Colorful Wine: The Relationship Between Wine Label Colors and the Liking of the Taste of the Wine and the Gustatory Perception

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Colorful Wine: The Relationship Between Wine Label Colors and the Liking of

the Taste of the Wine and the Gustatory Perception

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Colorful Wine: The Relationship Between Wine Label Colors and the Liking of

the Taste of the Wine and the Gustatory Perception

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Abstract

This thesis encloses insights into the relationship between wine label colors and the liking of the taste of the wine and the gustatory perception. The relationship between wine labels and the liking of the taste of the wine was expected to be serial mediated by the emotional state which colors evoke and the attractiveness towards the wine label. The label colors used in this study were neutral (off-white), yellow and blue. Yellow labels were expected to evoke a happy emotional state among consumers and a blue label a calm emotional state. The neutral label was included in order to get a null-measurement.

An experiment was conducted among sixty participants to gain insight into the nature of the relationships. First of all, there was no significant relationship between the color of the wine label and the liking of the taste of the wine. Secondly, there was no significant relationship between the label color and the gustatory perception. A yellow label was expected to make the taste of the wine more sour. Although not significant, it was discovered that a yellow label made the wine taste more sweet, instead of sour. Furthermore, the results showed that the relationship between wine label color and liking of the taste of the wine was not serial mediated by emotional state and label attractiveness. There did however exist a significant correlation between the attractiveness towards the label and the liking of the taste of the wine, indicating that consumers whom found the label more attractive, like the taste of the wine better. Furthermore, consumers exposed to the blue wine label were in a significant calmer emotional state than the consumers exposed to the yellow wine label. But happier consumers did not find the wine labels more attractive.

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Preface

Throughout my studies I have gained an interest in consumer behavior and consumer decision-making. What are aspects in products which influence their behavior and how can a marketeer adapt to this? With this thesis subject I wanted to gather more insights into how consumers are influenced in package design, specifically wine labels, and how a marketeer or, in the case of my thesis topic, a winery can use such information. Conducting an actual experiment was an interesting and enjoyable learning experience. I learned considerably about gather data and conducting an experiment throughout this process and enjoyed working on this thesis.

I would like to thank my first supervisor, Yannick Joye, for all his time and guidance during this research process. All the feedback throughout the months was greatly appreciated and helpful in completing this thesis. Furthermore, I would like to thank all the respondents whom participated in my study. Without their input and enthusiasm I would not have been able to write this thesis. Lastly, I would like to thank everyone who took the time to advise me on my thesis subject and provided feedback when I needed it.

Groningen, June 15, 2018

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1. Problem Statement

Imagine you are going to a friend to catch up and have a drink tonight. You would like to bring a good bottle of wine, but your wine knowledge is limited. You know that Merlot and Sauvignon Blanc are always good options, but which vineyard offers the best product? And which taste fits your preferences best? The wine shelves of the supermarkets are filled with wine options with different contents, sizes and labels. There are so many options, which one to buy? Many consumers, especially those who are not wine experts, have faced this dilemma at least once in their lives. On that note, this thesis dives deeper into which aspects influence a non-expert wine consumer when choosing a wine. Research shows that these consumers are largely influenced by wine labels, especially the color of the wine label. Because much research has been conducted on how decision-making and buying behavior can be influenced, this thesis is going to look into how colors (neutral vs. yellow vs. blue) of the wine label influence the liking of the taste of the wine and if these colors have an effect on the gustatory perception. The topic of color in wine labels is relevant nowadays as a shift is taking place in the wine industry from more traditional wine labels towards colorful modern wine labels (de Melo & de Borobia, 2008). The following research question has been developed to help guide this thesis:

Does the color of a wine label influence the liking of the taste of the wine and the gustatory perception?

This thesis argues that a serial mediation exists between the relationship of label colors and the liking of the taste of the wine. This relationship is mediated by the emotional state which colors evoke, which on its turn has an effect on the attractiveness of the wine label. Three label colors are taken into consideration in this thesis: neutral (off-white), yellow and blue. The neutral label sets a null measurement by which the other two label colors are compared. Furthermore, this thesis studies the influence of different label colors on the gustatory perception, arguing that a yellow label would evoke a more sour taste.

