomorphism alone might not be enough to cover the dilemma provided, since the schools do not all behave alike. Chung, Shih, Rodgers & Song (2014) induct the fact that a manager is important, since it influences the performance of strategic decisions in marketing. Paauwe, Wright & Guest (2013) and Edgar, Geare & O’Kane (2015) go even further by stating that managers –and the difference in management styles- influence the organisational performance as a whole. Therefore, it might be of grave importance to know how different management styles deal with these institutional pressures.
Furthermore, the national holiday is believed to be celebrated since 1828; therefore it can be seen as a deeply institutionalized tradition. According to Oliver (1992) an important attribute of institutional change is the fact that current institutionalised traditions and “way of working” can occasionally be vexed. However, institutions with a long history and strong base are not likely to be challenged (Barley & Tolber, 1997). In other words, it is deemed possible that strong and long lasting institutions can change, but it is not likely. Considering this fact, black pete is deeply institutionalised -and even accepted- but still managers are highly differentiated in their approach to the utilization of black pete. In other words, this topic might prove to be an interesting case.
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1.2 Research question
The case in this paper is black pete. In line with this, the research in this paper will be executed among schools (elementary schools), because the controversy surrounding black pete results in institutional pressure on these schools. For example, a large share of the Saint Nicholas celebrations take place in schools; therefore the school manager has to decide how this is arranged. As a result, the goal of this paper is to understand how the management style will influence the openness of an organisation to institutional pressure. The resulting research question is as follows:
“How does the management style influence an organisations openness to institutional pressure?”
In order to answer the research question, four sub questions are determined, namely:
1. What is institutional pressure?
2. What type of managers can be identified?
3. How is the management type related to isomorphism?
4. How is isomorphic pressure exerted on schools as a result of the black pete discussion?
1.3 Relevance
The contribution of this paper to academic literature and the society can be found in – but is not limited to- several subjects. First of all society, organisations4 -and schools5- struggle with the dilemma around black pete. Public managers are striving for formal legitimacy, however it’s not clear how institutional pressure guides them to that goal (Ashworth, Boyne & Delbridge 2007). This paper provides insight in a recent issue, about an arduous institutional problem and how different management styles cope with this problem. By doing so, a contribution will be made to existing institutional theory.
Second, the discussion around black pete received national attention. People in favour of black pete clashed with people against black pete, causing elementary schools to be caught in the crosshairs. Children of an elementary school are of an age too believe that Saint Nicholas and black pete are non-fiction characters. Therefore a large proportion of the celebrations are carried out in school. In other words, the discussion divided –and still is dividing- people in the Netherlands. Therefore this paper contributes towards a topic that might be of broadly based societal interest. Furthermore -given the importance of the topic- managers are in a difficult position. This paper contributes by shedding light on the topic and -in doing so- provide relevant information for school managers that might be of practical use.
Further, this paper contributes to academic literature in several ways. First, the topic of institutional theory has been widely investigated. Furthermore, the topic of management styles has a rich history.
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However, institutional theory in relation to management style has not been investigated yet. This paper can contribute to existing literature by filling that gap.
Second, recall that organizations acting in a “just” way perform better. To clarify, acting in a just way is in line with institutions/standards. Also, an organization changes its way of working in order to be in line with expectations from the society (Ashworth, 2009). However, schools are acting differently on institutional pressure enforced by the “black pete” discussion. As Chenhall (2003) indicates, managers change and adapt their organisation to achieve a fit. This implies that managers might have an important role in the organisations openness to institutional pressure. A theoretical contribution can be made as to “how” a manager will affect the openness to institutional pressure in the semi-public sector (from now on the term “public sector” will be used instead of “semi-public” sector). By doing so, practical implementations can be derived for organizations where institutional pressure is considerable. In line with this, Ashworth (2009) indicates that an organisations openness to institutional pressure lacks an appropriate scientific base.
Third, according to DiMaggio & Powell (1991) institutional theorist often target the entire organization –or even the society- as their unit of analysis. However, it is indicated that institutional theory can be improved by investigating different aspects of the organization (Roberts & Greenwood, 1997). In line with this, an aspect of the organisation that can be investigated –and contribute to institutional theory- is the manager. Therefore, this paper focusses on the relation between the management style and institutional pressure and can thus contribute to existing literature.
Last, research on the topic of isomorphism in relation to public sector management lacks literature; although isomorphism –and it’s managerial implications- has been investigated in relation to the private sector. Two different trends in the usefulness of private sector research for the public sector can be identified: First, the public sector can use private sector research, in order to avoid pitfalls made in the private sector (Scholl, 2004). Second, the public sector needs research that is specific to the public sector (Sharafi, Jurisch, Ikas & Krcmar, 2011). It is not in the goal of this paper to argue about either one of these streams, however it is clear this paper can contribute to the body of literature related to institutional pressure, management and the public sector.
1.4 Outline of this paper
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2. Theoretical Framework
The theoretical framework will explore literature about isomorphism and manager types. These two together will be connected and used to give the methodology guiding. In the sense of isomorphism, the different types –Coercive, Normative & Mimetic- of isomorphism will be explained and –if possible- are related to black pete. Furthermore, different management types –and their implications for this research- will be covered. In addition, the national holiday “Sint Nicolas” will be explained further, in order to create an understanding of the difficult position managers –and schools- are in.
2.1 Case description
This paper requires two entities to be described in more detail: schools and the Saint Nicholas celebrations. In addition, the public discussion –related to black pete- will be covered. The section concludes with a closer look at regional approaches in the exertion of the Saint Nicholas celebrations.
