b y
Ka - i u Fung
T h e s i s s u b m i t t e d for the d e g r e e of D o c t o r of P h i l o s o p h y
at the U n i v e r s i t y of London.
S c h o o l of O r i e n t a l & A f r i c a n S t u d i e s 1979
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M i c h e l l e , A n g e l a and M a r k
•ABSTRACT
In c o n t r a s t w i t h the s t a g n a t i o n in city p l a n n i n g a n d d e v e l o p m e n t d u r i n g the N a t i o n a l i s t r e g i m e , i n d u s t r i a l u r b a n i z a t i o n b e g a n to accelerate, soon a f t e r the Ch i n e s e C o m m u n i s t P a r t y came to p o w e r in 19^9- T h e c e n t r a l a u t h o r i ties p r o m u l g a t e d the S u b u r b a n A g r a r i a n R e f o r m L a w for a c q u i r i n g and r e s e r v i n g l a n d in d e s i g n a t e d s u b u r b a n areas for f u t u r e d e v e l o p m e n t . T h i s l a w l a i d the f o u n d a t i o n for C h i n a ’s l o n g - t e r m u r b a n and s u b u r b a n p l a n n i n g . H o w e v e r , t h r o u g h o u t the. F i r s t F i v e Y e a r Pl a n p e r i o d ( 1 9 5 3 - 1 9 5 7 ) 3 m a n y ”k e y - p o i n t ” I n d u s t r i a l c e n t r e s s p r e a d c h a o t i c a l l y into the s u r r o u n d i n g c o u n t r y s i d e . T h i s was m a i n l y a t t r i b u t e d to l e g i s l a t i v e w e a k n e s s e s in la n d a l l o c a t i o n for c a p i t a l c o n s t r u c t i o n a n d u n p l a n n e d , or at be s t , i m p r o p e r l y p l a n n e d u r b a n d e v e l o p m e n t , a r i s i n g f r o m I n d i s c r i m i n a t e e m u l a t i o n of S o v i e t m o d e l of ci t y p l a n n i n g and d e v e l o p m e n t .
One of the m o s t s e r i o u s c o n s e q u e n c e s of u r b a n s p r a w l was the e x t e n s i v e d i s p l a c e m e n t of u r b a n f r i n g e a g r i c u l t u r e , l e a d i n g to a c u t e s h o r t a g e of v e g e t a b l e s u p p l y In m a n y l arge cities. T o limit e x c e s s i v e e x p a n s i o n of c i t i e s
in o r d e r to c o n s e r v e v a l u a b l e s u b u r b a n f a r m l a n d an d to p r o m o t e self-sufficiency. In v e g e t a b l e s u p p l y in the cities, a v a r i e t y of r e m e d i a l m e a s u r e s w a s i n t r o d u c e d .
Th e b e g i n n i n g of 1953 w i t n e s s e d the i n s t i t u t i o n a l i s a t i o n of the u r b a n - c e n t r e d p l a n n i n g un i t - t h e city region. U n d e r this u n i f i e d p l a n n i n g a g e n c y , the f u n c t i o n s of the m u n i c i p a l a u t h o r i t i e s of the c e n t r a l c i t y w e r e
c e n t r a l i z e d . The a g r i c u l t u r a l l a n d use in the s u b u r b a n d i s t r i c t s w a s r e s t r u c t u r e d . The u r b a n p o p u l a t i o n and e c o n o m i c a c t i v i t i e s we r e d i s p e r s e d to the s e l f - c o n t a i n e d i n d u s t r i a l s a t e l l i t e s . Si n c e 1959 all large u r b a n c e n t r e s in C h i n a h a v e b e e n e n c i r c l e d by an i n t e n s i v e l y c u l t i v a t e d h o r t i c u l t u r a l zone, r e s e m b l i n g the i n n e r m o s t c i r c l e of von T h d n e n ’s mo d e l .
A case s t u d y of the s u b u r b a n d e v e l o p m e n t in S h a n g h a i is p r e s e n t e d . The f i n d i n g s r e v e a l th a t C h i n a ’s city r e g i o n s t r a t e g y has s u c c e s s f u l l y a c c o m p l i s h e d s o c i a l ist u r b a n t r a n s f o r m a t i o n of the city.
A c k n o w l e d g e m e n t s.
It w o u l d ha v e b e e n i m p o s s i b l e f o r m e to p u r s u e this p i e c e of r e s e a r c h w i t h o u t the a s s i s t a n c e , in one f o r m or ot h e r , p r o v i d e d by a n u m b e r of i n d i v i d u a l s a n d i n s t i t u t ions .
I owe a s p e c i a l debt of t h a n k s to m y s u p e r v i s o r , Mr. M i c h a e l F r e e b e r n e , for his i n t e l l e c t u a l s t i m u l a t i o n , u n f a i l i n g e n c o u r a g e m e n t a n d a d v i c e in all p h a s e s of this r e s e a r c h p r o j e c t .
I w o u l d like to e x p r e s s m y g r a t i t u d e to the S o c i a l S c i e n c e s a n d H u m a n i t i e s R e s e a r c h C o u n c i l of C a n a d a ( f o r m e r l y C a n a d a C o u n c i l ) f o r a f e l l o w s h i p s u p p o r t i n g m e in the first y e a r an d the f i n a l y e a r of m y study, an d to the' U n i v e r s i t y of S a s k a t c h e w a n w h i c h a w a r d e d m e the P r e s i d e n t ' s f u n d for p u r s u i n g l i b r a r y r e s e a r c h at the H o o v e r I n s t i t u t i o n of W a r and Pe a c e at S t a n f o r d U n i v e r s i t y , C a l i f o r n i a a n d at the L i b r a r y of C o n g r e s s , W a s h i n g t o n , D.C. T h a n k s are due also to the U n i v e r s i t y of S a s k a t c h e w a n w h i c h g r a n t e d m e two y e a r s 1 leave to m e e t the r e q u i r e m e n t for r e s i d e n c e at the S c h o o l of O r i e n t a l and A f r i c a n S t u d i e s , U n i v e r s i t y of London.
To P r o f e s s o r s R h o a d s M u r p h e y of U n i v e r s i t y of M i c h i g a n , N o r t o n G i n s b u r g of U n i v e r s i t y o f C h i c a g o , Drs.
C h r i s t o p h e r H o w e of U n i v e r s i t y of L o n d o n , V i c t o r Sit of U n i v e r s i t y of H o n g Kong, a n d C l i f t o n P a n n e l l of U n i v e r s i t y of G e o r g i a , I am v e r y g r a t e f u l for t h e i r i l l u m i n a t i n g
c o m m e n t s on the i n i t i a l draft of C h a p t e r s 5 a n d 6, a n d two s e c t i o n s of C h a p t e r s 7 a n d 8 w h i c h I p r e s e n t e d in the f o r m of c o n f e r e n c e p a p e r s at the C a m b r i d g e C o n f e r e n c e on S h a n g h a i ,
s p o n s o r e d by the .Contemporary C h i n a Institute.,. U n i v e r s i t y of L o n d o n , h e l d in J u l y 1-977 a n d at. t h e F i f t h L e y e r h u l m e C o n f e r e n c e on the D e v e l o p m e n t and C h a l l e n g e of Ch i n a , s p o n s o r e d by the C e n t r e of A s i a n S t u d i e s , U n i v e r s i t y of H o n g Kong, in D e c e m b e r of the same year.
I i m m e n s e l y benefitte.d f r o m the d i s c u s s i o n s w i t h Mr. J o h n S a r g e n t , D r s . R o n a l d N g and R o b e r t B r a d n o c k , staff m e m b e r s of the G e o g r a p h y D e p a r t m e n t at S.O . A . S . I w o u l d
like to t h a n k all of them,
I w i s h to t h a n k Mr. Te L i u - s h a o and Mr. M e i K u o - l i n , city p l a n n e r s f r o m the S h a n g h a i M u n i c i p a l B u r e a u of U r b a n
P l a n n i n g a n d A d m i n i s t r a t i o n , for p r o v i d i n g m e w i t h first h a n d i n f o r m a t i o n on the p l a n n i n g and d e v e l o p m e n t of the
city region.
