Entrepreneurs by the grace of God : life and work of seamstresses in Bolgatanga, Ghana

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Entrepreneurs by the Grace of God

Life and Work of Seamstresses in Bolgatanga, Ghana

En tre pre ne ur s b y t he G ra ce o f G od ere l v an ‘ t W ou t

Merel van ‘t Wout

This book is based on Merel van ‘t Wouts’ Master’s thesis ‘Entrepreneurs by the Grace of

God : Life and Work of Seamstresses in Bolgatanga, Ghana’, winner of the African Studies Centre, Leiden’s

2015 Africa Thesis Award. This annual award for Master’s students encourages student research and writing on Africa and promotes the study of African cultures and societies.

This research project aims at understanding the expectations and motivations of young women in Ghana’s Upper East Region with regard to starting their own business. Supporting the owners of small-scale businesses in the informal economy has become a central objective of the global development agenda. Using an anthropological approach, this research contributes to and criticizes the dominant discourse on the need to advance entrepreneurship. It argues that the theoretical discourse underlying efforts to advance entrepreneurship among the poor are fundamentally flawed. Four cross-cutting issues should be taken into account: the weak conceptualization of entrepreneurship in development discourse; the neglect of the socio- economic context in which “entrepreneurial” activities take place; the importance of cultural and psychological factors; and the ongoing attractiveness that entrepreneurship carries for development policymakers. These issues are relevant to the situation of seamstresses in Bolgatanga, but also apply to a wider field. Based on the stories of seamstresses in Bolgatanga, this thesis is an appeal to rethink policies designed to promote (female) entrepreneurship among the poor. It calls into question the portrayal of self-employment as “entrepreneurship” and the depiction of poverty as an individual problem.

Merel van ’t Wout is currently pursuing a PhD in anthropology at the African Studies Centre Leiden, The Netherlands. She has a specific interest in issues of youth, belonging, and expectations of modernity in West Africa. Her PhD project explores feelings of belonging among disenfranchised young men in the rapidly growing city of Tamale, in the Northern Region of Ghana. Merel is a visiting PhD researcher at the Centre of African Studies in Copenhagen.

African Studies Collection 68

68 Entrepreneurs by the Grace of God

Life and Work of Seamstresses in Bolgatanga, Ghana Merel van ‘t Wout

African Studies Collection 68

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Ent

rep

rene

urs b

y the G

race o

f God

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We m ust a sk: Wh y stat

ements ar e acce

ptable in ‘ deve

lopment’ di scours e tha

t - tha cept from y many ac or even so wh e - s, but alscours etting academic di alm of d in academic s he re bsur rom t onsidered a ements f stat would be c able t ime of ursive reg he disc to t heir way in ail to find t vation - f ser t’. velopmen of common ob ‘de

Jame s Fer gus on (1990, 67)

able statements from the realm of academic discourse - or even from that of common observation - fail to find their way into the discursive regime of

‘development’.

James Ferguson (1990, 67) able statements from the realm of academic discourse - or even from that

of common observation - fail to find their way into the discursive regime of

‘development’.

James Ferguson (1990, 67)

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Entrepr eneurs b

y the Grac

e of God

Life and Work o f Seamstr

esses in Bolgat

anga, Ghana

Merel v an ’t Wout

Afric an Studies Centr

e Leiden

Entrepreneurs by the Grace of God

Life and Work of Seamstresses in Bolgatanga, Ghana

Merel van ’t Wout

African Studies Centre Leiden African Studies Collection, vol. 68

Entrepreneurs by the Grace of God

Life and Work of Seamstresses in Bolgatanga, Ghana

Merel van ’t Wout

African Studies Centre Leiden

African Studies Collection, vol. 68

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[Col ofo n]

Afric an Studie s Centr

e Leiden

P.O . Box 9555

2300 RB L eiden

The Nether land s

asc@a scleiden.nl w.as ww cleiden.nl

Cover desig n: Heik e Slingerland

Cover photo: O phelia , res ear ch p artic ipan t and appr

entic e at t he Bolg atang a

marke t, k illing time at her ‘

madam

’s’ wor kplac

e at t he end of the d

ay.

Phot ogra ph by Mer

el v an ’t W out

Copyrig ht phot os: M erel v an ’t W out

Map: Ne l de Vink (D

eVink Ma pde

sign)

Prin ted by I psk amp Pr inting , Ensche

de

ISS N: 1876-018x

ISBN: 978-90-5448-166-9

[Colofon]

African Studies Centre Leiden P.O. Box 9555

2300 RB Leiden The Netherlands asc@ascleiden.nl www.ascleiden.nl

Cover design: Heike Slingerland

Cover photo: Ophelia, research participant and apprentice at the Bolgatanga market, killing time at her ‘madam’s’ workplace at the end of the day.

Photograph by Merel van ’t Wout Copyright photos: Merel van ’t Wout Map: Nel de Vink (DeVink Mapdesign)

Printed by Ipskamp Printing, Enschede ISSN: 1876-018x

ISBN: 978-90-5448-166-9

[Colofon]

African Studies Centre Leiden P.O. Box 9555

2300 RB Leiden The Netherlands asc@ascleiden.nl www.ascleiden.nl

Cover design: Heike Slingerland

Cover photo: Ophelia, research participant and apprentice at the Bolgatanga market, killing time at her ‘madam’s’ workplace at the end of the day.

Photograph by Merel van ’t Wout Copyright photos: Merel van ’t Wout Map: Nel de Vink (DeVink Mapdesign)

Printed by Ipskamp Printing, Enschede ISSN: 1876-018x

ISBN: 978-90-5448-166-9

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Table o f Contents

Pref ace

7 ts nowledgemen Ack

9 12 yms ron List of ac

1 Introduction

15

Seamstr ess a

ppren tices a s ‘en trepr eneurs -to-b e’