2.1.1 Schools
The elementary school system in the Netherlands consists of several types of schools and then in particular “public schools” and confessional education. First, public schools. Public schools are accessible for every child, regardless of their religion or belief6. In doing so, the educational basis is supposed to be free of religious influences. In addition –as of 1996- public schools were allowed to be autonomous. As a result, many public schools gathered in a foundation and became independent of the municipalities7. In other words, schools or groups of schools have their own management and became –to some degree- independent of government administration. Second, “confessional education” or confessional schools. Confessional schools are –in contrary to public schools- not accessible for every child. A confessional school operates with a religious or philosophical belief and can refuse children or teachers who do not fit that profile8. Also, confessional schools are traditionally self-managed and –just like public schools- funded by the government9. Furthermore –since this paper has an emphasis on the manager- a closer look at the role of a manger in schools is required. Therefore a schematic representation of possible structures in elementary schools is provided (figure 1)10:
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Figure 1 11 - Structure elementary school.
Translation: Intern toezicht: Inner monitoring role, Besturen: Management, Dagelijkse leiding: Daily supervision, Mandaat- of delegatie model: Delegation model, AB-DB model: Central board-daily supervision model, Raad-van-toezicht model: Board-of-control model, Bestuur: Board, Algemeen directeur: General manager, AB: Central board, DB: Daily supervision, Raad van toezicht: Board of supervision, College van bestuur: Executive board
Decision making power on day to day challenges lies in the hands of the school manager; but decisions related to long term budgets and the hiring and firing of employees are often performed by a more central board. In line with this, the school manager is tasked with the final decision related to the Saint Nicholas celebrations. Note however, often –non-compulsory- guidelines are provided by the central board12, which could result in pressure. Furthermore, education at an elementary school is the first compulsory for of education for a child13. As a result, children attend these schools from the age of four, till the age of twelve. Eight class years have to be passed in order to continue to secondary schools. However –more often than not- a test is required to classify the appropriate level of education in secondary schools. In other words, teachers are tasked with the responsibility to form an educational basis in the early ages of a pupil. Though at the same time –according to Brown & Stevick (2014)- teaching is close related to the cultural and existing societal beliefs and therefore schools probably resemble these beliefs. As a result, schools do not escape the controversy around Saint Nicholas and black pete.
2.1.2 Saint Nicholas
Recall that the Saint Nicholas celebrations –in its current form- are believed to be started around the year 1828. However, the history around Saint Nicholas can be traced back even further in time. Saint Nicholas founds his origin in Turkey, where he died in the year 340 (A.D.). Legends tell that Saint Nicholas performed good deeds, like giving money to poor people. In addition, Saint Nicholas is
11 http://www.delokaleeducatieveagenda.nl/bookups/brochureopenbaaronderwijsengemeente.pdf 12 http://www.doorbraak.eu/read-offline/16322/stop-zwarte-piet-racisme-scholen.pdf
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accompanied by “black pete”. The story around black pete is vague, but supposedly black pete is an enslaved orphan, liberated by Saint Nicholas. Out of gratitude, black pete decided to serve Saint Nicholas 14. In contrary –according to Raboteau (2014)- black pete was seen as an evil character; successfully enslaved by Saint Nicholas. Furthermore, sailor stories tell that a person named Saint Nicholas saved boats in trouble at sea. However -as of recently- Saint Nicholas arrives with a boat from Spain, with candies and presents, accompanied by black pete. Children are told that they have to be good this year, in order to receive presents and are otherwise taken to Spain. The whole celebration ends on 5 December, when black pete and Saint Nicholas travel on the roofs (Saint Nicholas on a white horse) to deliver presents at houses15. This last deed involves a more recent explanation for the fact that black pete is black, the character has to use the chimney to deliver present and is therefore “black as soot”. Despite the apparent innocent nature of black pete, it was subjected to extensive public discussions.
2.1.3 Public discussion
Saint Nicholas -and in particular black pete- has been surrounded with controversy for a few years. First opponents; black pete is supposed to be racism16. People with a black skin colour can be offended, since black pete glorifies slavery. The main problem lies in the characteristics of black pete. For example, black pete is supposedly black because of the chimney. However –opponents argue- his cloths are clean, he has big lips and black pete has wooly hair (Raboteau, 2014). Also, it is argued that children are learned to be racists from a young age; it is even encouraged17. In line with this, the chairman of a task group (United Nations) indicated that schools should educate children on this phenomenon. In addition, the prime minister of the Netherlands is accused of not being there for all the Dutch people (Pijl & Goulordava, 2014). A member of the United Nations even says that black pete introduces the return of slavery 18.
In contrary to the opponents of black pete, are the people in favour of black pete. The main argument provided is indicating the importance of black pete as a tradition for the Netherlands. It is supposedly a way of belonging and cohesion; it binds people together. Also, it is indicated as an innocent celebration for children. Children do not associate black pete with racism and –possibly- even has a positive effect on the image of black people19. Therefore, black pete is not racism. In order to protect the tradition, a foundation has been called to life, where people can sign in favour of black pete 20. In addition, a questionnaire carried out among 27.000 Dutch people show that 75% do not understand how people –
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with a black skin- experience black pete as being racism21. As a result, a large share of the Dutch people do not want the external characteristics of black pete to be changed. Despite of this –as mentioned- many schools change the way black pete looks 22. One school even used minions (popular yellow children figure: movie) instead of black pete23, which in turn led to extensive discussions.
Considering the opponents and people in favour, schools –and then in particular the manager- are tasked with a decision and are looking for tools to make them. An example of this, every year television in the Netherlands creates a story line for children about Saint Nicholas. The Sinterklaasjournaal provides news about this story and has a crucial role in the black pete discussion; in 2014 The Sinterklaasjournaal even received an award for how they dealt with the problem24. As a result, some schools tend to adopt their own approach to the “Sinterklaasjournaal” 25 approach.