I am a l s o g r a t e f u l to Mr. K e i t h B i g e l o w , t e c h n i c i a n at the D e p a r t m e n t of G e o g r a p h y , U n i v e r s i t y of S a s k a t c h e w a n , for r e p r o d u c i n g the m a p s in the thesis.
L a s t but c e r t a i n l y not least, I owe m u c h to my w i f e , Yen, for h e r p a t i e n c e , u n d e r s t a n d i n g a n d a f f e c t i o n , w i t h o u t w h i c h t h i s p r o j e c t w o u l d no t h a v e b e e n com p l e t e d .
List' '.of A b b r e y i a t i o n s
A R L A g r a r i a n R e f o r m L a w CCP C h i n e s e C o m m u n i s t P a r t y
GAC G o v e r n m e n t A d m i n i s t r a t i v e C o u n c i l K M T K u o m i n t a n g
N Y C . N a t i o n a l V e g e t a b l e C o r p o r a t i o n P L A P e o p l e d L i b e r a t i o n Ar m y
PRC P e o p l e Ts R e p u b l i c of C h i n a S A R L S u b u r b a n A g r a r i a n R e f o r m Law
A n o t e on R o m a n i z a t i o n of C h i n e s e Names,
A l t h o u g h the p i n - y i n has b e c o m e w i d e l y a d o p t e d in C h i n e s e p u b l i c a t i o n s since 1978 3 t h e W a d e s - G i l e s t r a n s l i t e r a t i o n s y s t e m w i l l b e u s e d for m o s t of th e C h i n e s e n a m e s and th e p o s t a l s y s t e m for p r o v i n c e s , m a j o r u r b a n c e n t r e s and r i v e r s in the study.
G L O S S A R Y
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C h i n e s e C h a r a c t e r s A n - c h u a n h s i - s h u
A n - c h u a n t i - t a i Ch'ang-ch'll y u n g - t i C h e n g - f e n g ylln-tung C h 1 e n g - h s i a n g h'u tso
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C h i e h - y u e h y u n g - t i I f ^ C h i e n - c h u h s i - s h u
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i t vf.
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C h u n g - t i e n c h ' e n g - s h i h
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S a f e t y zone
L a n d for f a c t o r y c o m p o u n d R e c t i f i c a t i o n c a m p a i g n M u t u a l aid b e t w e e n city
and c o u n t r y s i d e
A n t a g o n i s m b e t w e e n ci t y and c o u n t r y s i d e
C o m p r e h e n s i v e p l a n n i n g C a p i t a l c o n s t r u c t i o n u n i t C a p i t a l or b a s i c c o n s t r u c t i o n L a n d for n e i g h b o u r h o o d
To use l a n d f r u g a l l y B u i l d i n g ra t i o
B u i l d i n g d e n s i t y N e a r su b u r b
S h o r t t e r m p l a n n i n g
P e r c e p t u a l d i m e n s i o n s of r e s i d e n t i a l space
To b u i l d (our) n a t i o n t h r o u g h d i l i g e n c e and f r u g a l i t y
A l e r t zone Subj e c t i v i s m
M e d i u m - s i z e d city K e y - p o i n t c i t y
F a n g - h u ti - t a i
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S e c u r i t y zoneF a n g - h u y u n g - t i L a n d u s e d for s e c u r i t y p u r p o s e s
F a n g - k u n g t i - t a i A i r d e f e n c e zone
F e n - s a n chu-i D i s p e r s i o n i s m
F e n g - s h u i G e o m a n c y (wind an d water)
Hs i a - f a n g
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■ & . S e n d i n g downH s i a o - f e i c h ?e n g - s h i h C o n s u m e r city
H s i a o - f e i s h u - t ' s a i
vhikt
V e g e t a b l e for s e l f c o n s u m p t i o nI - c h ' u n g e r h - p a i P o o r a n d b l a n k
I - liao y u n g - i On c e and for all
J e n - f a n g y u n g - t i L a n d u s e d for p r o t e c t i n g a g a i n s t int r u d e r s
J e n - m i n h s i n - c h 'e n g - s h i h
A-
P e o p l e ' s new cityK u a n - c h ' e h c h i n - h s i n g To a d h e r e c o n s i s t e n t l y to K u a n - c h ' e h f a n g - c h i n To k e e p to a p o l i c y
K u a n - l i a o c hu-i B u r e a u c r a t i c i s m
K u e i - h u a ch'll fi. P l a n n e d d i s t r i c t
K u o - c h i a c h i e n - s h e tan-wei St a t e c o n s t r u c t i o n unit K u o - c h i a h s i n g r c h i h N a t i o n a l na t u r e
K u o - c h i a s h u - t ' s a i k u n g - s z u ^ N a t i o n a l V e g e t a b l e C o r p o r a t i o n
K u o - y u t 'u-li s h i h - y u n g - c h e n g
C e r t i f i c a t e for u s i n g state land.
K u n g - j e n h s i n g - t s ' u n W o r k e r s ' n e w v i l l a g e K u n g - k u n g c h i e n - c h u
y u n g - t i
L a n d u s e d for p u b l i c C o n s t r u c t i o n
K u n g - n u n g l i a n - m e n g W o r k e r - p e a s a n t a l l i a n c e
La n g - f e i t 'u-ti
V|c. h %kj
To s q u a n d e r landL u - h u a t i - t a i Green b e l t
R o m a n i z a t i o n
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P e i - k u n g yiin-tung P e n - w e i ch u - i I^eng-hu ch'ii P ’i e n - m i e n P u - c h ' a n g - f e i
S h a n g - p ’in s h u - t ’sai S h a n g - s h a n h s i a - h s i a n g
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S h e - h u i ch u - i p i a o - c h u n
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S h e n g - h u o c h U - c h u y u n g - t i
S h i h - c h i a o t' u - t i k a i - k e h t i a o - l i S h i h - p i e n
S h o u - k o u ch a n S h u - s h i h w u - t u
S h u - t ’sai s h e n g - c h ’an c h u a n - y e h c h 'U
S u n g - t ’u c h u - c h i c h i e n - c h a ti - t a i
Sz e - k o h s i e n - t a i - h u a T a - £ e n - s a n ; s h a o - c h i - ch u n g
T a - t z u - p a o T a o - t a i
E n g l i s h
G u a r a n t e e p u r c h a s e and sale MMi]lion c i t y ”
A n t i - C o n f u c i u s c a m p a i g n D e p a r t m e n t a l i s m
S q u a t t e r d i s t r i c t O n e - s i d e d ; u n i l a t e r a l C o m p e n s a t i o n
C o m m o d i t y v e g e t a b l e
To go u p to the m o u n t a i n s a n d to go. do w n to the rural areas
S m a l l ci t y
S o c i a l i s t i c s t a n d a r d I n s p e c t i o n s y s t e m P r o d u c e r city
L a n d u s e d for l i v i n g an d r e s i d e n t i a l p u r p o s e s . T h e S u b u r b a n A g r a r i a n R e f o r m Law
Te n m a r g i n s
P r o c u r e m e n t s t a t i o n L o o k at, bu t p a y no a t t e n t i o n to
V e g e t a b l e p r o d u c t i o n s p e c ial d i s t r i c t
L o o s e soil zone for f o o t p r i n t i n s p e c t i o n F o u r m o d e r n i z a t i o n s
Large scale d i s p e r s i o n ; s m a l l scale c o n c e n t r a t i o n B i g c h a r a c t e r w a l l p o s t e r S u p e r i n t e n d e n t of customs
R o m a n i z a t i o n T l,e t a - c h 1 e n g - s h i h T i - c h i n c h ’i-li
T i - f a n g h s i n g - c h i h Tsu.-yu s h i h - c h ’ang T u n g - i f e n - p ' e i T u n g - i l i n g - t a o W e i - c h a n g c h i e n - c h u Wei-hsing. c h ’e n g - s h i h W e i - h s i n g k * e h - l i
ti-tai