15 st in women o inve The need t

16 izon s on the hor Cloud

18 hip eneurs epr emale entr zing f uali Concept

19 a atang hip and training in Bolg eneurs epr Entr

26 stions arch que ese ective and r arch obj Rese

31 k ramewor ual f Concept

33 sis he the zation of t Organi

34

2 The Setting

37

Intr oduc tion

37 tion k loca s a fieldwor anga a olgat osing B Cho

38 gion ast Re pper E a and the U atang Bolg

40 d tho ase me ended c he ext ldwork and t h to fie oac xive appr A refle

50 s orie est hanging lif Exc

52 vations al obser xtu Conte

54 ssions scu roup di us g Foc

58

3 Imagining a Fut

ure

59

Intr oduc tion

59 sehold armers hou ence f ing up in a subsist Grow

60 ation e’ educ e-fre fre The illusion of ‘

70 nation e and resig stanc en resi : Betwe aths igating p Nav

78

Preface 7 Acknowledgements 9

List of acronyms 12

1 Introduction

15

Seamstress apprentices as ‘entrepreneurs-to-be’ 15

The need to invest in women 16

Clouds on the horizon 18

Conceptualizing female entrepreneurship 19

Entrepreneurship and training in Bolgatanga 26

Research objective and research questions 31

Conceptual framework 33

Organization of the thesis 34

2 The Setting

37

Introduction 37

Choosing Bolgatanga as a fieldwork location 38

Bolgatanga and the Upper East Region 40

A reflexive approach to fieldwork and the extended case method 50

Exchanging lifestories 52

Contextual observations 54

Focus group discussions 58

3 Imagining a Future

59

Introduction 59

Growing up in a subsistence farmers household 60

The illusion of ‘free-free’ education 70

Navigating paths: Between resistance and resignation 78

Preface 7 Acknowledgements 9

List of acronyms 12

1 Introduction

15

Seamstress apprentices as ‘entrepreneurs-to-be’ 15

The need to invest in women 16

Clouds on the horizon 18

Conceptualizing female entrepreneurship 19

Entrepreneurship and training in Bolgatanga 26

Research objective and research questions 31

Conceptual framework 33

Organization of the thesis 34

2 The Setting

37

Introduction 37

Choosing Bolgatanga as a fieldwork location 38

Bolgatanga and the Upper East Region 40

A reflexive approach to fieldwork and the extended case method 50

Exchanging lifestories 52

Contextual observations 54

Focus group discussions 58

3 Imagining a Future

59

Introduction 59

Growing up in a subsistence farmers household 60

The illusion of ‘free-free’ education 70

Navigating paths: Between resistance and resignation 78

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4 Routines o

f Ever yday Lif e and Clashing Values

91

Intr oduc tion

91 ob A woman's j

91 107 122 112 131 e s of life ruit yday lif tions cta weet f tions xpe e of ever st aspira Mode The bitter and s The violenc Conflicting e

5 Hidden Violence

141

Intr oduc tion

141 e? gre hip: A matter of de eneurs trepr iency and en -suffic Self

146 onditions in s conomic c ogramme ultural and e ocio-c ial training pr ct of s eneur epr The negle entr

149 tions vic e and con O practic NG

157 hip eneurs epr h entr hroug lopment t s of deve The underpinning

160 hip eneurs trepr he ideal of en ing power of t The stay

167 e Hidden violenc

173

6 Conclusions

175

Blind fait h

175 s omise Empty pr

178 olicy lopment p ing deve think xity: Re omple Embracing c

180

App endix 1: The e xtende

d cas e metho d

182 phy Bibliogra

185 Introduction 91

A woman's job 91

The bitter and sweet fruits of life 107

Modest aspirations 112

Conflicting expectations 122

The violence of everyday life 131

5 Hidden Violence

141

Introduction 141

Self-sufficiency and entrepreneurship: A matter of degree? 146

The neglect of socio-cultural and economic conditions in

entrepreneurial training programmes 149

NGO practice and convictions 157

The underpinnings of development through entrepreneurship 160

The staying power of the ideal of entrepreneurship 167

Hidden violence 173

6 Conclusions

175

Blind faith 175

Empty promises 178

Embracing complexity: Rethinking development policy 180

Appendix 1: The extended case method 182

Bibliography 185 Introduction 91

A woman's job 91

The bitter and sweet fruits of life 107

Modest aspirations 112

Conflicting expectations 122

The violence of everyday life 131

5 Hidden Violence

141

Introduction 141

Self-sufficiency and entrepreneurship: A matter of degree? 146

The neglect of socio-cultural and economic conditions in

entrepreneurial training programmes 149

NGO practice and convictions 157

The underpinnings of development through entrepreneurship 160

The staying power of the ideal of entrepreneurship 167

Hidden violence 173

6 Conclusions

175

Blind faith 175

Empty promises 178

Embracing complexity: Rethinking development policy 180

Appendix 1: The extended case method 182

Bibliography 185

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Pref ace

Driv ing thr ough Osu, a hip and ha ppening neig

hbour hood in A ccra

, I was ith t al – be- shopping a, a small its hologic ith atang arallels w syc – w : Bolg in Osu ually no p atial and p Life s virt ld of study oth sp th. e nor ance – b remot al and my fie endy bars – ha he dist apit Ghana’s ts and tr n in e more, by t auran tow he Ghanaian c est k, onc incial malls, r struc prov tween t he sing ality ity of rea s of Osu mal eco- major iew e inequ hose who ar ith inc eet v he infor h, the ty of t oupled w wealt od in t try. The str he pover obs c t of Ghana, wher t their ted t t liveliho flaun via he coun arning j few velopmen not alle e a decen happy has k of wage-e he north of t the ods o acquir es in t sive lac ted goess ven economic de uggle t erva e. While ris impor eamstr al the une es of on the pric lives of s is Ghanaians str nomy. The p reve

e s made. try ha he coun hat t ances t he economic adv rom t luded f exc

Since m y first visit t

o Ghana (2011), I have b een in trig ued by t he psyc

hologi- antly subj e const e to b t is it lik ality. Wha ty and inequ t of pover pac cal im ect

- n s the ar, how , moder In thi ticul e study s cas ty? In par condition? their -off (in thi terprove ality and pover lp im he bet and he s of inequ pts of t ect them to he attem h out bilitating eff ok at t reac o the de Os) to do people lo ed t NG - o et x- es: ar- tu- han egr anga, dules h en- es’ p bility to eac ess r ess olgat umstanc y. Their ra how how, t xpr heir oppor aily sche an ina d to t e sensible t hese women e es in B ict t d by t seamstr heir circ avy d ly, t ess less and e eel mor s intende uelle ainful and s mal econom ith he e, affec eamstr prising ity, f liorating t ten p s and constr l power he infor ecur ogramme hild car y fee ps unsur s are of ombined w ondition can f and ins erha orie ies of young s king in t t aim at ame n their live es, c ent c ess ions run pr et. P hores and c s tha s tak ssities. The he stor of str thi n reg s. Their st hat gover heir pres ure t sehold c ther ense e ends me ogramme ces t aily nece apt s to women wor ortunitie ant s se d ence in t kill GO pr he for d to c cha emotional toll le to mak ial s ed opp a const quiesc e to t ve trie d by endless hou eneur ation in N Os in Ghana’s nor stanc ience over miss ticip who strugg NG trepr nities. The marke pay and pur them, acsis, I ha per resi - s. hey tivitie ay, t -like w siness heir economic ac rom t ve in a more bu ods f eha t liveliho cen se women b e the o derive de hat, onc e able t tionale is t will b

This t hesis s hows how suc

h good in ten tions can go a

wfully w rong . It mak

es s and ashe e with a ul cl fer t group ter arge in painf s can in xt of t result onte inciple Os can NG conomic c conomic pr t of par ocio-e the malistic e ity on h in for anding of the s sensitiv k of lac ough underst ar how blind fait how a thorcle

s Preface

Driving through Osu, a hip and happening neighbourhood in Accra, I was struck, once more, by the distance – both spatial and psychological – between the Ghanaian capital and my field of study: Bolgatanga, a small provincial town in Ghana’s remote north. Life in Osu – with its shopping malls, restaurants and trendy bars – has virtually no parallels with the lives of seamstresses in the north of the country. The street views of Osu reveal the uneven economic development of Ghana, where inequality is on the rise. While the happy few flaunt their wealth, the majority of Ghanaians struggle to acquire a decent livelihood in the informal economy. The pervasive lack of wage-earning jobs coupled with increasing prices of imported goods has not alleviated the poverty of those who are excluded from the economic advances that the country has made.