2.1.4 Regional approach
A recent questionnaire –conducted by an educational magazine- revealed that schools in similar geographic areas have a similar approach towards black pete. For example –on average- 86% of the schools in the Northern provinces (Groningen, Drenthe & Friesland) celebrated Saint Nicholas with the traditional black pete. In contrary, schools in three provinces in the West (Utrecht, Noord-Holland & Zuid-Holland) shows a much lower percentage; 48% on average. Also, Curacao –a part of the Dutch kingdom26- adopted a similar approach, namely, multiple coloured pete’s27. However, no exact data in terms of percentage exists of the schools in Curacao.
21 http://regio.eenvandaag.nl/index.php/enquete/54490/overgrote_meerderheid_wil_zwarte_piet_niet_aanpass en 22 http://www.nrc.nl/nieuws/2015/09/30/ook-in-utrecht-geen-zwarte-piet-meer-op-basisscholen 23 http://www.nrc.nl/next/2015/11/27/geen-piet-wel-mijter-staf-en-minions-1559819 24 https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sinterklaasjournaal#2015
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2.2 Isomorphism
2.2.1 Institutional pressure
Theory around institutions was used to create an understanding about organisational change and stability (Pfeffer & Slancik, 1978); later similarity of organisations was added (DiMaggio et all., 1983). In contrary to other theories –aimed at explaining organisational change and stability- institutional theory emphasises the role of social and cultural structures (Oliver, 1991); while –for example- contingency theory focusses on the technical aspects of an organisation. As a result, the behaviours and dynamics where explained as a process of institutionalisation (Burns & Scappens, 2000). In line with the process of institutionalisations, organisational change is driven by the combination of rules and routines. These rules and routines are derived from institutions, enacted, reproduced and ultimately institutionalized. In this sense, rules can be defined as “how things are supposed to be done”, routines as “how things are actually done” and institutions as “the taken for granted assumptions” (Burns & Scapens, 2000). In other words, institutional theory aims to explain how non-choice behaviour is established. By doing so decisions are not supposed to be driven by efficiency or rational choices (Westney, 1993), but rather by the taken for granted assumptions. Following this line of reasoning, the execution of the Saint Nicholas celebrations are dependent on the prevailing institutions.
In addition, several main institutional theories exists: New Institutional economy, Old Institutional economy and New Institutional Sociology. New institutional economy emphasises the phenomenon of change being driven by efficiency, least efficient forms are replaced by the most efficient forms (Klein, 1999); Old Institutional Economy drives on the notion of rules, routines and the interrelation with institutions, as explained in the previous paragraph (Burns & Scappens, 2000); New Institutional Sociology aims to explain human behaviour by external institutional pressures and emphasises the expectation of the environment versus the organisation (Tsamenyi, et all., 2006). Relevant for this paper is the New Institutional Sociology (NIS) theory. To clarify, NIS is particularly relevant for analysing organizations that are confronted with uncertainties and, as a result, compete for political and institutional legitimacy and market position (Tsamenyi, et all., 2006: p410). This paper emphasises how a school (organisation) deals with institutional pressure, therefore NIS is an appropriate angle for this research.
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2.2.2 Isomorphism
To begin with, a philosopher28 (Buijs, 2014) raised the question “why do schools look alike?”; according to Buijs, schools enjoy a high degree of freedom, so why do they still look alike so much? Perhaps isomorphism could aid his struggle for answers.
Hawley (1968) defines isomorphism as a restricting process, that make organisations to resembling other organisations who encounter the same set of institutional pressures. Further, according to Ashworth, et all., (2007) isomorphism is observable in organisations, in for example strategy and organisational culture. In this sense isomorphism should be visible in the approach of a school to the black pete dilemma. In addition, two types of isomorphism exists: institutional and competitive. The competitive type of isomorphism has a particular focus on market competition. However –as argued by DiMaggio & Powerl (1983)- this type is suitable for fields subjected to free and open competition; which does not pertain to elementary schools. For example, schools can be forced to permit certain children to attend education at their school. Also, since schools are financed and –to some extend- regulated by the government, open and free competition is not fully possible. Therefore, institutional isomorphism might prove suitable. Institutional isomorphism is characterized by a look on the outside world. Or –as mentioned by DiMaggio & Powerl (1983)- the key considerations of an organisation pertains to other organisations. In doing so, institutional isomorphism can be used to comprehend politics and ceremony that surrounds organisations. Given the nature of the institutional pressure surrounding black pete and schools, we will have a closer look at institutional isomorphism. DiMaggio & Powell (1983) make a distinction between three forms of isomorphic pressure; coercive, normative and mimetic.
Coercive pressure
Coercive isomorphism occurs when pressures is exercised by organisations which they are dependent upon and when cultural expectations from the society steer organisational practices (DiMaggio & Powell, 1983; Lai, Wong & Cheng, 2006). This pressure might for example occur due to the legal environment. In other words -related to schools- a form of coercive pressure might be imposed by the government. For example, schools have to conform to an educational “inspection”. This inspection determines the legitimacy and future of the organization; thus schools adopt and adapt their practices to comply to the requirements set by the inspection29. In doing so, schools become more alike. However, recall the absent role of the government in the black pete discussion. In this sense the government is not inducing coercive pressure.
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Normative pressure
Normative has to do with following the overarching professional bodies (Lai, et all., 2006). To clarify, professional groups and standards influence the change in an organisation (DiMaggio & Powell, 1983). In doing so, organisations tend to follow and therefore organisations in a similar field tend to be more alike (Tsamenyi, et all., 2006). A distinction can be made between normative isomorphism caused by formal education and professional networks that “umbrella” organizations. An example of the former is the way an accountant operates; it will be quite similar to other accountants, due to their educational base and professional training.