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go into great detail about how the wine label should be exactly designed. Lacking in this research field is how color influences liking of the taste of wine and the gustatory perception. Furthermore, the link between the emotional state evoked by colors has not been made with respect to wine labels.

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2. Literature Review

2.1 Introduction Wine Labels

Remember standing in front of the wine shelves at the supermarket and not knowing which wine to choose? One of the first things you, as a consumer, notice when in that wine aisle are the labels on the bottles, their colors, the names and the images/logo’s. Although the content and size of a wine bottle are important, labels are crucial when making a purchase decision, especially when you are not a wine expert (Barber, Ismail, & Dodd, 2007; Wansink & Park, 2002). According to Britton (1992) labels are considered the most important determinant for the choice of a wine. Moreover, labels can be seen as a substitute for a salesperson. Therefore, labeling together with packaging is a way for a winery to distinguish itself from its competition (Caswell, 1997). The label creates attention around the wine, provides the customer with information and through design promotes the product (Rettie & Brewer, 2000; Silayoi & Speece, 2007; Tootelian & Ross, 2000).

But what are then exactly the cues you use to decide which bottle of wine you are going to take with you to your friend? Literature shows that the choice for a specific wine can be based on intrinsic and extrinsic cues. In the case of wine, the intrinsic cue is the taste of the wine itself. Whilst extrinsic cues include the packaging of the wine, including shape, color, information and graphics, but also the label. These extrinsic cues are not the physical product itself but are related to it (Olson & Jacoby, 1972). Normally the intrinsic cues are more trusted to base a decision on than extrinsic cues. Because intrinsic cues say something about the actual quality of the product. However, in the case of buying a bottle of wine, consumers cannot taste the wine before buying it, thus, they cannot base their decision on intrinsic cues. If intrinsic cues cannot provide an accurate assessment of the quality, consumers base their decision on extrinsic cues of the product (Agrawal & Kamakura, 1999; Srinivasan, Jain, & Sikand, 2004). Extrinsic cues such as information on the wine label can also provide insights into the quality of the wine. Often the front label of a wine bottle includes the country of origin, the vineyard, the grape variety and the year of production. Whilst, the back label includes information providing a further indication about the technical knowledge of the wine (Rocchi & Stefani, 2006).

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communicating, attracting and persuading the consumer, but also promoting the product. It is a marketing communication tool, informing consumers about the product and its quality as well as about the brand itself (Rettie & Brewer, 2000; Silayoi & Speece, 2007). An explanation why packaging has become such an important communication tool according to Silayoi and Speece (2007) is that before entering a store, consumers have not thought deeply about the different brand options and what they want to buy. With help of the packaging, consumers make the decision which brand to buy.

Packaging and thus labels are considered a communication tool which plays an important role in the consumer decision-making process. Labels communicate with the consumer at the time they are deciding which brand to buy. Hence, packaging is the last way for a manufacturer or winery to convince the consumer to buy their product. Thinking back to standing in front of the wine shelves, that is the moment the label of the wine bottle influences the decision about which wine you are going to buy. You might go for a classic, traditional design because it represents higher quality of wine, or you might be attracted by the blunt colors of a new world wine (Sáenz-Navajas, Campo, Sutan, Ballester, & Valentin, 2013).

Researches have been conducted on the manipulation of the information provided on the label (Mueller & Szolnoki, 2010l; Orth & Krška, 2002; Tootelian & Ross, 2000). Besides the information there are other aspects on the label which could influence the perception of quality. The aesthetic design is for example an essential indicator of quality, providing pleasure of the product through the beauty of its design. Aesthetics help companies to differentiate their product from that of their competitors. However, if the aesthetics of a product are not handled appropriately, this could have devastating effects for the brand (Schmitt, Simonson, & Marcus, 1997). Aspects which influence the overall aesthetics design of a wine bottle are images on labels, the color and the font. Wine producers use these aspects to attract consumers to buy their product (Vollherbst & Urben, 2011). Especially consumers which are considered to be low involved and do not have much knowledge about wine, will be attracted by the aesthetic design of wine labels (Grossman & Wisenblit, 1999).