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Unified, a l l o c a t i o n U n i f i e d l e a d e r s h i p
I l l e g a l c o n s t r u c t i o n S a t e l l i t e town
H y g i e n i c s e g r e g a t i o n zone
To do the b e s t a c c o r d ing to local c o n d i t i o n
L o n g t e r m p l a n n i n g Far su b u r b
To se t t l e d o w n p e r m a n e n t l y
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A B S T R A C T i
A C K N O W L E D G E M E N T S ii
L I S T OF A B B R E V I A T I O N S A N D A N O T E ON R O M A N I Z A T I O N OF
C H I N E S E N A M E S iv
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T A B L E OF C O N T E N T S ix
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1. I N T R O D U C T I O N • 1
O b j e c t i v e s M e t h o d o l o g y O r g a n i z a t i o n
R e v i e w of L i t e r a t u r e an d D a t a
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S p a t i a l S t r u c t u r e of A n c i e n t C h i n e s e C i t y Sta t e s S y m b i o t i c R e l a t i o n s h i p s b e t w e e n C i t i e s an d T h e i r
S u r r o u n d i n g s
F o r e i g n I n f l u e n c e s o n C h i n a ' s S u b u r b a n D e v e l o p m e n t S u b u r b a n Sp r a w l in the T r e a t y P o r t of S h a n g h a i The " E x t e r n a l R o a d s A r e a s " at the T r e a t y P o r t D e v e l o p m e n t of N o r t h S u b u r b a n S h a n g h a i
S u m m a r y N o t e s
3 . F O U N D A T I O N ” F O R ~ P L A N N E D . : S U B U R B A N “D E V E L O P M E N T IN 75 P O S T - 1949 C H I N A
I n t r o d u c t i o n
P r o m u l g a t i o n of the S u b u r b a n A g r a r i a n R e f o r m La w (SARL) 19 50
Th e S u b u r b a n A g r a r i a n R e f o r m Law: A B r i e f A n a l y s i s . L a n d N a t i o n a l i z a t i o n
P r o m o t i o n of I n d u s t r i a l an d C o m m e r c i a l D e v e l o p m e n t an d S u b u r b a n A g r i c u l t u r e
L o c a l R e g u l a t i o n s S u p p l e m e n t a r y to the SARL D e l i m i t a t i o n of S u b u r b a n A r e a s for L a n d R e f o r m S u m m a r y
No t e s
C h a p t e r
4. L A N D S Q U A N D E R I N G A N D U R B A N S P R A W L
P a g e 113 I n t r o d u c t i o n
L e g i s l a t i v e W e a k n e s s e s in L a n d E x p r o p r i a t i o n O t h e r F o r m s of L a n d S q u a n d e r i n g b y S t a t e
C o n s t r u c t i o n P r o j e c t s S u m m a r y
N o t e s
5. O T H E R M A J O R F A C T O R S L E A D I N G TO D I S O R D E R L Y U R B A N 144 E X P A N S I O N
I n t r o d u c t i o n
E s s e n c e o f T r a d i t i o n a l C i t y P l a n n i n g in C h i n a P h y s i c a l Si t e S e l e c t i o n for W a l l e d Ci t i e s O r i e n t a t i o n of City: W a l l s
O r g a n i z a t i o n of U r b a n L a n d U s e
U r b a n D e v e l o p m e n t in the R e p u b l i c a n T i m e A N e w E r a o f C i t y B u i l d i n g and T r a n s f o r m a t i o n
P r o b l e m s in C i t y B u i l d i n g since 1949
E m u l a t i o n o f S o v i e t M o d e l in U r b a n P l a n n i n g a n d C o n t r u c t i o n
A d o p t i o n of S o v i e t S t a n d a r d for U r b a n S p a c e U t i l i z a t i o n
O t h e r P r o b l e m s in C i t y P l a n n i n g and B u i l d i n g R e m e d i a l M e a s u r e s
N o t e s
6. S P A T I A L C O N S E Q U E N C E S OF U R B A N I Z A T I O N : A N A T I O N A L
O V E R V I E W 217
I n t r o d u c t i o n
I m p a c t of U r b a n S p r a w l u p o n S u b u r b a n A g r i c u l t u r e O f f i c i a l E f f o r t s at P r o m o t i n g V e g e t a b l e P r o d u c t i o n
in S u b u r b a n C h i n a
I n s t i t u t i o n of the Free M a r k e t S y s t e m
N e w P r o b l e m s in V e g e t a b l e S u p p l y to U r b a n C e n t r e s G r o w i n g D e m a n d for V e g e t a b l e s in Cit i e s
A N e w S t r a t e g y towards S e l f - s u f f i c i e n c y in U r b a n V e g e t a b l e S u p p l y
S p a t i a l R e o r g a n i z a t i o n of A g r i c u l t u r e L a n d U s e w i t h i n the C i t y R e g i o n
A g r i c u l t u r e L a n d U s e P l a n n i n g in S u b u r b a n C o m m u n e s U r b a n a n d Ru r a l S y m b i o s i s
Notes
7. T R E N D S IN U R B A N D E V E L O P M E N T S IN P O S T - 1 9 4 9 S U B U R B A N
I n t r o d u c t i o n
Th e G e o g r a p h i c a l S e t t i n g of S h a n g h a i and Its S u r r o u n d i n g s
I m p e r i a l i s t S h a n g h a i to S o c i a l i s t S h a n g h a i
U r b a n R e n o v a t i o n and R e c o n s t r u c t i o n : C o m p a r i s o n b e t w e e n P e k i n g and S h a n g h a i
S p a t i a l D e v e l o p m e n t s in S h a n g h a i 1 9 4 9 - 1 9 5 7 N e w P h a s e of D e v e l o p m e n t in S u b u r b a n S h a n g h a i
G e o g r a p h i c a l C o n s t r a i n t s in the D e v e l o p m e n t of C h i n a ' s I n l a n d Reg i o n s
S H A N G H A I 295
I m p a c t o f S h a n g h a i ' s I n d u s t r y o n N a t i o n a l E c o n o m i c D e v e l o p m e n t
O t h e r E c o n o m i c a n d S t r a t e g i c C o n s i d e r a t i o n s R e v i s i o n of the R e g i o n a l D e v e l o p m e n t P o l i c y a n d
Its I m p a c t on S h a n g h a i ' s S u b u r b a n D e v e l o p m e n t C h a n g e s in S h a n g h a i ' s I n d u s t r i a l S t r u c t u r e
E s t a b l i s h m e n t of I n d u s t r i a l D i s t r i c t s in S u b u r b a n S h a n g h a i
S i t e S e l e c t i o n for the S u b u r b a n I n d u s t r i a l D i s t r i c t s S u m m a r y
N o t e s
8. S A T E L L I T E T O W N D E V E L O P M E N T IN THE C I T Y R E G I O N OF S H A N G H A I
I n t r o d u c t i o n
R a t i o n a l e for S a t e l l i t e T o w n B u i l d i n g
Accelerating-, I n d u s t r i a l E x p a n s i o n in the C i t y R e g i o n of S h a n g h a i
M i n h s i n g - C h i n a ' s F i r s t S a t e l l i t e T o w n
S u b u r b a n S a t e l l i t e s a n d U r b a n P o p u l a t i o n R e d i s t r i b u t i o n
No t e s
9. C O N C L U S I O N S A p p e n d i c e s
A. S u b u r b a n A g r a r i a n R e f o r m La w
B. R e g u l a t i o n for L a n d E x p r o p r i a t i o n for S t a t e C o n s t r u c t i o n 1953
C. R e g u l a t i o n for L a n d E x p r o p r i a t i o n for S t a t e C o n s t r u c t i o n 1958
D. A n E x c e r p t fr o m the T e x t of " O n the T e n Gr e a t R e l a t i o n s h i p s "
E. A m o u n t of D w e l l i n g S p a c e for U r b a n H o u s i n g P r o j e c t s in C h i n a 1 9 6 0 - 1 9 6 4
F. I. C h i n e s e M e a s u r e s an d T h e i r E q u i v a l e n t s in E n g l i s h an d M e t r i c S y s t e m s
II. C h i n e s e M o n e t a r y S y s t e m B I B L I O G R A P H Y
S O U R C E S OF M A P S
348
388 399
420 433
S O U R C E S O F P H O T O G R A P H S 435