Back to the example, schools follow the “guidelines” from the inspection, but also –although not obligatory- the testing mechanisms from “Cito”. The Cito test measures the scores of individual children and lead to a placement in further education, that matches the child’s skills and abilities. However, schools now base their practices on attributes of the Cito (normative)30, since the performance of a school is partially determined by these results. In addition, recall that the result are used for further placement. Therefore, the follow up educational organisation values the Cito score; as a result legitimacy is achieved by adopting practices related to the Cito score. Furthermore, the topic of black pete exerts pressure on schools. For example –as mentioned- pressure to follow the sinterklaasjournaal interpretation of black pete. However, it can be argued that the Sinterklaasjournaal cannot be seen as a professional body, since they have a more entertaining role. In other words, the sinterklaasjournaal does not function as an educational entity, but rather as an actor in the public discussion. In addition, the professional bodies – for example the inspection- are not involved in the black pete discussion and thus do not exert normative pressure. Concluding, schools do indeed receive institutional pressure, but it cannot be characterized as normative pressure.
Mimetic Pressure
Last, mimetic isomorphism is driven by uncertainty, as a result companies tend to emulate another company that is perceived to be more legitimate (DiMaggio & Powell, 1983; Ashworth et all., 2007). This is often done despite clear enhancements in performance (Abrahamson, 1996). In other words, organisation are exposed to institutional forces, that they cannot control (uncertainty); to reduce this, mimetic behaviour is enacted (Bailey, 2013). In addition, organisations that are similar to their own are prone to emulation. Related to black pete –as mentioned- schools in similar geographic areas tend to have the same practice related to the execution of the Saint Nicholas. This could be because of mimetic isomorphism. Uncertainty about choosing for black pete or another alternative (yellow pete) leads to schools looking to one another. Conform the arguments by DiMaggio & Powell (1983), schools try to transmit their willingness to adept, resulting in more legitimacy. Thus it can be argued that the transition
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of this “willingness” is aimed at parents. As a result, institutional pressure exerted by parents might lead to mimetic behaviour of the manager.
In line with this schools are under pressure enforced by public discussions. This pressure might –for example- come from neighbourhood organizations (DiMaggio & Powell 1983; coercive). However, it can be argued that the extend of pressure –because of the public discussion- has been greatly increased due to modern media, which allows a broader societal influence than the example mentioned by DiMaggio & Powell. Following this line of reasoning, public discussion could lead to mimetic behaviour. Furthermore, according to Clemente & Roulet (2013) an institution can become deinstitutionalized by a struggle between people who aim to keep it and people who try to abandon a practice. Schools are caught in the middle, since people in favour of black pete31 -and people against black pete 32- place pressure on schools in the form of media and parents from children33. In doing so, schools are forced to make a decisions. Also, note that the majority of people in the Netherlands are in favour of black pete34, however the forces that are exerted by opponents make some schools decide to change the celebrations.
2.3 Management types
2.3.1 Field overview
The notion of management and management styles has been widely investigated (Boseman, 2008; Boerner & von Streit, 2007; Armstrong, Cools & Salder, 2012). In line with this, a manager can be defined as someone who controls activities of an organization35. Furthermore, –according to Hal (1989)- public managers face more bureaucracy and get less capital incentives. As a result, public managers are considered to be achievement oriented and private managers are power oriented. In addition, many researchers have attempted to group managers according to manager styles (Kozhevnikov, Evans & Kosslyn, 2014). Armstrong et al (2012) identify solid and reliable methods for the measurement of cognitive styles, that can be used in cases related to business and management. Cognitive styles are defined as follows: “…patterns of adaptation to the external world that develop on the basis of innate predispositions, the interactions among which are shaped by changing environmental demands” (Kozhevnikov et all., 2014:page 1).
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Recall the decision a manager is facing –related to black pete- is influenced by isomorphism and thus has a strong emphasis on environmental demands. Therefore –keeping the definition of cognitive styles in mind- this paper would do well to have a cognitive style theory to indicate the type of a manager. In accordance, the most used cognitive styles in business and management literature are provided by Kirton, Allinson & Hayes, Pacini & Epstein and Myers (Armstrong et al., 2012).
2.3.2 Adaptor-Innovator style
To begin with, Armstrong et al. (2012) reviewed 438 research papers –that were released between 1969 and 2009- in the business and management literature stream. As a result -according to Armstrong et al. (2012)- Kirton’s theory was used in 21% of business and management research related to management styles. The style theory provided by Kirton makes a distinction between an adaptor and innovator style. In this sense an adaptor is more likely to accept formal policies and –in contrary- an innovator questions these policies and attempt to do things in another way (Kirton, 1976). However, this theory was prone to extensive criticism (Payne, 1987; Taylor, 1989; Mudd, 1996) and therefore not used in this paper. In addition, the Kirton’s theory emphasizes group behaviour being a key influencing factor on the style of an individual. In contrary, this research aims to unravel how a manager can influence the organisational openness to institutional pressure. As a result the manager as an individual is targeted to create an understanding, regardless of the group situation.