2.2 Taste Experience

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of a wine label influences the liking of the taste of that wine, thus the actual taste. One would expect that when it comes to actual taste and visual cues, actual taste is of greater importance than visual cues when assessing the taste of a product. According to the International Standards Organization (ISO) flavor perception is directly influenced by gustatory, olfactory and trigeminal cues, instead of visual and auditory cues (International Standards Organization, 2008). ISO (2008) suggests that visual and auditory cues are able to modify the taste’s flavor, but they are not fundamental to the taste perception.

The vision that visual and auditory cues are not part of the flavor perception is highly discussed. Auvray and Spence (2008) conclude in their literature review on multisensory interactions that visual and auditory cues are essential to the taste perception. In several studies it became evident that the flavor and taste intensity increases when the color level increases (DuBose, Cardello, & Maller, 1980; Hyman, 1983; Johnson & Clydesdale, 1982; Zampini, Sanabria, Phillips, & Spence, 2007). Furthermore, Stevenson (2009) also concludes that there is more than just the gustatory, olfactory and oral-somatosensory cues which influence flavor, such as memory and learning as well as the multisensory processes. Hoegg and Alba (2007) focused on this topic in their research and indicate that sensory cues, such as visual and verbal cues, do influence taste perception. Due to the addition of visual and verbal cues to products, one discriminates the taste of those products.

Research shows that specifically colors can influence taste perception and the intensity of flavor. Much prior research has been conducted focusing on the color of actual products and how this influences the taste perception (Garber, Hyatt, & Starr Jr., 2000; Hoegg & Alba, 2007; Veale & Quester, 2008). Studies indicate, for example, that consumers prefer lean and red-looking steak, as they believe this represents good taste. However, when being blindly tested the participants preferred the steak that was of a darker color (Bredahl, 2003; Glitsch, 2000; Hurling & Shepherd, 2003).

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The color of a steak is a determinant for the taste and quality of the steak, and thus difference of color influences the actual taste. In the latter research the different plates did not affect the actual taste of the product, the product presented on the plates was the same. Yet a different color plate makes the perception of the taste of the product different. Therefore, if you would take two bottles of wine to your friend tonight with identical taste but different colored labels, it could very well be the case that the perception of the taste is not identical. The design of the label might have an influence on your taste perception.

2.3 Gustatory Taste Experience

Labels do not only potentially influence the liking of the taste of the wine, but elements in the wine labels could also influence the gustatory taste perception. Especially color has an influence on the gustatory perception. Research conducted by Morrot, Brochet and Dubourdieu (2001) showed that participants were not able to identify a white wine as such, because the wine was artificially colored red. The visual information was considered more important than other informational aspects which could have helped to identify the product correctly. DuBose et al. (1980) discovered that identification of a type of fruit-flavored beverage is less accurate when the color of the beverage does not coincide with the color of the fruit. 40% of the participants indicated that a cherry-flavored beverage, which was colored orange, tasted like oranges.

Zampini et al. (2007) conducted a research where the multisensory perception of flavor was central. In their first experiment they asked participants to combine certain colors with the expected taste of that color. In the second experiment the participants had to taste several colored solutions and identify the flavor. The respondents were made aware of the fact that the colors might not fit the taste perception. The results from this second experiment showed that participants misjudge the flavor when the coloring is inappropriate, even when they are aware of a possible misfit.

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yellow decreased the association of a sour taste. Furthermore, the colors yellow, red and green are not associated with a salty taste; a bitter taste association is decreased by the color red.

Later research indicates that colors are associated with specific types of food (Spence, Levitan, Shankar & Zampini, 2010). Cherries for example are associated with the color red. Whilst a drink with the color orange, is expected to taste like oranges and a green drink is associated with the taste of lime. These products are affiliate with a specific taste, lime has a sour taste and oranges and cherries are sweet of taste. Koch (2003) confirmed this in a study where college students were asked to relate eight tastes with ten colors. Red and orange are associated with a sweet taste. Whilst green and yellow are associated with a taste of sourness. This research focused on the perceived taste of the product, thus the participants were not asked to taste the actual products but base their answers on what they would expect the products to taste.

In conclusion, the color of the label of the wine bottle you bring to your friend can influence the way you will perceive the taste of the wine. The previous findings focus mainly on the color of the product itself, thus the color of the beverage. However, in this thesis it is believed that this same effect would occur when the label of the wine has a certain color. The color of the wine label could influence whether you perceive the wine as sour, bitter, sweet or salty. For example, if you bring a bottle of wine with a yellow label, you and your friend might judge the wine to be more sour, in comparison to when the same wine would have a red label.