Since my first visit to Ghana (2011), I have been intrigued by the psychological impact of poverty and inequality. What is it like to be constantly subject- ed to the debilitating effects of inequality and poverty? In particular, how do people look at the attempts of the better-off (in this case study, modern NGOs) to reach out to them and help improve their condition? In this thesis, I have tried to capture the stories of young seamstresses in Bolgatanga, who struggle to make ends meet. Perhaps unsurprisingly, these women experience a constant sense of stress and insecurity, fuelled by an inability to pay and purchase daily necessities. They feel powerless and express regret over missed opportunities. Their stories are often painful and show how, to them, acquiescence in their present condition can feel more sensible than resistance to the forces that govern their lives and constrict their opportunities. The emotional toll this takes, combined with heavy daily schedules marked by endless household chores and child care, affect seamstresses’ participation in NGO programmes that aim at ameliorating their circumstances:

NGOs in Ghana’s northern regions run programmes intended to teach entrepreneurial skills to women working in the informal economy. Their ra- tionale is that, once these women behave in a more business-like way, they will be able to derive decent livelihoods from their economic activities.

This thesis shows how such good intentions can go awfully wrong. It makes clear how blind faith in formalistic economic principles can interfere with a thorough understanding of the socio-economic context of target groups and how a lack of sensitivity on the part of NGOs can result in painful clashes

Preface

Driving through Osu, a hip and happening neighbourhood in Accra, I was struck, once more, by the distance – both spatial and psychological – between the Ghanaian capital and my field of study: Bolgatanga, a small provincial town in Ghana’s remote north. Life in Osu – with its shopping malls, restaurants and trendy bars – has virtually no parallels with the lives of seamstresses in the north of the country. The street views of Osu reveal the uneven economic development of Ghana, where inequality is on the rise. While the happy few flaunt their wealth, the majority of Ghanaians struggle to acquire a decent livelihood in the informal economy. The pervasive lack of wage-earning jobs coupled with increasing prices of imported goods has not alleviated the poverty of those who are excluded from the economic advances that the country has made.

Since my first visit to Ghana (2011), I have been intrigued by the psychological impact of poverty and inequality. What is it like to be constantly subject- ed to the debilitating effects of inequality and poverty? In particular, how do people look at the attempts of the better-off (in this case study, modern NGOs) to reach out to them and help improve their condition? In this thesis, I have tried to capture the stories of young seamstresses in Bolgatanga, who struggle to make ends meet. Perhaps unsurprisingly, these women experience a constant sense of stress and insecurity, fuelled by an inability to pay and purchase daily necessities. They feel powerless and express regret over missed opportunities. Their stories are often painful and show how, to them, acquiescence in their present condition can feel more sensible than resistance to the forces that govern their lives and constrict their opportunities. The emotional toll this takes, combined with heavy daily schedules marked by endless household chores and child care, affect seamstresses’ participation in NGO programmes that aim at ameliorating their circumstances:

NGOs in Ghana’s northern regions run programmes intended to teach entrepreneurial skills to women working in the informal economy. Their ra- tionale is that, once these women behave in a more business-like way, they will be able to derive decent livelihoods from their economic activities.

This thesis shows how such good intentions can go awfully wrong. It makes clear how blind faith in formalistic economic principles can interfere with a thorough understanding of the socio-economic context of target groups and how a lack of sensitivity on the part of NGOs can result in painful clashes

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with t hose t hey in tend t o help. I al

so hop e tha

t thi s the sis g ives a voic e to t

he velop ts and de epor olicy r udy. While p ase st his c ure in t es who fig ess seamstr - t, fac tions, in aspira s and d. est inter s unhear their iew e to vic ser ay lip sible and their v ans all p emain invi tion pl y often r thement ac Acc ra, 15 D ecemb er 2014

with those they intend to help. I also hope that this thesis gives a voice to the seamstresses who figure in this case study. While policy reports and development action plans all pay lip service to their interests and aspirations, in fact, they often remain invisible and their views unheard.

Accra, 15 December 2014 with those they intend to help. I also hope that this thesis gives a voice to the

seamstresses who figure in this case study. While policy reports and development action plans all pay lip service to their interests and aspirations, in fact, they often remain invisible and their views unheard.

Accra, 15 December 2014

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Acknowledg ements

The ideas t hat le d to t he writing of t his t

hesis emer ged af

ter I r etur ned f

rom hose, o the ve had opolo- L could national k on a far SC ter ul to all t o anthr ars, I ha ed me along t tef t the A stions I had were ster In o embar sed t e gra eit Groningen, t xpo ch ma y stay a efor ear d and advis he last two ye hat m he many que e, I was e orte he res ip inspired me t ijksuniversit hat t rom t L). Her zed t ht, supp e, I hoped t al, and I am ther SC t the R wer them. In t at de e I reali ory, a a in 2011. This tr s to ans al in natur n a gre e, Leiden (A gic n Hist ds. Sinc h would lead me f atang eiden, who taug he tool tho o lear opolo s Centr o Bolg thr ch me ney, whic isit t ear ortunity t an Studie ide me with t tions and Moder al res entially an longer jour gic the oppAfric prov in Groningen and L my first v ess Rela

he way.