2.3.3 Analysis-intuition
Further, Allinson & Hayes (1996) developed a theory which places an individual on an analysis-intuition dimension. In between someone can be “quasi-intuitive”, adaptive and “quasi-analytic. In this sense, Allinson and Hayes’s created a model with cognitive styles. Furthermore, this theory is used in 14% of the business and management literature –again- related to styles. However, according to Allinson & Hayes (2012), the cognitive style index is best used for improving the job fit of a person, the effectiveness of training, team composition, interpersonal relationships in teams and task performance of teams. As a result, this theory has an emphasis on managers performing in teams. In addition –closely related to the cognitive style index- Pacini & Epstein (1999) created a theory with a rational-experiential dimension (7% of business and management literature). Here the rational person prefers an analytical approach and the experiential person has a more emotional holistic approach. However, this cognitive style assessment method is related to many problems, for example lack of reliability and conceptual clarity (Sadler-Smith, 2008). Again, this theory might not be useful for this paper.
2.3.3 Myers-Briggs type Indicator
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believes. This in turn leads to the determination of which dichotomy fits the participant (Quenk, 2009). The four dichotomies –accompanied by a short description- are:
1. Extraversion (E) vs Introversion (I). The E – I dichotomy; in this sense, extraversion is a person who directs his focus on the outside world. In contrary, introvert is someone who leans to being “in himself” and generates ideas in doing so.
2. Sensing (S) vs Intuition (N). The S – N dichotomy. Leaning towards sensing is a person who focusses on things he can sense by hearing, smelling, watching, feeling and tasting. In contrary, intuition pertains to the focus on experiencing patterns and interrelationships.
3. Thinking (T) vs Feeling (F). Next, T – F contains: A person with a dominant emphasis on thinking is led by logical and objective analysis, as of opposed to feeling. Scoring in the feeling category is a person who focusses on comprehension and consonance; conclusions are based on one’s own values.
4. Judging (J) vs Perceiving (P) . Last, J – P. Judging is characterised as preferring decisions and closure as being a derived from the outside world. Perceiving are those who lean towards flexibility derived from the outside world.
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2.4 Isomorphism & management types
2.4.1 Environmental pressure
Last year (2015) 1 out of 3 schools did not use the traditional black pete. Although this might seem low, one year ago (2014) only 1 out of 7 schools changed the traditional black pete (aob enquête “zwarte piet of niet”, 2015). Therefore there is a growing trend leaning to a change in the institutionalized black pete; what does this imply? The discussion results in institutional pressure, since schools are at the base of this. In other words, institutional pressure -for both choosing against and in favour of black pete- is exerted. As a result, schools feel pressure and are looking for ways to coop with this pressure. A natural way to react to this is by displaying isomorphic behaviour, that is, the school adopts the approach that the “field” (other schools) are displaying (Hannan & Freeman, 1977; Westney, 1993). Although this might be the case –since 2/3 of the schools still use the traditional black pete- it does not fully explain why some do and others do not change their approach. A possible explanation can be found in a paper by Pfeiffer & Salancik (1978); an organisation cannot survive if it would respond to all the environmental pressures; perhaps some schools are less open for institutional pressure than others.
2.4.2 MBTI
The argument by Pfeiffer & Salancik (1978) indicate that a response to all the environmental pressure would be troublesome. Therefore it should be the case that some aspect of an organisation might be less open for institutional pressure. In support of this, Hannan & Freeman (1984) claim that culture and strategy are less prone to institutional pressure, since they stand for “what we are”. In this light, black pete might be difficult to challenge, as being part of an organizations culture. However, more recent research claims that culture and strategy are more able to be influenced by institutional pressure; the manager has a key role for in this assumption (Ashworth et all., 2007). Besides, the influence of the manager on organizational performance is determined by the amount of institutional pressure. This in turn supports the relevance of the research question, since this assumes a link between institutional pressure and a manager. The implication can now be made that a manager can thus be influenced by institutional pressure and –in turn- change the Saint Nicholas celebrations. However, the underlying mechanism of “how” the manager –on an individual level- influences this relation is unclear. Useful insight in this dilemma is given by Rolf & Sandy (2016).
According to Rolf & Sandy (2016) institutional decisions are a representation of the cognitions of an individual. In line with this, the MBTI characterizes a manager in cognitive functions36. Furthermore, Rolf & Sandy (2016) indicate that beliefs are essential for decision making in an institutional perspective, since they involve the way an individual judges legitimacy and practices: “Beliefs are critical to institutional decisions because they are the substantive content of actors’ legitimacy judgments—evaluators’ opinions about whether an individual, organization, or practice is legitimate or
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illegitimate … beliefs is critical to explaining the adoption and institutionalization of practices, because the acquisition, manifestation, or change in beliefs shapes the formation and evolution of legitimacy judgments, which, in turn, shape actors institutional decisions to adopt and institutionalize or reject and deinstitutionalize practices. (p134)”.
In other words, a manager’s “beliefs” appears to be an important angle for understanding the difference in approach –between manager types- in the utilisation of the Saint Nicholas celebrations. Relating this to the Myers-Briggs type’s, the characteristics of Judging-Perceiving and Thinking-Feeling represents –to a great extend- the “beliefs of the manager. For example, recall that a preference for feeling is accompanied by acting according to your own beliefs. Also, the Judging-Perceiving dichotomy involves a degree of flexibility and thus the degree of acting within one’s own belief; whereas the Extravert-Introvert and Sensing-Intuition dichotomies do not rely on this entity. In this light, the Judging-Perceiving and Thinking-Feeling dichotomies are more appropriate for this research than Extravert-Introvert and Sensing-Intuition. The dichotomies will be reviewed in more detail.