2.1 N u m b e r of M a n u f a c t u r i n g E s t a b l i s h m e n t s in S h a n g h a i 1931
2.2 A v e r a g e P o p u l a t i o n D e n s i t y in S h a n g h a i 1 9 3 0 - 1 9 3 2 2.3 I n c r e a s e of F o r e i g n R e s i d e n t s in the E x t e r n a l
Ro a d s A r e a ( w e s t e r n section) 1 8 7 0 - 1 9 3 0
3.1 P a t t e r n of L a n d O w n e r s h i p in R u r a l C h i n a 1934 3.2 R a t i o of P o p u l a t i o n a n d C u l t i v a t e d L a n d in
S h a n g h a i ' s Te n S u b u r b a n D i s t r i c t s , M a r c h 19 50 3.3 N e t P r o f i t for P r i n c i p a l Farm P r o d u c t s in the
E i g h t S u b u r b a n D i s t r i c t s of S h a n g h a i 1933 4.1 L a n d U s e C o m p o n e n t s for S e l e c t e d F a c t o r i e s in
P a o t i n g 1957
5.1 S p a t i a l E x p a n s i o n of S e l e c t e d C h i n e s e Ci t i e s 1 9 4 9 - 1 9 5 7
5.2 I n c r e a s e of Flo.or S p a c e of D w e l l i n g s in S e l e c t e d Ci t i e s P r e - 1 9 4 9 to 1959
5.3 A v e r a g e D w e l l i n g S p a c e p e r C a p i t a in S e l e c t e d L a r g e C i t i e s 1 9 5 6 - 1 9 5 7
5.4 S o v i e t S t a n d a r d for P u b l i c G r e e n A r e a
6.1 P o p u l a t i o n C h a n g e in C i t i e s of 3 0 0 , 0 0 0 or M o r e I n h a b i t a n t s 1 9 5 3 - 1 9 5 7
6.2 A n n u a l C o n s u m p t i o n of V e g e t a b l e s p e r C a p i t a in S h a n g h a i 1 9 5 3 - 1 9 5 7
6.3 T e r r i t o r i a l C h a n g e s of S e l e c t e d C i t y R e g i o n s 1 9 4 9 - 1 9 7 4
6.4 E x p a n s i o n of V e g e t a b l e L a n d in S e l e c t e d Ci t y R e g i o n s 1 9 5 7 - 1 9 5 9
6.5 R e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n S u b u r b a n A g r i c u l t u r a l L a n d U s e an d D i s t a n c e f r o m C e n t r a l C ities s i n c e 1958 6.6 V a l u e s of C o m m o d i t y A g r i c u l t u r a l P r o d u c e at
M i n h s i n g C o m m u n e 1 9 5 7 - 1 9 5 9
6.7 V a l u e s of S e l f - c o n s u m i n g A g r i c u l t u r a l P r o d u c e at M i n h s i n g C o m m u n e 1 9 5 7 - 1 9 5 9
7.1 D i s t r i b u t i o n of N e w W o r k e r s ' V i l l a g e s i n S h a n g h a i 1952
7.2 V o l u m e of F r e i g h t C a r r i e d b y R a i l w a y s 1 9 4 9 - 1 9 5 6
L I S T OF T A B L E S (Continued)
7.3 V a l u e s of I n d u s t r i a l P r o d u c t i o n of the T h r e e M a j o r C o a s t a l I n d u s t r i a l C i t i e s a n d the
I n t e r i o r a n d C o a s t a l R e g i o n s 1 9 4 9 - 1 9 5 6
7.4 I n v e s t m e n t in S h a n g h a i ’s C a p i t a l C o n s t r u c t i o n 1 9 5 0 - 1 9 5 7
7.5 P l a n n e d S h a r e s of C a p i t a l I n v e s t m e n t i n V a r i o u s S e c t o r s in S h a n g h a i 19 57
7.6 C h a n g e s in S h a n g h a i ' s I n d u s t r i a l S t r u c t u r e 1 9 4 9 - 1 9 5 7
7.7 N e w I n d u s t r i a l D i s t r i c t s in S u b u r b a n S h a n g h a i 1954-1.958
8.1 N u m b e r of C i t i e s b y Si z e C a t e g o r i e s 1 9 5 2 - 1 9 5 7 8 . 2 - L a r g e M o d e r n I n d u s t r i a l P r o j e c t s I n s t a l l e d in
S u b u r b a n S h a n g h a i .1958-1959
8.3 I n d u s t r i a l D i s t r i c t s in S u b u r b a n S h a n g h a i 1 9 5 8 - 1 9 5 9
8.4 N a t u r a l I n c r e a s e Ra t e of S h a n g h a i ' s P o p u l a t i o n 1 9 5 3 - 1 9 5 7
8.5 I n c r e a s e in A v e r a g e A n n u a l W a g e of W o r k e r s and o t h e r E m p l o y e e s 1 9 5 2 - 1 9 5 8
Pa g e
322
330
330
332
336 350
356-7
360
375
379
L I S T O F M A P S P a g e 2A F O R E I G N C O N C E S S I O N S O U T S I D E T I E N T S I N 48
2B CI T Y OF F O O C H O W 50
2C H I S T O R I C A L D E V E L O P M E N T O F F O R E I G N S E T T L E M E N T A N D
C O N C E S S I O N IN S H A N G H A I 55
2D E X T R A T E R R I T O R I A L E X P A N S I O N OF F O R E I G N S E T T L E M E N T S
IN S H A N G H A I 1 8 4 6 - 1 9 1 4 59
3A THE S U B U R B A N D I S T R I C T S OF S H A N G H A I 1950 86 6A THE U R B A N - C E N T R E D P L A N N I N G R E G I O N S 24 5
6B THE C I T Y R E G I O N S OF C H I N A 1974 249
6C THE C I T Y R E G I O N OF S H A N G H A I 1 9 5 8 (January) 253 6D THE C I T Y R E G I O N OF S H A N G H A I 1 9 5 8 (December) 254 6E L A N D US E M A P OF S H A N G H A I CI T Y R E G I O N 267 7A T E R R I T O R I A L E X P A N S I O N OF U R B A N S H A N G H A I 301
7B L A N D USE M A P O F S H A N G H A I 308
7C D I S T R I B U T I O N OF KE Y P O I N T C I T I E S 312 7D N E W W O R K E R S ' V I L L A G E S IN S H A N G H A I 19 5 2 318 7E N E W I N D U S T R I A L D I S T R I C T S IN S U B U R B A N S H A N G H A I . 19 56 334 8A P R O P O S E D S A T E L L I T E T OWNS IN THE CITY R E G I O N OF
S H A N G H A I 19 58 36 5
8B P R E L I M I N A R Y T O W N P L A N OF M I N H S I N G 19 58 369
L I S T O F P H O T O G R A P H S P a g e 51 Th e A u g u s t F i r s t B o u l e v a r d in N a n c h a n g -
A M e d i u m - s i z e d C i t y 183
61 S a t e l l i t e I m a g e r y o£ the City R e g i o n o f S h a n g h a i
1976 ■ 270
611 W h e r e I n d u s t r y an d A g r i c u l t u r e M e e t in the N e a r
S u b u r b of S h a n g h a i 273
6III M e c h a n i c a l I r r i g a t i o n in S u b u r b a n S h a n g h a i 280 6IY S u b u r b a n V e g e t a b l e s D e s t i n e d for the U r b a n M a r k e t 282 71 A n U r b a n R e n e w a l A r e a in S h a n g h a i 309 711 S h a n g h a i ’s N e w I n d u s t r i a l D i s t r i c t - A N i g h t S c e n e 335 7111 K a o c h i a o C h e m i c a l I n d u s t r i a l D i s t r i c t 341 81 W u c h i n g C h e m i c a l I n d u s t r i a l D i s t r i c t 359 811 A n A e r i a l V i e w of M i n h s i n g - S h a n g h a i ' s F i r s t
S a t e l l i t e T o w n 368
8III A t the C e n t r e of M i n h s i n g 372
8IV W o r k e r s ' H o u s i n g in M i n h s i n g 381
C H A P T E R 1 I N T R O D U C T I O N
O b j e c t i v e s
An a m b i t i o u s sc h e m e of city b u i l d i n g an d t r a n s f o r m a t i o n w a s i n i t i a t e d in C h i n a soon a f t e r th e e s t a b l i s h me n t of the c o m m u n i s t g o v e r n m e n t in O c t o b e r 19^9* In the i n t e n s e d r i v e for i n d u s t r i a l i z a t i o n , a v e r y r a p i d e x p a n s i o n of ci t i e s an d i n c r e a s e of u r b a n p o p u l a t i o n w a s i n e v i t a b l e . The l a t t e r p h e n o m e n o n , in p a r t i c u l a r , has s t i m u l a t e d
r e s e a r c h i n t o the d e m o g r a p h i c a s p e c t s of C h i n a ’s u r b a n i z a t i o n . 1 H o w e v e r , the s p a t i a l c o m p o n e n t w h i c h c o n s t i t u t e s an i n t e g r a l pa r t of the u r b a n i z a t i o n p r o c e s s has b e e n g i v e n v e r y scant c o n s i d e r a t i o n .