First , I wan

t to t hank the young women who op

ened up t heir lives t

o me deep y live in. I am ld the the wor bout more a understand to bled me and ena - e, a, cili Paulina ia, Grac sta, Mode , Amanda, Ce A., adys, Glor eth ty, Gl e, Angela Margar eth, stina, Gif joue, Alic , Fau Margar jara, Ale ia, tor a, A lemencia Vic a, Afi onica, ana, C o Abib Ver hristi ed t , Teni, isti, C Olivia Chr ly indebt , e on- iat hem. he in- tices I family pprec heir lives. ppren Alika ithout t t from t art of t par sis w of the s’ of life, while c es and a e. I deeply a s the ess ruit pound nes, who, a erienc en thi com ritt ously made me p the he ‘bitter f to hers seamstr d in umbling exp phelia and Ag ided, gener alt with t lcome ould not have w anet, O he many ot , was a h y prov as we hey de ars. I c ul to J tef ays t tion the o others 2011, I w orma ally gra . In o give t eci t over the ye , Zuwerato, and t ssing the w trust able inf their tinuing t have me I am esp Witne valu Theresa , , e tha your ed me a. Sinc hing me into ect pok eac hoeh, Mar iences aff ence and t allowing me xper ias and Aim se e o thank Ale iber ting pres , the ally like t overty . Thank you for eci your uplif ith p hesis oline, Roland, T for e. his t e, Car pe t ounter w esilienc sha ul. I would esp ed se enc en, thank you , Clemenc ratef redible r help bema he childr y first clo on and ana, A pers ough your inc s was m thias a Messi thrto whom I am ghome. To t Dur ing thi s per iod, I me t Jame

s Duijng w ith whom I had long t

alks over ts of lif spec y of the hidden a ained man xpl ssly e e tirele als. H ed me shar e in the ted me unc e suppor s. H chie ial hierar tions and soc onven ultural c north, c on-

Acknowledgements

The ideas that led to the writing of this thesis emerged after I returned from my first visit to Bolgatanga in 2011. This trip inspired me to embark on a far longer journey, which would lead me from the research master International Relations and Modern History, at the Rijksuniversiteit Groningen, to the African Studies Centre, Leiden (ASCL). Here, I was exposed to anthropological research methods. Since I realized that the many questions I had were essentially anthropological in nature, I hoped that my stay at the ASCL could provide me with the tools to answer them. In the last two years, I have had the opportunity to learn a great deal, and I am therefore grateful to all those, in Groningen and Leiden, who taught, supported and advised me along the way.

First, I want to thank the young women who opened up their lives to me and enabled me to understand more about the world they live in. I am deeply indebted to Abiba, Afia, Ajara, Alejoue, Alice, Angela, Amanda, Cecilia, Christi, Christiana, Clemencia, Faustina, Gifty, Gladys, Gloria, Grace, Olivia, Teni, Veronica, Victoria, Margareth, Margareth A., Modesta, Paulina, Theresa, Zuwerato, and the many others seamstresses and apprentices I have met over the years. I could not have written this thesis without them.

I am especially grateful to Janet, Ophelia and Agnes, who, apart from the invaluable information they provided, generously made me part of their lives.

Witnessing the ways they dealt with the ‘bitter fruits’ of life, while con- tinuing to give to others, was a humbling experience. I deeply appreciate their trust. In 2011, I was welcomed into the compound of the Alika family, to whom I am grateful. I would especially like to thank Alehoeh, Martha, Messiana, Abema, Clemence, Caroline, Roland, Tiberias and Aimpoka. Since this was my first close encounter with poverty, these experiences affected me as a person and helped shape this thesis. Thank you for allowing me into your home. To the children, thank you for your uplifting presence and teaching me through your incredible resilience.

During this period, I met James Duijng with whom I had long talks over shared meals. He tirelessly explained many of the hidden aspects of life in the north, cultural conventions and social hierarchies. He supported me uncon-

Acknowledgements

The ideas that led to the writing of this thesis emerged after I returned from my first visit to Bolgatanga in 2011. This trip inspired me to embark on a far longer journey, which would lead me from the research master International Relations and Modern History, at the Rijksuniversiteit Groningen, to the African Studies Centre, Leiden (ASCL). Here, I was exposed to anthropological research methods. Since I realized that the many questions I had were essentially anthropological in nature, I hoped that my stay at the ASCL could provide me with the tools to answer them. In the last two years, I have had the opportunity to learn a great deal, and I am therefore grateful to all those, in Groningen and Leiden, who taught, supported and advised me along the way.

First, I want to thank the young women who opened up their lives to me and enabled me to understand more about the world they live in. I am deeply indebted to Abiba, Afia, Ajara, Alejoue, Alice, Angela, Amanda, Cecilia, Christi, Christiana, Clemencia, Faustina, Gifty, Gladys, Gloria, Grace, Olivia, Teni, Veronica, Victoria, Margareth, Margareth A., Modesta, Paulina, Theresa, Zuwerato, and the many others seamstresses and apprentices I have met over the years. I could not have written this thesis without them.

I am especially grateful to Janet, Ophelia and Agnes, who, apart from the invaluable information they provided, generously made me part of their lives.

Witnessing the ways they dealt with the ‘bitter fruits’ of life, while con- tinuing to give to others, was a humbling experience. I deeply appreciate their trust. In 2011, I was welcomed into the compound of the Alika family, to whom I am grateful. I would especially like to thank Alehoeh, Martha, Messiana, Abema, Clemence, Caroline, Roland, Tiberias and Aimpoka. Since this was my first close encounter with poverty, these experiences affected me as a person and helped shape this thesis. Thank you for allowing me into your home. To the children, thank you for your uplifting presence and teaching me through your incredible resilience.

During this period, I met James Duijng with whom I had long talks over shared meals. He tirelessly explained many of the hidden aspects of life in the north, cultural conventions and social hierarchies. He supported me uncon-

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ditionally, b oth prac tically and emotionally

. Jame s, I am g rea

tly inde bted t

o or me. ything you did f or ever hank you enough f you and cannot t

I also w ant t o thank t he direc

tor and st aff of the Y

outh H arve st Found

ation ussions ha ur disc nship in 2011. O ter ed me an in FG), who offer Ghana (YH ve ing thi of opinion. ance dur ences ssist s differ ch a ear s res our obviou e for hi spite , de ovoking -pr hank Isaac Agaar e to t hought s been t alway I would also lik

s iod. per

Dur ing subse

quent v isit s, I w as w armly we lcome

d by the st aff of the A

song

- tus y day Dona a and htening up m Cicili Madame t on you, brig thank to s coun like ould alway I would se. ona, I c sthou gue siyelom. D ba taaApa s pit cre e and my de e kept me saf ching me when our car am, and fet t again. Y s at 5.30 call en down ye e-up wak ited le had brok cyc hy. unsolic with healt motor

Fur ther more, I am ver y thank

ful t o Dr Miche

l Door tmont – m

y super vis

or . Our stim eginning he very b rom t as f ch ide ear y res ted m – who suppor

u- e thi tak al of – the pprov e to under est in – and a he confidenc s inter ave me t ars, hi dology g tions over the ye opic and metho onversa ch t ear lating cres s o ed me t troduc so in hel al ts. Mic ul. tef s commen y gra rom hi ugely f ed h or which I am ver L, f . I benefit SC ect proj the A