Judging/Perceiving
The Judging/Perceiving dichotomy determines to a great extend how a person make’s a decision. For example, a preference for perceiving is associated with a more flexible way of evaluating options and possibilities; as of opposed to judging (Hughes, 1994). A “judging” manager would be more formal, organised and decisive and therefore prone to obligate to the coercive pressure. First, coercive isomorphism is –as mentioned- exerted by for example the government, in the form of rules. In this sense the perceiving manager might be more immune to coercive isomorphism, however coercive pressure appears to be absent in the dilemma of black pete. Second -related to institutional pressure in the form of a public discussion- a perceiving manager has a flexible approach and is less prejudiced (beliefs), but also more careless and has a way of letting life happen. As a result, this type of manager might be either prone to isomorphic pressure, or immune. For example, being less prejudiced could cause the manager to be more open to change. Third, a perceiver is more prone to postpone making a decision; whereas a judger does not delay decision making37. This in itself does not appear to influence the impact of institutional pressure, since only the timing is affected. However, a judger is committed to the agreed decision (black pete or not) and therefore hard to change afterwards, whereas a perceiver will remain open for change after this point. In other words, a judger could have made a decision early on and as a result ignore the institutional pressures later on. The findings of this research should be able to provide insight in this matter.
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Last, the Judging/Perceiving dichotomy basically addresses how a person deals with the outside world (Quenk, 2009). In line with this, isomorphic theory emphasises the focus of organisations on the outside world and it’s interplay with it (DiMaggio & Powell, 1983). Furthermore, Järvenpää (2007) argues that the behaviour of a manager is the key determinant for the organisational culture; this implies –as mentioned- the behaviour of a manager mainly determines the way an organization reacts to the outside world, or to institutional pressure. In line with this, whether a manager confirms to isomorphic pressure could be –to some extend- determined by having a preference for judging or perceiving. Therefore, the Judging/Perceiving dichotomy is an appropriate angle for this research, but not sufficient on its own.
Thinking/Feeling
According to Bailey (2013) and Dimaggio & Powell (1983) a normal goal for an organizations is to strive for institutional legitimacy. Recall that the “just way” way of operating is achieved by complying to the existing standard, which in turns gives the legitimacy. As a result, goal alignment of management is one of the key determinants for organizational performance (Kaplan & Norton, 1992). Furthermore, a public organisation is supposed to keep ethics and integrity into account (Huberts & Hoekstra, 2015). In other words, it is important that a manager works in accordance to the existing ethics, which in turn can be derived from institutions. However, according to Ayers (2015) the way a manager acts if often not in line with the organizational standards or goals. As a result, the organisational openness to institutional pressure depends on the manager. In accordance, the type of a manager might have a strong influence in this and then in particular the thinking/feeling type.
First, recall the characteristics of the Thinking/Feeling dichotomy; a person scoring on feeling acts according to his own values and beliefs, which can –obviously- stroke with the way the external environment wants the manager to act. Also, the feeling manager will strive for harmony, sympathy and use subjective criterion (Quenk, 2009). Now it can be argued that a preference for feeling might lead to a partially ignorance towards isomorphic pressure. On the one hand the manager could conform to societal pressure, in pursuit of harmony and due to empathy for people who feel discriminated. On the other hand pressure might be discarded due to a preference for subjective criterion.
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Concluding, the Thinking/Feeling dichotomy might have a role in the link between management style and openness to institutional pressure (decision making). However, the “how” part remains unclear. Also, Aranda & Tilton (2013) finds that 85 percent of managers score on thinking and judging. Perhaps an answer on the “how” question need to be sought in this corner, causing the Extravert-Introvert and Sensing-Intuition dichotomies to be possibly irrelevant.
Extraversion/Introversion
First, the Extravert-Introvert dimension is mainly determined by being either social or more withdrawn38. To elaborate extraversion is related to energizing other people and receiving energy by active participation. In comparison, introvert individuals receive energy by staying “inwards” and doing things alone. This –at a first perception- appears valuable in this research, since it can be said that a extravert manager has another way of communicating than an introvert manager. For example, assume that in a given situation a person says that his mother is ill, but he/she is alright. An Extravert individual would interpret this as that the person is okay. In contrary, an introvert individual listen to what is not said. Or –in other words- might see that the person is not okay at all. However, this does not influence the way an introvert or extravert makes a decision related to institutional pressure, nor is it related to a manager’s “beliefs”. Coupled to black pete, the difference is gathered information does not relate to the public discussion, groups of parents or close situated schools and thus is less relevant for decision making.
Second, extraverts are motivated by people and things, whereas introverts are motivated by ideas and fantasy’s. Also, extraverts appear to have rather wide spread, but simplistic relationship and introverts have less but more profound relationship. Again the way a manager gets motivated does not relate to institutional pressure. The decision at hand –black pete- is troublesome, since different forces are exercising pressure. However, this pressure -and the way a manager reacts to it- is there regardless of where a manager finds his/her motivation, or whether his/her social relationships are superficial or deep. Last, an extravert thinks out loud and an introvert thinks in silence39. It can be argued that this influences the way a manager works. However, this does not say much in terms of cognitive differences related to decision making. Whereas –for example- the Judging/Perceiving dichotomy is related to being decisive or unprejudiced, which would affect decision making related to black pete to a great extent. Concluding, adding the Extravert-Introvert dichotomy will not aid in answering the main question: How does the management style influence an organisations openness to institutional pressure?
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Sensing/Intuition
To begin with, sensing can be coupled with focussing on the physical appearance; by seeing, hearing, touching, tasting and smelling (Quenk, 2009). In contrary, intuition is based on focussing on experience and thinking; this is done by –for example- working with symbols or theories40. This means that Sensing/Intution influences decision making. To illustrate, a sensing person might decide to buy a stack of wood based on how it looks, smells and feels. Whereas a intuition based person might decide not to buy the stack of wood, due to bad experience with this particular seller. However, this “type” of decision making is completely different from the case in this paper (black pete), where public discussions and a strive for legitimacy are key considerations.