2.4 Type of Wine Consumers

This thesis makes a distinction between high and low involvement consumers. The main focus is on low involved consumers, because they are mostly attracted by the extrinsic cues, such as the aesthetics of the label design, instead of its intrinsic cues (Lockshin & Hall, 2003; Wansink & Park, 2002). Especially people whom are not knowledgeable wine enthusiast, thus low involved consumers, are attracted by the front label color and its design (Barber, Ismail, & Dodd, 2007). They do not spend much time deciding which wine to buy or reading the label extensively, because they do not perceive the type of wine they choose as part of their lifestyle.

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interest in the background of the wine, talk to sales people to gather more knowledge, read magazines and see wine more as part of their lifestyle (Goldsmith, 2000; Lockshin , Spawton, & Macintosh, 1997; Lockshin, Quester, & Spawton, 2001; Quester & Smart, 1998; Zetihalm, 1988). These consumers are less influenced by the aesthetics of the wine label and more by the actual quality of the wine. Hence, these consumers are not taken into consideration in this research, as the focus is on the extrinsic design of the wine label.

2.5 Standing Out with Your Wine Label

In the wine industry a shift is taking place from wine labels which are traditional, towards modern labels with more color (de Melo & de Borobia, 2008). This is partly due to a change in wine consumers; infrequent and new wine drinkers, whom show low involvement with the product. They base their wine choice on the packaging and not on the information provided on the labels. To attract these wine consumers, wineries need to make sure that it is their product which stands out among all the different options (Elliot & Barth, 2012). In Table 1, some of the differences between traditional and non-traditional wine labels are highlighted.

Table 1

Traditional wine label vs. non-traditional wine label

Traditional wine label Non-traditional wine label Name Name related to the wine or winery,

associated with the grapes, vineyard, chateaux, and/or wine family

Name not related to the wine or winery, there is no association with the grapes, vineyard, chateaux, and/or wine family

Color Dark colors, such as burgundy, navy red, or neutral colors, such as grey, brown and black

Bright and vibrant colors, such as orange, lime green, pink or bright red

Design layout White or solid background with a traditional color

Different colors or a mix of different formats

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value, ease of use, durability or other beliefs. With regard to wine, consumers could place a red Merlot in the category of smooth, accessible red wines. Besides, because consumers believe it to be an accessible wine they might have the belief that it is a cheap product.

Affective responses can be negative or positive reactions to the aesthetic design of the packaging. These reactions are based on moods, feelings and emotions formed by the aesthetic design (Crilly, Moultrie, & Clarkson, 2004; Desmet & Hekkert, 2007). Although designers always aim to create positive responses, it does happen that consumers perceive the design of a product as negative. One consumer, for example, might not like colorful wine labels because they create the belief that this is equal to a cheap, low quality wine. Whilst other consumers might believe that colorful wine labels represent a dynamic taste (Bloch, 1995).

An important and inexpensive approach for wineries to stand out in relation to their competitors is by use of color in their labels. Aslam (2006) concluded that color can manipulate a consumers’ perception and behavior towards a certain product. There are two different schools of thought which relate to color and the human behavior it can trigger: (1) an affective reaction is directly triggered by a color signal, and (2) over time people learn certain color preferences which have a certain affective meaning resulting from past experiences or because of associations with language, literature, and myths (Osgood, Suci, & Tannenbaum, 1957).

This affective reaction is activated because the nervous system is directly affected when seeing a certain color (Humphrey, 1976; Küller, 1981). For example, when you as a wine consumer are standing in front of the shelves and see a yellow label, your nervous system might associate this with happiness (Aslam, 2006). The second school of thought, a cognitive reaction, is based on what you have learned throughout your lifetime. You might for example not associate a blue wine label with red wine, because you might not have seen this color label in previous buying experiences. Thus, because this is unfamiliar you might react in a negative manner towards that wine and not buy it.

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is negative, this will spill-over to the response towards the label. The cognitive response to the label is in a likewise manner also influenced by the cognitive reactions as explained by Aslam (2006). Experience and associations which consumers have with a certain label influence how they categorize that label or wine and influences the beliefs they have created about it. Because of preferences towards colors consumers have developed over time they might categorize the wine in a certain way. Hence, these responses and reactions are intertwined.