The ASC L has b een t he per

fec t lear ning envir

onment. S pending time t

here o where Ann, Git ht me t André, s broug ially spec arn ha s, e ague ate and le ticip y colle o par all m tunity t o thank ant t he oppor I w ay. tod and having t I am ty, en. Also, I oom: Ange e and Marle he PhD-r rudi, Maaik ly) working in t os, T art, J ormer , Jan-B hose (f an Abbink o thank all t els, J ry W Har would like t

la, os. ya and Zj l, Souma tin, Michie got, Mar Kate, Mar

While no longer working a t the A

SC L, I am inde bted t

o Lot je de V rie

s and ith you. In on and de dology and your tho s moved ing an office w as on me ship ha er shar riend ith your ide hat our f ondly rememb ed me w je, I f I am happy t . Lot tersism. s, you inspir ativ aan Soe e of rel asti Seb our first talk sens ep- our ant (and hings. Y s me eeing t alway s – d issue ate e-rel d your unique way of s and lif s value o me. on work ve alway e – t deal t rea advic stiaan, I ha y and eba pan ened. S com still means) a g

The pers on I am most inde

bted t o is Dr Kl aas v

an Walra ven. Klaa

s, your un

- ith on- led w uctive c ver I strugg onally) and constr ered me up whene ally and pers ou che able. Y h academic valu bot ely in ort ( bsolut n was a flinching supp cer ditionally, both practically and emotionally. James, I am greatly indebted to

you and cannot thank you enough for everything you did for me.

I also want to thank the director and staff of the Youth Harvest Foundation Ghana (YHFG), who offered me an internship in 2011. Our discussions have always been thought-provoking, despite our obvious differences of opinion.

I would also like to thank Isaac Agaare for his research assistance during this period.

During subsequent visits, I was warmly welcomed by the staff of the Asong- taaba guesthouse. I would like to thank Madame Cicilia and Donatus Apasiyelom. Dona, I could always count on you, brightening up my days with unsolicited wake-up calls at 5.30 am, and fetching me when my decrepit motorcycle had broken down yet again. Your care kept me safe and healthy.

Furthermore, I am very thankful to Dr Michel Doortmont – my supervisor – who supported my research ideas from the very beginning. Our stimu- lating conversations over the years, his interest in – and approval of – the research topic and methodology gave me the confidence to undertake this project. I benefited hugely from his comments. Michel also introduced me to the ASCL, for which I am very grateful.

The ASCL has been the perfect learning environment. Spending time there and having the opportunity to participate and learn has brought me to where I am today. I want to thank all my colleagues, especially André, Ann, Gitty, Harry Wels, Jan Abbink, Jan-Bart, Jos, Trudi, Maaike and Marleen. Also, I would like to thank all those (formerly) working in the PhD-room: Angela, Kate, Margot, Martin, Michiel, Soumaya and Zjos.

While no longer working at the ASCL, I am indebted to Lotje de Vries and Sebastiaan Soeters. Lotje, I fondly remember sharing an office with you. In our first talks, you inspired me with your ideas on methodology and your sense of relativism. I am happy that our friendship has moved on and deep- ened. Sebastiaan, I have always valued your unique way of seeing things. Your company and advice – on work and life-related issues – always meant (and still means) a great deal to me.

The person I am most indebted to is Dr Klaas van Walraven. Klaas, your un- flinching support (both academically and personally) and constructive con- cern was absolutely invaluable. You cheered me up whenever I struggled with ditionally, both practically and emotionally. James, I am greatly indebted to

you and cannot thank you enough for everything you did for me.

I also want to thank the director and staff of the Youth Harvest Foundation Ghana (YHFG), who offered me an internship in 2011. Our discussions have always been thought-provoking, despite our obvious differences of opinion.

I would also like to thank Isaac Agaare for his research assistance during this period.

During subsequent visits, I was warmly welcomed by the staff of the Asong- taaba guesthouse. I would like to thank Madame Cicilia and Donatus Apasiyelom. Dona, I could always count on you, brightening up my days with unsolicited wake-up calls at 5.30 am, and fetching me when my decrepit motorcycle had broken down yet again. Your care kept me safe and healthy.

Furthermore, I am very thankful to Dr Michel Doortmont – my supervisor – who supported my research ideas from the very beginning. Our stimu- lating conversations over the years, his interest in – and approval of – the research topic and methodology gave me the confidence to undertake this project. I benefited hugely from his comments. Michel also introduced me to the ASCL, for which I am very grateful.

The ASCL has been the perfect learning environment. Spending time there and having the opportunity to participate and learn has brought me to where I am today. I want to thank all my colleagues, especially André, Ann, Gitty, Harry Wels, Jan Abbink, Jan-Bart, Jos, Trudi, Maaike and Marleen. Also, I would like to thank all those (formerly) working in the PhD-room: Angela, Kate, Margot, Martin, Michiel, Soumaya and Zjos.

While no longer working at the ASCL, I am indebted to Lotje de Vries and Sebastiaan Soeters. Lotje, I fondly remember sharing an office with you. In our first talks, you inspired me with your ideas on methodology and your sense of relativism. I am happy that our friendship has moved on and deep- ened. Sebastiaan, I have always valued your unique way of seeing things. Your company and advice – on work and life-related issues – always meant (and still means) a great deal to me.

The person I am most indebted to is Dr Klaas van Walraven. Klaas, your un- flinching support (both academically and personally) and constructive con- cern was absolutely invaluable. You cheered me up whenever I struggled with

(13)

com pleting t his pr ojec t, and gener ously dr

ew f rom your ow n exp

erienc es t

o o con ying t as tr he message I w hat t ssurance t ued a ontin e me. Your c advis

- ds. his enefited t eyond wor siasm b thu ouraged me b ained en ul. er, enc ratef ity and sust eply g e put on pap , sensitiv d to b s. I am de ss way omments , and neede ial c ountle lear ditor as c sis in c vey w Your e the Finally , I would like t

o thank m y family

: my p aren ts H ein and Anita v

an ’t hers. dien, ort and he lines h, Ber bet o many ot ued supp ith you and t asily blur t ontin go, Eliza ke and s brate w se who e o cele or their c l, Marie e, Alice, Mar ert f ache hank tho y life, t , Froukj e to t enry, R te and Rob aura k, H s: L harlot o have you in m s, Nie riend so I would lik se, El t. Al hankful t y siblings C en family and f I am deeply t Anne-Marie, Eli betwe Wout and m encouragemen

o go ship and supp riend . Your f sons e demanding sea h life’s mor hroug tly t join

ort ble. spensa were indi

completing this project, and generously drew from your own experiences to advise me. Your continued assurance that the message I was trying to con- vey was clear, and needed to be put on paper, encouraged me beyond words.

Your editorial comments, sensitivity and sustained enthusiasm benefited this thesis in countless ways. I am deeply grateful.

Finally, I would like to thank my family: my parents Hein and Anita van ’t Wout and my siblings Charlotte and Robert for their continued support and encouragement. Also I would like to thank those who easily blur the lines between family and friends: Laura, Froukje, Alice, Margo, Elizabeth, Berdien, Anne-Marie, Elise, Els, Niek, Henry, Rachel, Marieke and so many others.