Second, sensing is characterized as using common sense, working based on facts and being oriented on the present. Whereas intuition is related to using creativity, working based on the relation between things and being future oriented (Quenck, 2009). Again, the characteristics influence decision making to some extent. However, the subject of this paper can be found in a recent issue, where being future or present oriented does not affect the institutional pressure. In other words, this dichotomy would approach the arduous problem (black pete) –where decision making involves considerable institutional forces- in a too simplistic manner. Last, it appears that the characteristics of this dichotomy do not mean much in terms of a manager’s beliefs and thus renders this dichotomy not useful for this research. In other words, the Sensing-Intuition dimension shows relevance for decision making, but not for the problem that is covered in this paper. Concluding, the Judging/Perceiving and Thinking/Feeling dichotomies are more relevant for decision making related to the case in this paper and are thus used to direct this paper. In contrary, the extraversion/introversion (E – I) & sensing/intuition (S – N) have been excluded.
2.4.3 Conceptual model
A conceptual model can be derived from the previous sections (figure 2). The main research question is
“How does the management style influence an organisations openness to institutional pressure?”
The case of black pete is used in order to answer this research question. In this sense, schools –and in particular the manager- have to decide on an approach, while dealing with institutional pressure. As a result, decision making is a key point in this research and therefore placed in the middle. Next, the Judging type is assumed to reduce an organisations openness to institutional pressure, whereas a perceiver increases the openness to institutional pressure. To clarify, scoring on judging is a person who commits to the agreed on decision (black pete or not), which should prevent him/her to change afterwards. In comparison, a perceiver continues to be open for change and thus sets the stage for further institutional pressure. Furthermore, several characteristics from either thinking or feeling could influence the organisations openness to institutional pressure. However, the influence of having a
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preference for either thinking or feeling remains unclear. Last, it appears that institutional pressure – isomorphism- influences decision making related to the case in this paper (black pete). Having that said, this paper sails on uncharted territory by aiming to uncover how a manager influences the organizational openness to institutional pressure. The next section will cover the methodology of the research approach.
Figure 2: conceptual model
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3. Methodology
The methodology section will provide insight in the execution of the proposed research. By doing so, the tools for appropriate controllability are provided. Controllability has to do with showing how the research has been carried out, in order to enable others to replicate it (Aken, Berends & Bij, 2012).
3.1 Research type & method
This research aims at answering the research question “How does the management style influence an organisations openness to institutional pressure?”. In order to do so, the chosen research type is “qualitative”. Qualitative research can –among others- be used to investigate the “how” of the essentials and surrounding of a matter (Berg & Lune, 2004). Besides, this type is appropriated for exposing connections among concepts and behaviour, understand phenomenon placed in context and to create and adjust theory (Miles & Huberman, 1994). In addition, qualitative research is useful for suggesting theory, which can later on be solidified by quantitative research (Jick, 1979; Eisenhardt, 1989). Related to institutional theory; qualitative research is appropriate in a thin field of study that requires further exploration; as is what this paper aims to do. Furthermore, a qualitative method is inherently subjective and can therefore unravel things -about the management style and how it affects organisations openness to institutional pressure- that are not known and thought of before. As a result of this, in-depth interviews are chosen to collect data.
3.2 Interview method
3.2.1 In-depth interviews
In-depth interviews are used to collect data. According to Schmidt (2015) in-depth interviews can be used to create understanding and give clarity and insight into matters. In line with that, the interview is performed on the base of a semi-structured interview. Semi-structured interviews are characterized by a good degree of flexibility and –because of that- are appropriate to address different insight into the research question, while giving the “interviewee” incentives to offer additional purport to the research (Galletta, 2012). In addition, the semi-structured interview approach allows for data to unfold, while at the same time generate data backed up by theory (Galletta, 2012). Because of this, questions will be asked that are derived from the theoretical section.
Furthermore, the quality of this research is important. To begin with, in order to reduce situation bias the interviewees will be interviewed in a school. As a result, this research will be more independent of the particular study, since another study could replicate the same situational characteristics; which increases reliability (Yin, 2003). Second, reliability benefits from multiple research instruments (Yin, 2003). Therefore different questions and items will be included in the interview, since using these different items and question can be considered as multiple instruments (Aken et all., 2012).
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Fourth, -although body language as an observation method may not be seen as an official way to increase reliability- McNeill, Cassel & Mccullough (1994) stress that a mismatch often exists between expressed verbal and non-verbal information. Because of this, people (researchers) can be misled by not paying attention to body language. In addition, reading body language can reveal hidden meanings and informal authority. Furthermore, the body has a role in social dynamics and -as a result- reflects a person’s believe (Bourdieu, 1991). Without willing to claim it as an additional data collection method, this might prove valuable in improving the reliability of this paper. As a result, the interviews will be carried out “face to face” if possible.
Next, the interviewee will be asked to approve the interview to be recorded. By doing so, the interviewer can focus on the interview without worrying about missing essential things (both in word and body language). The interview will -give or take- last one hour and will be held in the Dutch language. Further, the interview recording will be processed into an interview transcript. After that, the transcript will be analysed in order to capture the “essence”. During this analysis, table’s will be formed, which allows the discovery of recurrent events. Also, the management type will be part of the table, in order to link relevant information to particular management types (cross-management type analysis). In the end, the analysed data is used to answer sub question four and – consequentially- the main question.