When you are standing in front of the wine shelves and see a wine bottle with a yellow wine label, you could for example associate the color yellow with sun and summer which evokes positive thoughts and emotions. These happy thoughts spill-over to your overall affective reaction towards the wine, making you feel positive about it. Besides, you categorize the wine as a sweet, light wine as this fits your beliefs about summer wines.

2.5.1 Color-emotion evaluation.

Even before mankind put a classification on each color as to what it means, colors have had meaning and were and still are used as communication tools by animals. Colors had three main functions, which are still relevant today: (1) colors catch attention, (2) transmit information, and (3) affect emotions of the observer (Humphrey, 1976). For example, the red lips of a woman firstly catch the attention of a man, who then transmits the information, and the emotion of passion is evoked. In a similar way a colorful wine label will catch the attention of the observer, who will transmit this information, and a specific emotion which is related to that color is evoked within the observer.

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Not all researchers confirm the findings dealing with the short- and long-wavelength theory. Valdez and Mehrabian (1994) argue that the color green creates the highest level of arousal instead of yellow and red. They conducted an experiment where they tested the color hue, brightness and saturation of the Munsell color system and color chips. It should be mentioned that the results from the hue on arousal were weak, the effect of green on arousal was not very high. A possible explanation as to why they came to different results than several other researchers is that they did not solely focus on studying the effect of color hue, but also controlled for brightness and saturation of color. Other research measuring arousal levels between colors controlling for color hue, as well as brightness and saturation, confirm these previous findings (Acking & Küller, 1976; Sivik, 1974)

Over time mankind has put certain associations with particular colors, relating to the previously explained second school of thought (Aslam, 2006). At a young age children already learn these meanings and associations. Blue is for example associated with the blue sky and the ocean, which creates a calming emotional response (Naz & Helen, 2005). Yet children have been taught that red is associated with danger, think of stoplights, red tape or a red flag. Thus when seeing a red object this might evoke a less pleasant feeling. On the other hand, red is also associated with love and passion, red hearts or a red rose (Humphrey, 1976). Research shows that yellow is associated with happiness (Kaya & Epps, 2004). Associations made with the color yellow are the sun or sunflowers. In an experiment conducted by Schwarz and Clore (1983), they concluded that people indicate to be happier when asked about life satisfaction on sunny days than rainy days. Green on the other hand is association with trees and nature, inducing people to become calm and relaxed (Naz & Helen, 2005).

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This thesis focuses on the primary colors (red, yellow, blue and green) and their emotional influence (Table 2: Color-emotion evaluation). Although these colors might not be specifically related to the product category wine, these colors have not been researched before in relation to wine labels and as there is a shift taking place towards labels with brighter colors, this is a great opportunity to research what these colors can signify for the wine industry.

Primary colors can be divided into warm colors (red and yellow) which create arousal and cool colors (blue and green) which evoke a calming emotion (Berlyne, 1960; Birren, 1978; Davidoff, 1991; Kreitler & Kreitler, 1972; Mikillides, 2012; Spielberger, Gorsuch, & Lushene, 1970; Valdez & Mehrabian, 1994). Red is perceived as an exciting color but has negative emotions associated with it as well, such as hostility and anger (also see Table 2: Color-emotion

Table 2

Color-emotion evaluation

Red Yellow Blue Green

Valdez &

Mehrabian (1994)

Low pleasure, arousal Low pleasure, arousal High pleasure, arousal High pleasure, highest arousal Spielberger et al. (1970) Arousing, less pleasant Arousing, less pleasant

Less arousing, more pleasant

Less arousing, more pleasant Kaya & Epps

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Anger, excited Happy Calm Calm, happy

Wexner (1954) Exciting, stimulating à pleasure, high arousal Defiant, hostile, contrary Protective defending Cheerful, jovial, joyful Secure/comfortable Tender/soothing Calm, peaceful, serene Tender, soothing

Hemphill (1996) Positive Positive Positive Positive Labrecque & Milne (2011) Excitement Sincerity, excitement Competence Ruggedness Hupka et al. (1997)