It is t r u e , s e v e r a l w e l l r e s e a r c h e d a n d w r i t t e n a r t i c l e s on c ities of the P e o p l e ’s R e p u b l i c of C h i n a have a p p e a r e d r e c e n t l y in g e o g r a p h i c a l a n d n o n - g e o g r a p h i c a l j o u r n a l s . 2 U n f o r t u n a t e l y , t h e s e s c h o l a r l y e n q u i r i e s
f o l l o w e d the t r a d i t i o n a l a p p r o a c h in u r b a n s t u d i e s w h i c h f o c u s s e d e x c l u s i v e l y on the c e n t r a l city, d e s p i t e the
i n s t i t u t i o n a l i z a t i o n of the city r e g i o n in C h i n a m o r e t h a n t w o d e c a d e s ago. F u r t h e r m o r e , t here are e x t e n s i v e s c h o l a r ly c o n t r i b u t i o n s on w e s t e r n s u b u r b a n i z a t i o n , but there is v i r t u a l l y n o t h i n g w r i t t e n w h i c h e x p l o r e s t h e s p a t i a l
d e v e l o p m e n t s in C h i n a ’s s u b u r b a n areas. Th i s study is i n t e n d e d to r e c t i f y t h e s e omi s s i o n s .
In e s s e n c e , the r e s e a r c h a t t e m p t s to i n v e s t i g a t e and a n a l y s e the d y n a m i c c h a n g e s of the s u b u r b a n l a n d s c a p e s ,
both, a g r i c u l t u r a l a n d non«agr.icuXt.ural,.. i n C h i n a f r o m 19^9 to 1959 w i t h i n th e c o n t e x t of. central.-policies on. e c o n o m i c d e v e l o p m e n t ^ . s u b u r b a n l a n d l e g i s l a t i o n , o f f i c i a l a t t i t u d e s to w a r d s city building- a n d Ch i n a * s e m u l a t i o n of the S oviet u r b a n p l a n n i n g m o d e l . A l s o the e n q u i r y e x a m i n e s c r i t i c a l l y the p l a n n i n g a n d d e v e l o p m e n t a l s t r a t e g i e s a d o p t e d by the c e n t r a l a u t h o r i t i e s to r e s o l v e the problems- in s u b u r b a n land use, t h e r e b y s e e k i n g a s p e c i a l u n d e r s t a n d i n g of the u r b a n r e g i o n that was d e s i g n e d to c o n t a i n s p a t i a l e x p a n s i o n of large c i t i e s and to a c h i e v e s e l f - s u f f i c i e n c y in s u b s i d ia r y f o o d s u p p l y in m a j o r i n d u s t r i a l c e n t r e s , f a c i l i t a t i n g the p r o m o t i o n of rural*-urban symbiosis.
T h i s g e o g r a p h i c a l e s s a y Is a p r e l i m i n a r y s t u d y of the s p a t i a l a s p e c t s of C h i n a * s u r b a n i z a t i o n . It is only h o p e d that it w i l l serve to s t i m u l a t e f u r t h e r r e s e a r c h
into t h i s i m p o r t a n t yet n e g l e c t e d g e o g r a p h i c a l topic.
M e t h o d o l o g y
The m e t h o d o l o g y a d o p t e d in th i s e n q u i r y was
s h a p e d m a i n l y by the n a t u r e a n d a v a i l a b i l i t y of the source m a t e r i a l s . T h e r e f o r e , q u a l i t a t i v e a n a l y s i s w a s e m p l o y e d
to e x p l o r e the r e l e v a n t d e t e r m i n a n t s w h i c h c o n t r i b u t e d to the r a p i d c h a n g e s of the s u b u r b a n a r e a s . T h e sm a l l amount of q u a n t i t a t i v e d a t a .s e l e c t e d for the study s e r v e d to
i n d i c a t e b r o a d p a t t e r n s and g e n e r a l t r ends. B e c a u s e of the g e n e r a l d e f i c i e n c y of t h i s type of da t a , no a t t e m p t was made to I n t r o d u c e any s t a t i s t i c a l a n a l y s i s in t o the s t u d y .
Th i s g e o g r a p h i c a l investigation, c o v e r e d the d e c a d e o f 1949 to. 1959 > m a i n l y for two r e a s o n s ; fi r s t , t h i s t e n - y e a r p e r i o d was v e r y s i g n i f i c a n t in the h i s t o r y of u r b a n a n d s u b u r b a n d e v e l o p m e n t s of China. It w i t n e s s e s t h e i n t r o
d u c t i o n of an i n t e g r a t e d u r b a n and r e g i o n a l p l a n n i n g e x p e r i m e n t for c o n t r o l l i n g d i s o r d e r l y u r b a n e x p a n s i o n , a c h i e v i n g
s e l f - s u f f i c i e n c y in s u b s i d i a r y foods in la r g e ci t i e s and r e s t o r i n g C h i n a ^ s t r a d i t i o n a l u r b a n - r u r a l s y m b i o t i c r e l a t i o n ship. S e c o n d l y , w i t h i n t h i s t e n - y e a r p e r i o d d a t a on C h i n a w e r e m o r e a v a i l a b l e t h a n t h o s e of l a t t e r years. P r o m 1959 to 1961 w h e n v e r y u n f a v o u r a b l e c o n d i t i o n s p r e v a i l e d , l ittle m e a n i n g f u l m a t e r i a l a p p e a r e d in the p r e s s or o t h e r o f f i c i a l p u b l i c a t i o n s . P r o m the b e g i n n i n g of the C u l t u r a l R e v o l u t i o n in 1966 to the e a r l y 1 970s, p u b l i c a t i o n of m o s t a c a d e m i c j o u r n a l s wa s s u s p e n d e d . T h e on l y n e w s p a p e r th a t r e a c h e d the o u t s i d e w o r l d w a s the P e o p l e * s D a i l y . M a n y of the
a c a d e m i c j o u r n a l s that w e r e a v a i l a b l e d u r i n g t h e 1 950s f a i l e d t o r e a p p e a r a f t e r the u p h e a v a l . P u r t h e r m o r e , b e c a u s e of
the e f f e c t i v e i m p l e m e n t a t i o n of ve r y s t r i n g e n t m e a s u r e s to stop s m u g g l i n g of m u n i c i p a l n e w s p a p e r s a n d o f f i c i a l d o c u m e n t s f r o m China, d a t a f r o m t h e s e s o u r c e s w e r e n o l o n g e r a v a i l a b l e .
T w o c h a p t e r s of the study f o c u s s e d on s u r v e y i n g the p a t t e r n s of the n o n - a g r i c u l t u r a l land use c h a n g e in s u b u r b a n S h a n g h a i . A g a i n , the d a t a of S h a n g h a i w e r e by far m o r e a b u n d a n t t h a n t h o s e of any ot h e r C h i n e s e cities,
i n c l u d i n g the nk e y - p o i n t u i n d u s t r i a l c e n tres. Also, s u c h an a p p r o a c h was i n t e n d e d to. b r i n g into s h a r p e r focus the i m p l i c a t i o n s of c e n t r a l p o l i c i e s for ci t y b u i l d i n g a n d the p r o b l e m s o f l a n d s q u a n d e r i n g an d u r b a n s p r a w l d u r i n g the
F i r s t F i v e Y e a r P l a n p e r i o d .