I am deeply thankful to have you in my life, to celebrate with you and to go jointly through life’s more demanding seasons. Your friendship and support were indispensable.

completing this project, and generously drew from your own experiences to advise me. Your continued assurance that the message I was trying to con- vey was clear, and needed to be put on paper, encouraged me beyond words.

Your editorial comments, sensitivity and sustained enthusiasm benefited this thesis in countless ways. I am deeply grateful.

Finally, I would like to thank my family: my parents Hein and Anita van ’t Wout and my siblings Charlotte and Robert for their continued support and encouragement. Also I would like to thank those who easily blur the lines between family and friends: Laura, Froukje, Alice, Margo, Elizabeth, Berdien, Anne-Marie, Elise, Els, Niek, Henry, Rachel, Marieke and so many others.

I am deeply thankful to have you in my life, to celebrate with you and to go jointly through life’s more demanding seasons. Your friendship and support were indispensable.

(14)

List of acr onyms

EFA Education F

or All e Compul Fre BE FCU

sor y Basic Educ

ation s Deve ol cho ol s and Skill ary S prise h Scho econd al Enter Junior HigJunior SLoc DEP JSS JHS LES lopment Pr

ogramme s arch and Pr prise ter zation or Rese gani edium En sation f nmental Or an Organi ric Non-Gover Pan Af Micro, Small and M WC P-V O MSME NG PAOR otec

tion of arch and en raining tor Rese ojec sation f omen and Childr prise Pr e hildren hip Training an Organi ol tional Education and T tices cho oundation Ghana ol oca raining Enter iolence on W an Afric ppren raining Institut es T vest F y Scho y High S ation P ess e on Women and C evi h Har ection of V ational T hnical and V ondar ondar Voc Prot Seamstr Sec Traditional A Violenc Yout Tec Sec Abbr P P-U ET S VTI PAN TV YHFG STE SS SH TAT List of acronyms

EFA Education For All

FCUBE Free Compulsory Basic Education

JHS Junior High School

JSS Junior Secondary School

LESDEP Local Enterprises and Skills Development Programme

MSME Micro, Small and Medium Enterprises

NGO Non-Governmental Organization

PAORP-VWC Pan African Organisation for Research and Protection of

Violence on Women and Children

PAN Abbreviation Pan African Organisation for Research and

Protection of Violence on Women and Children

SHS Secondary High School

SS Secondary School

STEP-UP Seamstresses Training Enterprise Project

TAT Traditional Apprenticeship Training

TVET Technical and Vocational Education and Training

VTI Vocational Training Institute

YHFG Youth Harvest Foundation Ghana

List of acronyms

EFA Education For All

FCUBE Free Compulsory Basic Education

JHS Junior High School

JSS Junior Secondary School

LESDEP Local Enterprises and Skills Development Programme

MSME Micro, Small and Medium Enterprises

NGO Non-Governmental Organization

PAORP-VWC Pan African Organisation for Research and Protection of

Violence on Women and Children

PAN Abbreviation Pan African Organisation for Research and

Protection of Violence on Women and Children

SHS Secondary High School

SS Secondary School

STEP-UP Seamstresses Training Enterprise Project

TAT Traditional Apprenticeship Training

TVET Technical and Vocational Education and Training

VTI Vocational Training Institute

YHFG Youth Harvest Foundation Ghana

(15)

Map 1 Map of the Upper East R egion and Bolg

atang a

0 5 km

District boundary Road

Villages U RIG SHE

Bolgatanga Pwalagu Tamale

Bongo District Talensi-Nabdam District

Bolgatanga Municipality East Kasena District Nankana

MB SU

GU RUN

YORO GO

AR ZA RE RU ZUA

NG

U

SHE U RIG MB GA

O IBG MB KU UG OS U

Bawku

Navrongo Whit

olt e V a BURKINA FASO

IVORY COAST TOGO

Upper

West Region

Northern Region Ashanti Region Volta

Region Region Eastern Greater Accra

Region

Western Region

BENIN

Accra

Bolgatanga Upper East Region

Kumasi Sekondi- Takoradi

Wa Region boundary

River

International boundary

0 100 km

GHANA Tamale Lake Volta

Brong Ahafo Region Central Region

GHANA

Mapdesign: Nel de Vink

Map 1

Map of the Upper East Region and Bolgatanga

0 5 km

District boundary Road Villages SHERIGU

Bolgatanga

Pwalagu Tamale

Bongo District

Talensi-Nabdam District Bolgatanga

Municipality Kasena

Nankana DistrictEast

SUMBRUNGU

YOROGO

ZAA RRE

ZUA RUNGU SHERIGU

GAMBIBGO

KU MB OSUGU

Bawku Navrongo

White Volta

BURKINA FASO

IVORY COAST

TOGO

Upper West Region

Northern Region

Ashanti Region

Volta Region Eastern

Region

Greater Accra Region Western

Region

BENIN

Accra Bolgatanga

Upper East Region

Kumasi

Sekondi- Takoradi

Wa

Region boundary River International boundary

0 100 km

GHANA Tamale

Lake Volta Brong Ahafo Region

Central Region GHANA

Map 1

Map of the Upper East Region and Bolgatanga

0 5 km

District boundary Road Villages SHERIGU

Bolgatanga

Pwalagu Tamale

Bongo District

Talensi-Nabdam District Bolgatanga

Municipality Kasena

Nankana DistrictEast

SUMBRUNGU

YOROGO

ZAA RRE

ZUA RUNGU SHERIGU

GAMBIBGO

KU MB OSUGU

Bawku Navrongo

White Volta

BURKINA FASO

IVORY COAST

TOGO

Upper West Region

Northern Region

Ashanti Region

Volta Region Eastern Region

Greater Accra Region Western

Region

BENIN

Accra Bolgatanga

Upper East Region

Kumasi

Sekondi- Takoradi

Wa

Region boundary River International boundary

0 100 km

GHANA Tamale

Lake Volta Brong Ahafo Region

Central Region GHANA

(16)

Photo 1.1 Portr aits of se

amstress appr entices enr

olled at PAN. T aken a f ew weeks be

for

e they o go home' e told 't wer

Photo 1.1

Portraits of seamstress apprentices enrolled at PAN. Taken a few weeks before they were told 'to go home'

Photo 1.1

Portraits of seamstress apprentices enrolled at PAN. Taken a few weeks before they were told 'to go home'

(17)

1

Introduction

Seamstr ess apprentic

es as ‘entr epreneur

s-t o-be’

Young s eamstr ess es in B olgat

anga, a small t own in nor

ther n Ghana, aim t

o eship – an of entic heir appr te t omple hey c ter t es af siness heir own bu open t