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evaluation). Therefore, this color might not be good to use as a manipulation in this study, wineries want their consumers to have positive emotions towards their product, not negative ones. Green is related to calmness but also to happiness, creating a mixed set of emotions. Thus, as green cannot be clearly associated with one specific emotion, this color will not be used in this study. Yellow is mostly associated with cheerful, positive and happy emotions. Although it can in very few cases be identified with envy and jealousy, it clearly focusses more on the positive side. Blue, a calming color, is associated with competence and security. Based on this evaluation the colors yellow and blue have the clearest emotions they evoke and are considered to be most different from one another with regards to emotions. Therefore, these colors are incorporated in this study on effect of color of wine labels on the liking of the taste of the wine.

2.5.2 Label attractiveness.

Consumers seek products which provide pleasure, aesthetics can contribute to this pleasurable experience (Desmet & Hekkert, 2007). However, the question is, how do they judge whether a product is aesthetically attractive? And more importantly how can a winery influence how attractive consumers find their product? A dual process theory which can help to gain insight into this is the Elaboration Likelihood Model (ELM). This model assumes that consumers are either high involved or low involved consumers. Low involved consumers have low motivation in the product, therefore they can be persuade through the peripheral/heuristic route. This means that their attitude towards the product is based on heuristics. If the heuristics are positive, so will their attitude towards the product be (Fennis & Stroebe, 2016).

Figure 1. Elaboration Likelihood Model: peripheral/heuristic route

The Affect-as-information hypothesis is a way in which wineries could influence the attractiveness of their product through pleasant scenes or aesthetic appearance. This hypothesis states that consumers’ feelings can influence their evaluation of a product through feeling-based

Message:

• The wine label

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inferences. An often used heuristic is the “how do I feel” heuristic which indicates that a consumers’ attitude can be influenced by their present mood. Consumers rely on the feelings they experience when confronted with the product instead of extensively evaluating the product based on the provided information. Pham (1998) states that context factors and the attitude object could influence these feelings. In conclusion, consumers use their feelings as a tool of information, misattributing their positive or negative feeling as their attitude towards the product.

Schwarz and Clore (1983) found that consumers only use their mood as a judgement tool when they are in a positive mood. When in a negative mood consumers will try to find an explanation for their mood, not being able to use it to make judgements or as an information tool. Their research focuses on the effect of mood on judgements related to well-being and quality of life. Nonetheless, this could also be the case with products. Based on these findings by Schwarz and Clore (1983) and Pham (1998) it could be argued that consumers only use their feelings as an information tool towards products when these feelings are positive.

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3. Conceptual Model

Figure 2. Conceptual model

The first hypothesis is an explorative hypothesis, as it is not clear from literature what effect the different colors of the wine labels will have on the liking of the taste of the wine.

H1: Different colors of wine labels will have different effects on the liking of the taste of the wine.

Based on the prior literature review the following hypotheses are generated:

H2: A yellow wine label (vs. neutral and blue) will make the gustatory perception of the wine more sour (vs. bitter vs. sweet vs. salty).

H3a: A yellow (vs. neutral and blue) wine label evokes a happy emotional state of the low involved wine consumer.

H3b: A blue (vs. neutral and yellow) wine label evokes a calm emotional state among the low involved wine consumer.

H4: Low involved wine consumers whom are in a happy emotional state find the wine label more attractive.

H5: Low involved wine consumers whom find the label more attractive like the taste of the wine better.

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4. Methodology

4.1 Participants and Research Design

For this field study sixty participants (age: M = 30.72, SD = 10.90), whom were low involved wine consumers participated in the study.Forty-one (68%) of these participants were females and nineteen (32%) were males. There were some cases where participants did not completely fill out the questionnaire, but this was a sporadic occurrence and most likely because participants read over the question. Thus, no participants were excluded from the study.

The study had a between-subject design, each participant participated in one of the three color conditions (neutral vs. yellow vs. blue). Twenty participants took part in each condition of the study. The questionnaire was a paper and pencil questionnaire, participants were presented with a hardcopy to write their responses on. “Wine label” (neutral vs. yellow vs. blue) was the independent variable, and “liking of the taste of the wine” and “gustatory perception” were the dependent variables.