O r g a n i z a t i o n
The first t h r e e c h a p t e r s serve to set the stage for t h i s s u b u r b a n s t u d y of China. The i n i t i a l c h a p t e r c o n t a i n s the i n t r o d u c t o r y elements, a n d a b r i e f r e v i e w of t h e t e r m i n o l o g y , d e f i n i t i o n s a n d c o n c e p t s on w e s t e r n s u b u r b a n i za t i o n . The s e c o n d c h a p t e r e x a m i n e s the s y m b i o t i c r e l a t i o n ships b e t w e e n the t r a d i t i o n a l C h i n e s e city a n d its s u b u r b s , and the f o r e i g n i n f l u e n c e s on C h ina's s u b u r b a n d e v e l o p m e n t s in the n i n e t e e n t h and the t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y , w i t h s p e c i a l r e f e r e n c e to the t r e a t y p o r t of S h a n g h a i . C h a p t e r t h r e e a n a l y s e s the S u b u r b a n A g r a r i a n R e f o r m La w that lays the f o u n d a t i o n for C h i n a ' s s p a t i a l p l a n n i n g o u t s i d e the cities.
B o t h c h a p t e r s f o u r a n d five i n v e s t i g a t e the c a u s a t i v e fa c t o r s c o n t r i b u t i n g to the s e r i o u s l a n d s q u a n d e r i n g and u r b a n s p r a w l th a t o c c u r r e d in all the n e w i n d u s t r i a l cities.
T h e y d i s c u s s and e l a b o r a t e , r e s p e c t i v e l y , t h e s h o r t c o m i n g s of the l e g i s l a t i o n for r e q u i s i t i o n i n g a n d d i s p o s a l of s u b u r b a n l a n d for state c o n s t r u c t i o n a n d the a d o p t i o n of the S oviet m o d e l of city p l a n n i n g and d e v e l o p m e n t . T h e impact of the d i s o r d e r l y u r b a n e x p a n s i o n on s u b u r b a n a g r i c u l t u r e is e x a m i n e d in c h a p t e r six, but its. m a i n t h e m e f o c u s s e s on the s u b s e q u e n t o f f i c i a l e f f o r t s e x p e n d e d on a c h i e v i n g s e l f - s u f f i c i e n c y in v e g e t a b l e su p p l y in la r g e u r b a n centres.
The m a i n t h r u s t of the c h a p t e r c e ntres on the d i s c u s s i o n of the s p a t i a l r e o r g a n i z a t i o n of a g r i c u l t u r a l l a n d use w i t h i n the city r e gion. C h a p t e r s s e v e n an d eight p r e s e n t a case
study of the non~agri . c u l t u r a l d e v e l o p m e n t in t h e s u b u r b a n areas of S h a n g h a i , m a i n l y w i t h i n the. context, of. c e n t r a l p o l i c y changes. The f i n a l c h a p t e r draws t o g e t h e r some of the m o r e i m p o r t a n t aspects, of s u b u r b a n C h i n a a n d gi v e s some i n d i c a t i o n of f u r t h e r r e s e a r c h p o s s i b i l i t i e s .
R e v i e w of L i t e r a t u r e an d D a t a
T h i s study has b e e n a c h a l l e n g i n g u n d e r t a k i n g , m a i n l y b e c a u s e of the f r a g m e n t e d and s p a r s e r e s e a r c h data.
It Is w e l l k n o w n to s c h o l a r s of C h i n a that C h i n e s e m a t e r i a l s are c h a r a c t e r i z e d b y n u m e r o u s la c u n a e an d that it is n e c e s s a r y t o ” m a k e cross c h e c k i n g s f o r i n t e r n a l c o n s i s t e n c i e s .
B o t h the q u a l i t a t i v e and q u a n t i t a t i v e d a t a u s e d in the r e s e a r c h h a v e b e e n e x t r a c t e d m a i n l y f r o m p r i m a r y s ource m a t e r i a l s p u b l i s h e d in C h i n e s e a n d in E n g l i s h in the P e o p l e * s R e p u b l i c of China. A m o n g m a t e r i a l s in this c a t e gory, the P e o p l e * s D a i l y , t h r e e of the f o u r d a i l y n e w s p a p e r s of S h a n g h a i a n d t h o s e of o t h e r C h i n e s e c i t i e s , the Peo p l e * s H a n d b o o k s , the c o m p e n d i a of laws and r e g u l a t i o n s , a s e l e c t e d n u m b e r of o f f i c i a l j o u r n a l s a n d a c a d e m i c p e r i o d i c a l s , the
S e l e c t e d W o r k s of M a o T s e - t u n g a n d the P e k i n g R e v i e w c o n s t i t u t e the m o s t i m p o r t a n t sources. A c a d e m i c j o u r n a l s p u b l i s h ed in the E n g l i s h l a n g u a g e o u t s i d e C h i n a p r o v i d e s u p p l e m e n t ary data. O t h e r first h a n d i n f o r m a t i o n ha s b e e n g a t h e r e d d u r i n g a f i e l d trip in C h i n a in >Jay an d J u n e of 1977 and f r o m a s e l e c t e d c o l l e c t i o n of satellite, i m a g e r y of C h i n e s e cities. S e c o n d a r y s o u r c e m a t e r i a l s i n c l u d e b o o k s p u b l i s h e d in t h e C h i n e s e a n d the E n g l i s h languages.
T h e five, volumes, of % q . q ’ s: Salec.ted W o r k s w h i c h c o n t a i n a l a r g e n u m b e r of art.i.c.les w r i t t e n , a n d m a j o r s p e e c h e s d e l i v e r e d b y the late, c h a i r m a n of the CCP have b e e n by far- the m o s t e s s e n t i a l r e a d i n g m a t e r i a l for all C h i n a s c h o l a r s an d s t u d e n t s alike. T h e s e p u b l i c a t i o n s r e f l e c t M a o ’s t h i n k i n g a n d p h i l o s o p h y on s o c i a l i s m and
c o m m u n i s m , w h i c h f o r m the b a c k b o n e of all o f f i c i a l p o l i c i e s i m p l e m e n t e d in China. M a n y of his s t a t e m e n t s h a v e b e e n f r e q u e n t l y q u o t e d in o f f i c i a l s p e e c h e s a n d d o c u m e n t s . The P e o p l e ’s D a i l y 3 th e p a r t y organ, p u b l i s h e s all the c e n t r a l p o l i c i e s an d d i r e c t i v e s . Most of th e s e also a p p e a r w i t h
e d i t o r i a l c o m m e n t s in the P e k i n g R e v i e w , a w e e k l y p u b l i c a t i o n in th e E n g l i s h l a n g u a g e since 1958. T w o o t h e r i m p o r t a n t
o f f i c i a l p u b l i c a t i o n s i n c l u d e the P e o p l e ’s H a n d b o o k that
was p u b l i s h e d f r o m 19^9 to the ea r l y 1960s, a n d the N e w C h i n a M o n t h l y w h i c h was c h a n g e d to a s e m i m o n t h l y p u b l i c a t i o n in J a n u a r y 1953 a n d r e n a m e d the N e w C h i n a S e m i m o n t h l y . The f o r m e r c o n t a i n e d r e p o r t s on the w o r k of the c e n t r a l g o v e r n m e n t a n d t h o s e of the m i n i s t r i e s d e l i v e r e d at the P e o p l e ’s
C o n g r e s s , p o l i c y s t a t e m e n t s , o f f i c i a l n o t i f i c a t i o n s and
d i r e c t i v e s , w h e r e a s the l a t t e r p u b l i s h e s i m p o r t a n t e d i t o r i a l s f r o m the P e o p l e ’s D a i l y , and a r t i c l e s on a w i d e r a n g e of
p o l i t i c a l , e c o n o m i c a n d c u l t u r a l m a t t e r s , f o r e i g n a f f a i r s as w e l l as l e g a l d o c u m e n t s . A m o n g the a c a d e m i c j o u r n a l s , the J o u r n a l o f A r c h i t e c t u r e and' ITrban^ C o n s t r u c t i o n c o n t a i n a r i c h s o u r c e of m a t e r i a l s on p l a n n i n g a n d d e v e l o p m e n t of c ities an d s a t e l l i t e t o w n s , u r b a n r e n e w a l p r o j e c t s and d e s i g n an d layout of w o r k e r s ’ h o u s i n g s c h emes. D u r i n g the 1950s C h i n a p u b l i s h e d s e v e r a l g e o g r a p h i c a l p e r i o d i c a l s :
G e o g r a p h i c a l K n o w l e d g e , G e o g r a p h y a n d A c t a G e o g r a p h i c a S i n i c a . Th e first t i t l e f r e q u e n t l y p u b l i s h e s d e s c r i p t i v e ’ a c c o u n t s and a n a l y t i c a l a r t i c l e s on s e l e c t e d c i t i e s ,
e m p h a s i z i n g the c o n t r a s t s b e t w e e n p r e - l i b e r a t i o n and p o s t - 1949 d e v e l o p m e n t s . The m u n i c i p a l d a i l y n e w s p a p e r s , b e s i d e s r e p o r t i n g s i g n i f i c a n t l o c a l eve n t s , also e c h o and e x p l a i n in the e d i t o r i a l s p o l i c y statements, an d d i r e c t i v e s i s s u e d by the S t a t e C o u n c i l an d the Chi n e s e C o m m u n i s t Party. A m o n g the four m a j o r d a i l y n e w s p a p e r s in S h a n g h a i , the N e w s D a i l y , the C u l t u r a l C o n t a c t D a i l y a n d the L i b e r a t i o n D a i l y p r o v i d e d the m o s t i n d i s p e n s i b l e source of d a t a for w r i t i n g the case
s tudy of the ci t y in C h a p t e r s 7 and 8.