- ver ket s. O anga mar ing skill olgat d sew t the B he neede ed up a ides t ve popp t prov y tha sses ha tor jec woman busine ormal training tra ars, one- ten infthe ye , --- n o- ial he en es, tre- tion , are then es in from uous. he ef- velop- eneur tch t ess e, many xplor eneur s to sup a behind of en epr h betwe o norther lihood ing de ty reduc sis e o streng lastrepr . While some , however ed t he women who loping their en asic ide ue. Henc eas ill first ske t live s the ogramme he validity of pr orts a, a c power hing entr h more ambig promotion cen e way t t of pover s, I wh deve iding training and the e in its en tial ar se effiat atang y. The b bout t an em a de . Teac he young seamstr s muc d understanding of t e, the heir reven ipat ponen ective hroug ll as a iously not limit ppropr hip as pin the conom derive ase t artic ial training prd in prov lds of t to ch obj t reality i s in residen hip. In Bolg overty t , as we and, henc oor in general. Thi s endeavour eneur eneurs ear ewor ed an a ormal e y – is obv s tha eams and ambitions of t hat under epr es who p ape p tegtrepr eneurs eneurs he res ss and incre ess ame involve as t s in thi entr strate s a universal com ption – es manage epr epr en the lif d on an unquestione an esc s consider k in the inf t bec busine ase he lives, dr eamstr ity fail etwe ning to t s and under tree arly illu s assum s female ve set up en amstress hip among the p lopment stra ome entr Os tha e tur onsidered a play b a se t anyone c brate s. Thi un their alidity of entr he major terefor es who wor eneurs o bec ele ten c egion ha skills a deve s, ts tha he NG ramme cle atang hese women i ess y. B ssumptions and ide epr stions about t s main road ity to r ial ted that c a, t teg GO and young s s. ABolg orts i t unsaid and are b e, the in tivitie s to t por apac se urship a gie eneur ses que atang kill ourse t efor Os in the r t seamstr se eff tiveness and v NG their cment stra ial spor their acdisc thetrepr prene Ghana and is of moting entr strate alongside it often lef Bolg feca local N training prog It raitherare pur of the

1 Introduction

Seamstress apprentices as ‘entrepreneurs-to-be’

Young seamstresses in Bolgatanga, a small town in northern Ghana, aim to open their own businesses after they complete their apprenticeship – an often informal training trajectory that provides the needed sewing skills. Over the years, one-woman businesses have popped up at the Bolgatanga market, alongside its main roads and under trees in residential areas. While some of these Bolgatanga seamstresses manage to derive a decent livelihood from their activities, the majority fails in this endeavour. Teaching entrepreneurial skills to these women is considered an appropriate way to strengthen their capacity to run their business and increase their revenue. Hence, many NGOs in the region have set up entrepreneurial training programmes to support seamstresses who work in the informal economy. The basic idea behind these efforts is that anyone can escape poverty through developing their entrepreneurial skills. This assumption – and, hence, the promotion of entrepreneurship as a development strategy – is obviously not limited to northern Ghana and is often considered as a universal component of poverty reduction strategies. Assumptions and ideas that underpin these efforts, however, are often left unsaid and are based on an unquestioned understanding of the ef- fectiveness and validity of entrepreneurship. In Bolgatanga, a clash between a local NGO and young seamstresses who participate in its entrepreneurial training programme clearly illustrates that reality is much more ambiguous.

It raises questions about the lives, dreams and ambitions of the women who are purported to become entrepreneurs, as well as about the validity of promoting entrepreneurship among the poor in general. This thesis explores, therefore, the interplay between the lifeworlds of the young seamstresses in Bolgatanga, the NGOs that became involved in providing training and the discourse that celebrates female entrepreneurship as an empowering development strategy. Before turning to the research objectives, I will first sketch the

1 Introduction

Seamstress apprentices as ‘entrepreneurs-to-be’

Young seamstresses in Bolgatanga, a small town in northern Ghana, aim to open their own businesses after they complete their apprenticeship – an often informal training trajectory that provides the needed sewing skills. Over the years, one-woman businesses have popped up at the Bolgatanga market, alongside its main roads and under trees in residential areas. While some of these Bolgatanga seamstresses manage to derive a decent livelihood from their activities, the majority fails in this endeavour. Teaching entrepreneurial skills to these women is considered an appropriate way to strengthen their capacity to run their business and increase their revenue. Hence, many NGOs in the region have set up entrepreneurial training programmes to support seamstresses who work in the informal economy. The basic idea behind these efforts is that anyone can escape poverty through developing their entrepreneurial skills. This assumption – and, hence, the promotion of entrepreneurship as a development strategy – is obviously not limited to northern Ghana and is often considered as a universal component of poverty reduction strategies. Assumptions and ideas that underpin these efforts, however, are often left unsaid and are based on an unquestioned understanding of the ef- fectiveness and validity of entrepreneurship. In Bolgatanga, a clash between a local NGO and young seamstresses who participate in its entrepreneurial training programme clearly illustrates that reality is much more ambiguous.

It raises questions about the lives, dreams and ambitions of the women who are purported to become entrepreneurs, as well as about the validity of promoting entrepreneurship among the poor in general. This thesis explores, therefore, the interplay between the lifeworlds of the young seamstresses in Bolgatanga, the NGOs that became involved in providing training and the discourse that celebrates female entrepreneurship as an empowering development strategy. Before turning to the research objectives, I will first sketch the

(18)

con tours of t his dominan

t disc ourse on f emale entr

epr eneurs hip: its obj

ec- . diments s impe zation and it uali ept s conc ptions, it s assum tives, it

The need to inv est in women

Promoting f emale entrepr

eneurship in de veloping c

ountries is crucial in

the fight against po verty

. … Ever y day women ar

e starting ne w business-

es. Whether small, medium or lar ge sc

ale, motivat ed by pur e surviv

al or for

self-satisf action, female entr

epreneur s realizing ide as, gener

ating income

and creating [sic] emplo yment opportunities f

or themselves and other s. In

rec ent year s, women hav e surpassed men when it c

omes to st arting new

businesses (Minniti & Naudé, 2010) and women entr epreneur

ship has been

rec ognized during the last dec ade as an important unt

apped source of ec o-

nomic growth. Inv esting in women entr

epreneur s thus makes sound ec

o-

nomic sense.

1

The ide a tha t promoting female entr

epreneur ship can lift w

omen, their idespr ty is w s out of pover ommunitie ven whole c families and e

2 ead.