Convenience sampling was used to select individuals to participate in this study. Individuals whom were conveniently available participated. There was no distinction made between type of participants, the only classification was that they had to be low involved wine consumers, but this became clear from the questionnaire. Moreover, in order to gain a representative sample size different personal networks were approached. By use of snowballing, individuals from different demographic backgrounds participated. The participants were randomly assigned to the three different color conditions.

4.2 Materials

4.2.1 Color design.

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As explained in the literature review the reason why was chosen for these colors was because yellow and blue evoke emotions which are very different from one another. After exposure to a yellow wine label it is expected that participants will be happier than before exposure. Whilst exposure to a blue label is expected to evoke a calmer emotional state among the participants. Most of the participants were expected to be of a Western culture thus the color-emotion associations which were used in this study were based on this culture. The literature review provides in more detail which colors evoke which emotions in a Western culture.

4.2.2 Label design.

The chosen design of the wine label was as neutral as possible. The label was a combination of a traditional and modern label, the chateau indicated a traditional wine label whilst the rest of the design was rather minimalistic and more similar to a modern wine label (see Figure 3: Wine labels design). There is a shift taking place regarding the design of wine labels from traditional to more colorful modern labels. By showing the effects of color in a label with traditional elements the potential for wineries with traditional labels could be demonstrated.

Low involved consumers do not read all the information on the label, and traditional labels include quite some information. Therefore, it was important to keep the design as minimalistic as possible to not influence the participants. Only a front label was used because the participants needed to be low involved with the product for the study to have an effect. A back label including product information could influence their judgement and taste perception of the wine. Keeping the labels as neutral as possible helped control external influences on mood, attractiveness and taste.

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Figure 3. Wine label design

4.3 Scales/Measures

In order to measure the emotional state of the participants before and after being exposed to the wine label the “Discrete Emotions Questionnaire” (DEQ) was used (Harmon-Jones, Bastian, & Harmon-Jones, 2016). The full DEQ consists of thirty-three items, and measures the state of the self-reported emotions of the participants, using the following eight distinct emotions: anger, disgust, fear, anxiety, sadness, desire, relaxation and happiness. For this study we were only interested in measuring relaxation and happiness, thus only these items were integrated in the questionnaire. Sample items of the DEQ emotions which were included were: “Enjoyment” or “Calm”, and the participants were asked to rate these emotions from a scale from 1 (= “Not at all”) to 7 (= “An extreme amount”), as to how applicable they were to them at that moment. See Appendix I for all the items included in the questionnaire. The DEQ is a rather newly developed measurement tool supported by emotion theory (Harmon-Jones et al., 2016). The reliability of the scale to measure relaxation was rather low (N of items = 4, a = .65). Thus, in order to increase the internal consistency the item “Easygoing” was deleted. The reliability of the scale to measure relaxation after deletion of “Easygoing” was good (N of items = 3, a = .79). The reliability of the scale to measure happiness was also good (N of items = 4, a = .85).

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Cardello, 2001). The reliability of the scale to measure the liking of the taste of the wine was good (N of items = 5, a = .92).

To measure the attractiveness of the label design the “Experiment Value Scale” (EVS) was used (Mathwick, Malhotra, & Rigdon, 2001). The full EVS consists of nineteen Likert items, and measures the added value which perceptions related to four dimensions create (consumer return on investment, service excellence, playfulness, and aesthetic appeal). In this questionnaire only one dimensions was used, namely aesthetic appeal. These questions were used to measure the aesthetic appeal of the label and the bottle. The other three dimensions were not relevant for this study. Sample items of the EVS were: “The wine bottle is aesthetically appealing” or “I find the color of the wine label attractive” (1 = “Strongly disagree”, 7 = “Strongly agree”). A distinction was made between the aesthetical appeal of the wine label (label attractiveness) and the bottle (bottle attractiveness) to see whether the effect of aesthetic appeal could be solely assigned to the wine label. The reliability of the scale to measure the label attractiveness (N of items = 3, a = .88) as well as the scale to measure the bottle attractiveness was good (N of items = 4, a = .94). The reliability of the scale to measure the overall attractiveness, label attractiveness and bottle attractiveness combined, was good (N of items = 7, a = .94).