C o m p r e h e n s i v e s t a t i s t i c a l d a t a on p o s t - 1 9 4 9 C h i n a are u n a v a i l a b l e . B e s i d e s the p o p u l a t i o n c e n s u s d a t a of 19 5 3 3 a s m a l l n u m b e r of c o m p l e t e sets of e c o n o m i c , d e m o g r a p h i c , a g r i c u l t u r a l , i n d u s t r i a l an d u r b a n d a t a for 1949 to 1959 was p u b l i s h e d in the T e n Great Y e a r s by the N a t i o n a l S t a t i s t ical B u r e a u . O t h e r q u a n t i t a t i v e i n f o r m a t i o n was p u b l i s h e d , in f r a g m e n t e d form, in n e w s p a p e r s , o f f i c i a l j o u r n a l s a n d s p e e c h e s a n d r e p o r t s of c e n t r a l m i n i s t r i e s . It Is s i g n i f i c ant t o n o t e th a t C h i n a o f t e n i s s u e d p e r c e n t a g e i n c r e a s e s w i t h o u t q u o t i n g b a s e f i gures. U n f o r t u n a t e l y , too, the q u a l i t y of s t a t i s t i c s that r e f e r r e d to th e a c h i e v e m e n t of the Gr e a t L e a p w a s so p o o r th a t t h e y w e r e m o r e or less u s e l e s s f o r r e s e a r c h p u r p o s e s .
S o m e i n f o r m a t i o n u s e d in C h a p t e r s 6, 7 .and 8 was p r o v i d e d b y city p l a n n e r s in S h a n g h a i , r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s of the r e v o l u t i o n a r y c o m m i t t e e s of the s u b u r b a n c o m m u n e s at W u s i h and Hangchow-, o f f i c i a l s f r o m the C h i n a T r a v e l A g e n c y ,
or o b t a i n e d t h r o u g h p e r s o n a l ob.seryat.iQn s. d u r i n g the 1977 v i s i t to China. The t o u r i n c l u d e d visits, to. fourteen, cities a n d the s u b u r b a n areas of some of t h e s e c i t y r e g i o n s . The c l i m a x of the visit was the tfcree-hour i n t e r v i e w g r a n t e d to the w r i t e r w i t h two u r b a n p l a n n e r s f r o m t h e S h a n g h a i M u n i c i pa l B u r e a u of U r b a n P l a n n i n g and A d m i n i s t r a t i o n . T h e p l a n n e r s s u p p l i e d m a n y d e t a i l s not a v a i l a b l e o u t s i d e China, p a r t i c u l a r l y t h o s e c o n c e r n e d w i t h t h e p l a n n i n g and d e v e l o p m e n t of the S h a n g h a i City R e g i o n and on the i d e o l o g i c a l f a c t o r s that i n f l u e n c e d the e x i s t i n g p a t t e r n s or w o u l d d irect the f u t u r e t r e n d s in i n t e g r a t e d u r b a n a n d s u b u r b a n p l a n n i n g in China, The field, trip that i n c l u d e d v i s i t s to
f a c t o r i e s , h e a l t h care un i t s , s u b u r b a n c o m m u n e s , e d u c a t i o n a l i n s t i t u t i o n s an d the S h e n g l i oil f i e l d in S h a n t u n g p r o vi n c e p r o v i d e d no t o n l y a g e n e r a l understanding- of the
s o c i a l i s t i d e o l o g y an d c o n c e p t s a p p l i e d to developing' the city r e g i o n s y s t e m , but. also first h a n d e x p e r i e n c e ■ in o b s e r v i n g a n d a p p r e c i a t i n g the t r a n s f o r m e d s u b u r b a n l a n d s c a p e s - m a n i f e s t a t i o n .of the suc c e s s of the C h i n e s e e x p e r i m e n t .
So m e u s e f u l d a t a w e r e o b t a i n e d f r o m the i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of s a t e l l i t e imagery. S i n c e t h e l a u n c h i n g of E R T S - 1
( A c r o n y m fo r E a r t h R e s o u r c e s an d T e c h n o l o g y S a t e l l i t e . - It was r e n a m e d L A N D S A T - 1 in J a n u a r y 1977) on 23 July, 1972,
space i m a g e r y of v i r t u a l l y ev e r y p a r t of C hina, at v a r i o u s s c a l e s r a n g i n g f r o m l j 1 , 0 0 0 , 0 0 0 C . l inch e q u a l s 16 m i l e s ) to 1 : 2 5 0 , 0 0 0 (1 i n c h e q u a l s 4 -miles), has b e c o m e a v a i l a b l e . It has p r o v e d .to b e a v a l u a b l e g e o g r a p h i c a l t o o l fo r s t u d y ing " i n a c c e s s i b l e a r e a s " of the world. T h i s t y p e of r e m o t e s e n s i n g i m a g e r y p r o v i d e s a m u l t i t u d e of s p a t i a l an d t e m p o r a l
i n f o r m a t i o n , at a r e g i o n a l scale ,. of n e a r l y e v e r y p a r t of the gldhe, 'Familiarization w i t h th e i m a g e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of the f o u r b a n d s of the s a t e l l i t e i m a g e r y f a c i l i t a t e s e x t r a c t i o n of a w i d e r a n g e of d a t a on the C i t y R e g i o n of S ha n g h a i ; u r b a n m o r p h o l o g y , t r a n s p o r t a t i o n , s u b u r b a n
a g r i c u l t u r a l la n d use p a t t e r n s and d i s t r i b u t i o n and g r o w t h of s a t e l l i t e towns.