Pro

- e o- lf- ity tly GO . The utur hip is smart ding to prior ess veloping t urgen tion, se onsidered o be ‘ eneurs in de ’ tha t proc ome a t is c e, accor epr ial training pr nment and N ty reduc aus ially s bec ential hought t eneur ment. I spec velopmen so t d pot stment made in her f trepr emale entr s. E s in pover power hemes ha ashe try’s de t women bec luded in gover se in fe sc esult s an inve benefit ough en arge rea coun l, but it is al the tly inc t an ‘unle s thr se t ap rofinanc ation and em kill esen al leve requen ill re ial s y of the ob cre ble step in a o repr and mic dingly, an inc sting in women r ge w th, jeneur a woman multiplie lar sses ccor s and is f row ies. Man e felt t t inve t an individu cla trepr s a desira ty at tegcade ed. A isdom, –‘ st tha able a ocie siness yed a e tapp conomic g s’ . S s, women ar s, bu ortra ast two de ts suggethening of en trie s to b lopment stra ventional w ance, e need coun ponen often p deve con relinot only valu in the l economic streng gramme

1 Maastr icht S cho ol of Management (MsM), W

omen Entr epr eneurs hip Promotion Cours

e arch emale hip-Pro- ance on ts of F hip Rese eneurs ch (adv t (2013), 1–56. M. epr seareneurs erminan por epr omen-Entr al Entr lopment Re ns and Det eve atter ation/W uly 2014. or 2012 Women Re sky and Glob ournal of D ed: 25 J bout The P ess cutive-Educ . Litov hip Monit opean J eene, Y eneurs rams/Exe s?’ Eur fl_s_8. Acc epr o We Know A trie .G. Gr al Entr k#.U9JCr ush, P What D oss Coun .msm.nl/Prog -Trac .G. Br ww audé, ‘ ast RA), Glob y, C hip Acr EP)-F elle eneurs ation (GE D.J. K epr line, http://w oci Entr Minniti and W. N Out 2 motion-(W Ass - .E. a, K hip: A Mul hn, B. Chu eneurs trepr . Baug ipation in En artic .2010.17), 1–17. C.C ’s P jdr or Women xt f y 2010), (doi:10.1057/e tive Conte The Norma ert, ‘ line publication 13 Ma Neup

- e, Vol. 30, No. 5, 687–708. y and Practic hip Theor eneurs trepr ’ , En tudy try S ti-coun

contours of this dominant discourse on female entrepreneurship: its objectives, its assumptions, its conceptualization and its impediments.

The need to invest in women

Promoting female entrepreneurship in developing countries is crucial in the fight against poverty. … Every day women are starting new businesses. Whether small, medium or large scale, motivated by pure survival or for self-satisfaction, female entrepreneurs realizing ideas, generating income and creating [sic] employment opportunities for themselves and others. In recent years, women have surpassed men when it comes to starting new businesses (Minniti & Naudé, 2010) and women entrepreneurship has been recognized during the last decade as an important untapped source of economic growth. Investing in women entrepreneurs thus makes sound eco-

nomic sense.¹

The idea that promoting female entrepreneurship can lift women, their

families and even whole communities out of poverty is widespread.² Pro-

ponents suggest that investing in women results in poverty reduction, self- reliance, economic growth, job creation and empowerment. It is considered not only valuable at an individual level, but it is also thought to be ‘smart economics’. Society at large will reap the benefits. Especially in developing countries, women are felt to represent an ‘unleashed potential’ that urgently needs to be tapped. Accordingly, an increase in female entrepreneurship is often portrayed as a desirable step in a country’s development process. The strengthening of entrepreneurial skills through entrepreneurial training programmes, business classes and microfinance schemes has become a priority in the last two decades and is frequently included in government and NGO development strategies. Many of these target women because, according to conventional wisdom, –‘a woman multiplies an investment made in her future

1 Maastricht School of Management (MsM), Women Entrepreneurship Promotion Course Outline, http://www.msm.nl/Programs/Executive-Education/Women-Entrepreneurship-Pro- motion-(WEP)-Fast-Track#.U9JCrfl_s_8. Accessed: 25 July 2014.

2 D.J. Kelley, C.G. Brush, P.G. Greene, Y. Litovsky and Global Entrepreneurship Research Association (GERA), Global Entrepreneurship Monitor 2012 Women Report (2013), 1–56. M.

Minniti and W. Naudé, ‘What Do We Know About The Patterns and Determinants of Female Entrepreneurship Across Countries?’ European Journal of Development Research (advance on- line publication 13 May 2010), (doi:10.1057/ejdr.2010.17), 1–17. C.C. Baughn, B. Chua, K.E.

Neupert, ‘The Normative Context for Women’s Participation in Entrepreneurship: A Mul- ti-country Study’, Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice, Vol. 30, No. 5, 687–708.

contours of this dominant discourse on female entrepreneurship: its objectives, its assumptions, its conceptualization and its impediments.

The need to invest in women

Promoting female entrepreneurship in developing countries is crucial in the fight against poverty. … Every day women are starting new businesses. Whether small, medium or large scale, motivated by pure survival or for self-satisfaction, female entrepreneurs realizing ideas, generating income and creating [sic] employment opportunities for themselves and others. In recent years, women have surpassed men when it comes to starting new businesses (Minniti & Naudé, 2010) and women entrepreneurship has been recognized during the last decade as an important untapped source of economic growth. Investing in women entrepreneurs thus makes sound eco-

nomic sense.¹

The idea that promoting female entrepreneurship can lift women, their

families and even whole communities out of poverty is widespread.² Pro-

ponents suggest that investing in women results in poverty reduction, self- reliance, economic growth, job creation and empowerment. It is considered not only valuable at an individual level, but it is also thought to be ‘smart economics’. Society at large will reap the benefits. Especially in developing countries, women are felt to represent an ‘unleashed potential’ that urgently needs to be tapped. Accordingly, an increase in female entrepreneurship is often portrayed as a desirable step in a country’s development process. The strengthening of entrepreneurial skills through entrepreneurial training programmes, business classes and microfinance schemes has become a priority in the last two decades and is frequently included in government and NGO development strategies. Many of these target women because, according to conventional wisdom, –‘a woman multiplies an investment made in her future

1 Maastricht School of Management (MsM), Women Entrepreneurship Promotion Course Outline, http://www.msm.nl/Programs/Executive-Education/Women-Entrepreneurship-Pro- motion-(WEP)-Fast-Track#.U9JCrfl_s_8. Accessed: 25 July 2014.

2 D.J. Kelley, C.G. Brush, P.G. Greene, Y. Litovsky and Global Entrepreneurship Research Association (GERA), Global Entrepreneurship Monitor 2012 Women Report (2013), 1–56. M.

Minniti and W. Naudé, ‘What Do We Know About The Patterns and Determinants of Female Entrepreneurship Across Countries?’ European Journal of Development Research (advance on- line publication 13 May 2010), (doi:10.1057/ejdr.2010.17), 1–17. C.C. Baughn, B. Chua, K.E.

Neupert, ‘The Normative Context for Women’s Participation in Entrepreneurship: A Mul- ti-country Study’, Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice, Vol. 30, No. 5, 687–708.