To finalize, the interview is structured in a way that fits the theoretical framework. First, general information is gathered about the manager (career), the school and the Saint Nicholas celebrations. Second, the organisational structure and the decision power -in general and related to black pete- is mapped (2.1.1 Schools). Third, isomorphism –related to the public discussion around black pete- is covered. Last, the management type and isomorphism is treated. In doing so, the role of the manager in the execution of the Saint Nicholas celebrations is unravelled. In addition, this part involves a walkthrough of the determined management type and whether the type corresponds with his/her own view. Also –as mentioned- it is important to determine the management style of the interviewee. Therefore the interviewee will be asked to do the Myers Briggs Type Indicator test before entering the interview. The parts that determine the dichotomies of Judging/Perceiving and Thinking/Feeling are extracted from the test (see appendix).
3.2.2 Interviewee selection
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“black pete” discussion41. In order to improve reliability and generalizability, school managers in different areas of the Netherlands are part of the interviewee group.
3.2.3 The interview in practice
To begin with –as mentioned- the desired interview subjects were managers in elementary schools. It turned out that finding managers -willing to participate in this research- was a challenge. In line with this, 58 schools were contacted by email, phone or both; this resulted in 8 managers willing to participate. Reasons for not participating were –in order of frequency- too busy, amount of requests for interviews and an approaching school inspection. Another factor was the time frame, which was limited due to approaching school holiday’s. In addition –as mentioned- the Myers Briggs Type Indicator test was send to the interviewees. However, six out of eight did not returned the test before the interview date. Therefore the test was carried out with me –the researcher- present. As a result, the test was still scored before the actual interview was performed, which allowed the interview to go on as planned. Also, seven of the interviews were carried out “in person” and one interview by phone (see table 1). One of the interviewees –from the carried out in person group- did not want to be recorded. The reason for this was concerns for anonymity. Further, all the interviewees were present at school during the interview. In addition, one of the interviews will be excluded (interview H) from the remainder of this paper. Manager “H” was not involved in the decision making process of black pete. The questions regarding institutional pressure and the management type were asked, but related to another topic (start-up of a new school). In other words, the results do not pertain to the case in this paper.
Furthermore, after performing two interviews a few questions where added, due to a relevant remark of one of the interviewees. The added questions allow the interviewee to choose between two options: 1. black pete/white pete, 2. traditions/change, 3. I decide/I give space, 4. my values/your values. These questions are closely related to the management style, are useful for confirmation and act as an “ice-breaker”.
Last, the interview was carried out with the promise of anonymity; this was done due to the sensitivity and pressure around black pete. However, still some managers were hesitant about the degree of anonymity. For example, one manager did not wish to be recorded and another manager noted –before giving the opinion on the black pete discussion- the danger of answering if the interview is recorded. As a result, the managers and corresponding schools are marked by an alphabetic character (A-H, see table 1). The next section begins with giving a description of the schools and managers who participated in this research.
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Identity Position Years asmanager Type Pupils # Employees # Geographical location Research method A Unit Manager 30 Public school 550 35 Groningen, near a city In person B School manager 6 Confessional school 311 27 Zuid-Holland, near a city Phone C School manager 26 Confessional school 280 23 Groningen, near a city In person D General manager 24 Special education 500 190 Groningen, in a city In person E School manager 12 Confessional school
290 24 Drenthe, rural area In person
F School manager 4 (+-) Public school 480 36 Zuid-Holland, in a city In person (not recorded) G School manager 9 Special education
118 23 Drenthe, in a city In person
H School manager 29 Public school 330 20 Groningen, near a city In person - excluded
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4. Results
The results chapter will present findings from the interview. In general this section will cover the elements in the conceptual model. In doing so, an overview can be established about what the interviewees had to say about the elements. In addition, the order of presenting the interview findings is similar to the structure of the interview itself. In other words, first general information about the schools and managers is provided. Second, isomorphism and the corresponding institutional pressures are described and explained in relation to the case. Last, findings related to the management type are presented and linked to institutional pressure.
4.1 Background
In general every school had a manager and a “coordinator” for a set of classes (lower classes/middle classes/higher classes); from now on these coordinators are called “section coordinators”. These section coordinators were –together with the manager- part of the management team. In addition, the manager of a school has final responsibility and thus decision power. However, every school is obligated to have a so called “participation counsel”. This counsel consists of teachers and parents and has an important vote in how the manager governs the school. In general the participation counsel had a side-line role in the utilization of black pete, but this will be covered in more detail later on. Similarly, in general the schools had a Saint Nicholas committee. The committee –existing of teachers and parents- is tasked with the organizational aspects of the Saint Nicholas celebrations. In addition, all the schools had some sort of general management; consistent with figure 1 in the theoretical section (table 1). Furthermore, the majority of the schools were situated in the North of the Netherlands (5 out of 7). Also, 3 schools were located near a city, 3 schools in a city and 1 school in a rural area.
4.2 Isomorphism
The topic of black pete is accompanied by several influences or pressure’s. In this research, institutional pressure is used and then in particular isomorphic pressure. This section will give an overview of how the managers perceived the pressures around black pete. In doing so, sub question 4 will be answered:
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Role (in general)Parents Key factor – Depended upon the number of parents
Colleagues Key factor
Schools - foundation Minor – more of an advising role Schools- close situated Negligible – merely for information
Friends and family Negligible
Television Minor - raise awareness & less important than local pressures Remaining pressures -
participation council
Moderate – absent, but a potentially important factor
Remaining pressures - Perceived racism
Moderate – absent, but potentially a key factor
Table 2 – Institutional pressures
Parents
The Saint Nicholas celebrations were often organised by a committee, existing of parents and teachers. However, related to this topic, pressure from parents was close to non-existence. The way the celebrations were organised was in line with how it was traditionally done, therefore there was no pressure for change. Nonetheless, pressure exerted by parents would be -in the majority of the school- an important factor. For example, manager “A”: “If we assume that the majority of our parents would not want a black pete… they are our customers, so than we should go along with it”. Later on it was added that the decision should not be at the expense of children.