The p h e n o m e n a l pa c e of s u b u r b a n d e v e l o p m e n t in the i n d u s t r i a l n a t i o n s d u r i n g the past d e c a d e s has a r o u s e d the i n t e r e s t s of s o c i a l s c i e n t i s t s to i n v e s t i g a t e the d y n a m i c p r o c e s s e s of s u b u r b a n i z a t i o n a n d the d i v e r s i f i e d p a t t e r n s of this l a n d s c a p e p h e n o m e n o n . B e f o r e the S e c o n d W o r l d War, c o n t r i b u t i o n s to the s c h o l a r l y l i t e r a t u r e on the s u b u r b a n a r e a of w e s t e r n ci t i e s w e r e d o m i n a t e d by A m e r i c a n r e s e a r c h ers. S i n c e t h e n , h o w e v e r , a fa i r s hare in t h i s f i e l d of s tudy has b e e n d o c u m e n t e d by B r i t i s h a n d o t h e r w e s t e r n scholars.'* In N o r t h A m e r i c a s t u d i e s of s u b u r b a n g r o w t h w e r e p i o n e e r e d by W h e t t e n a n d o t h e r s in the 1930s. T h e s e r e s e a r c h e r s m a d e s i g n i f i c a n t c o n t r i b u t i o n s t o w a r d the u n d e r s t a n d i n g of the s u b u r b a n m o v e m e n t . T h e i r s t u d i e s also p r o v i d e d a f u n d a m e n t a l b a s e for the f o r m u l a t i o n of p u b l i c p o l i c i e s to d e a l w i t h p r o b l e m s of s u b u r b a n i z a t i o n . F o l l o w ing t h e s e i m p o r t a n t i n v e s t i g a t i o n s , a g r i c u l t u r a l e c o n o m i s t s , la n d e c o n o m i s t s , a n d s o c i o l o g i s t s a c t i v e l y e n g a g e d in
a n a l y z i n g and e v a l u a t i n g s o c i o l o g i c a l a n d e c o n o m i c impact of the s u b u r b a n i z a t i o n p r o c e s s e s u p o n th e f a r m p o p u l a t i o n , a g r i c u l t u r a l p r o d u c t i o n , a n d l a n d u s e c h a n g e s in the ever e x p a n d i n g u r b a n f r i n g e areas. C o n t e m p o r a r y s u b u r b a n g r o w t h has a t t r a c t e d the a t t e n t i o n of an i n c r e a s i n g n u m b e r of
u r b a n g e o g r a p h e r s w h o s u b s e q u e n t l y r e d i r e c t t h e i r r e s e a r c h Interests, to s t u d y i n g the c o m p l e x p a t t e r n s of h u m a n a c t i v i t y at th e p e r i p h e r y of u r b a n centres.
No a t t e m p t w i l l be m a d e he r e to r e v i e w all the
w e s t e r n l i t e r a t u r e on s u b u r b a n d e v e l o p m e n t . H o w e v e r , s e v e r a l d i s t i n g u i s h e d c o n t r i b u t i o n s are w o r t h s p e c i a l a t t e n t i o n .
T h e s e i n c l u d e G e r a r d u s W i s s i n k ’s A m e r i c a n C i t i e s in P e r s p e c t ive: W i t h S p e c i a l R e f e r e n c e to the D e v e l o p m e n t of T h e i r F r i n g e A r e a s 1 , M a r i o n C l a w s o n ’s S u b u r b a n L a n d C o n v e r s i o n in the7
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U n i t e d S t a t e s , J a m e s J o h n s o n ’s S u b u r b a n G r o w t h : G e o g r a p h i c a l P r o c e s s e s at the E d g e of t h e W e s t e r n C i t y , a a n d L o r n e R u s s -
w u r m ’s T h e S u r r o u n d i n g s of Our Cities: P r o b l e m s an d P l a n n i n g I m p l i c a t i o n s of U r b a n F r i n g e L a n d s c a p e s .
In his c l a s s i c w o r k on u r b a n f r i n g e study, W i s s i n k p r e s e n t e d a d e t a i l e d d e s c r i p t i o n an d c o m p r e h e n s i v e c o m p a r a t i v e a n a l y s i s of the c o m m o n c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s and d e v e l o p m e n t a l
p r o c e s s e s of the f r i n g e a reas of A m e r i c a n c i t i e s a n d t h o s e of some E u r o p e a n c i ties, t a k i n g into c o n s i d e r a t i o n the l a n d use p a t t e r n s , s o c i a l a n d e c o n o m i c v a l u e s , an d i n s t i t u t i o n s . One s i g n i f i c a n t c o n t r i b u t i o n w h i c h W i s s i n k m a d e was his r e c o g n i t i o n of the u r b a n f r i n g e a r e a as p a r t of the city itself, but not a s e p a r a t e g e o g r a p h i c a l e n tity. It s h o u l d be p l a n n e d an d d e v e l o p e d as part of a great whole. The a u t h o r d e m o n s t r a t e d the s t r o n g r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n the c u l t u r a l s y s t e m of a n a t i o n and the u r b a n c o n f i g u r a t i o n in the c o ntext of the u r b a n f r i n g e of A m e r i c a n Cities. His f i n d i n g s of th e c o m p a r a t i v e u r b a n .fringe st u d y of w e s t e r n cities i n d i c a t e d t h a t t h e e s t a b l i s h e d p o l i t i c a l and so c i a l s y s t e m p l a y e d a d o m i n a n t r o l e i n d e t e r m i n i n g the su c c e s s of the p l a n n i n g p r o c e s s .
C l a w s o n ’s authorit.ati.ve st u d y I n c l u d e d a r i c h c o l l e c t i o n of d e m o g r a p h i c , e c o n o m i c a n d l a n d us e d a t a as w e l l as m a n y c o n c e p t s r e l a t i n g to s u b u r b a n p l a n n i n g . The c e n t r a l t h e m e of the b o o k f o c u s s e d on t h e l a n d use c h a n g e s at the e x p a n d i n g edge of the A m e r i c a n c i t i e s a f t e r the S e c o n d W o r l d War. B a s e d on p r e v i o u s l y p u b l i s h e d m a t e r i a l s , it
e x p l o r e d the n a t u r e of the s u b u r b a n i z a t i o n p r o c e s s and e x a m i n e d the ro l e p l a y e d b y v a r i o u s p u b l i c a n d p r i v a t e a g e n c i e s in the s u b u r b a n g r o w t h p r o c e s s . Ca s e s t u d i e s of W a s h i n g t o n , D . C , , W i l m i n g t o n , D e l a w a r e a n d S p r i n g f i e l d ,
M a s s c h u s e t t s in the n o r t h e a s t e r n u r b a n c o m p l e x of the U n i t e d S t a t e s w e r e p r e s e n t e d to p r o v i d e a b e t t e r u n d e r s t a n d i n g of the s u b u r b a n i z a t i o n m o v e m e n t s i n c o n t e m p o r a r y A m e rica.
B e c a u s e of the p e r s i s t e n c e of the d i s p e r s e d p a t t e r n of
s u b u r b a n d e v e l o p m e n t , C l a w s o n p r o p o s e d s e v e r a l a l t e r n a t i v e s to m o d i f y the p r e s e n t s u b u r b a n land c o n v e r s i o n p r a c t i c e s , w h i c h , a c c o r d i n g to him, w o u l d c o n t r i b u t e to c h a n g e for the b e t t e r .
J o h n s o n ’s v o l u m e on s u b u r b a n g r o w t h r e p r e s e n t e d a c o l l e c t i v e e f f o r t of e l e v e n c o n t r i b u t o r s w h o s e m a i n i n t e r e s t s w e r e in the f i e l d of u r b a n studies. A l t h o u g h all the e s s a y s
e x a m i n e d p r i m a r i l y the s p a t i a l p r o c e s s e s of s u b u r b a n e x p a n sion o u t s i d e c i t i e s of W e s t e r n E u r o p e a n d N o r t h A m e r i c a , t h e i r d i v e r s i f i e d t h e m e s r a n g e d f r o m g e n e r a l d i s c u s s i o n s on the a c t i v i t y p a t t e r n s at th e edge of c i t i e s , c o m m o n p r o b l e m s
of the u r b a n f r i n g e and a p p r o a c h t o p l a n n i n g fo r u r b a n
B r i t a i n to. m o r e s p e c i f i c l a n d use. d e v e l o p m e n t s o u t s i d e b u i l t - up a reas of c i ties >, s p r e a d of s e c o n d h o m e s , e s t a b l i s h m e n t of S u b u r b a n m a n u f a c t u r i n g , r e t a i l t r a d e s a n d o f f i c e s , d e c l i n e