4.4 Procedure

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contained questions regarding socio-demographics and part three included the second DEQ. Following this, participants were poured a glass of wine. The glasses used were similar in each experiment and the amount poured was moderate and also consistent. The participants were requested to taste the wine, after which they were asked to continue with part four of the questionnaire, which included questions about the liking of the taste of the wine and the gustatory perception. Mentioned was that when they finished part four they could continue with part five and six. Part five included questions regarding the visual appeal and attractiveness of the wine bottle and label. Part six consisted of questions regarding whether something throughout the day had positively or negatively influenced their mood and about their drinking behavior in order to make sure that they were low involved wine consumers. Finally, the participants were probed about the true purpose of the study and thanked for participating. Any questions they still had about the experiment were answered at that time.

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5. Results

5.1 Preliminary Results

This research focused on low involved wine consumers. Therefore, firstly it had to be determined whether all participants were low involved wine consumers. To judge whether the participants were low involved wine consumers several questions were asked. First of all, the following two statements were included in the questionnaire: “When buying a bottle of wine, I always read the label” (M = 5.15, SD = 1.35) and “When buying a bottle of wine I gather as much information as possible about the wine before making a decision” (M = 3.22, SD = 1.46). Participants could indicate from a range from 1 (= “Strongly disagree”) to 7 (= “Strongly agree”) how much they agreed with these statements. Most participants read the wine label before buying a bottle of wine. However, they do not gather as much information as possible when buying a bottle of wine. To gain further insight into their level of involvement, the participants were asked to indicate to what extend they agree with the following statement: “I consider myself a wine expert” (M = 2.62, SD = 1.21). On average the participants of this experiment “Somewhat disagreed” with this statement. Therefore, it can be concluded that the sample size consisted of low involved wine consumers.

Furthermore, six participants might have been aware of the research topic. By use of comparison of the results including these participants and excluding these six participants, it was concluded that there was no significant difference. Thus, these participants were included in the data analysis.

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5.2 Descriptive Analyses

Descriptive frequency analyses have been conducted to get insight into the participants’ demographics. The average age of the participants was 31 (N = 60) and they were mostly residents of Groningen (N = 49). The average level of education which the participants had completed was a University master degree (N = 20) or a bachelor degree at a University of Applied Sciences (N = 17). Furthermore, most participants either worked full-time (N = 28) or were students (N = 20). Not all participants felt comfortable disclosing their annual income (N = 56), but the annual income among the participants whom did disclose this information was between €0 - €39,999 (N = 44). As the average age of the participants is rather low, they most likely are starting professionals on the labor market or students, which could explain the lower income.

Most trials of the study were conducted in a group (N = 40) opposed to individually (N = 20). To test the influence of group versus individual setting (IV) on liking of the taste of the wine, gustatory perception, emotional state and label attractiveness, an independent samples t-test was conducted. For the complete output see Appendix II: t-test – group versus individual setting. Levene’s test for equality of variances in all t-tests indicated that the variance between the two groups (i.e., group vs. individual) was unequal. Therefore, a t-test that does not presuppose equality of variances was used. This test showed that there was in most cases no significant difference between the two experimental conditions. However, there was a significant difference between the two experimental conditions in relation to the label attractiveness t(59) = - 2.18, p = .03. Specifically, participants’ attractiveness towards the wine label was lower in the group setting (M = 3.40, SD = 1.26) than in the individual setting (M = 4.22, SD = 1.56).

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5.3 Relation Between the Wine Labels and the Liking of the Taste of the Wine

In order to analyze the relation between the wine labels and liking of the taste of the wine a one-way ANOVA was conducted. The descriptives and statistics can be found in table 3. The results indicated that the variance of the three groups (neutral vs. yellow vs. blue) was not significantly different (p = .58), indicating that there is homogeneity in variance. There was no significant effect of label color on the liking of the taste of the wine, F(2, 57) = .06, p = .94. The pairwise comparisons showed that there was no significant difference between the color conditions on liking of the taste of the wine. Thus, hypothesis 1 can be rejected, yellow colored wine labels do not have a positive effect on the liking of the taste of the wine, in comparison to the neutral and the blue colored labels.

Table 3

Descriptives and pairwise comparisons on the measure of liking of the taste of the wine as a function of label color

Pairwise Comparisons

Neutral Yellow Blue

Label color n M [SD] p p p

Neutral 20 4.68 [1.21] - .92 .82

Yellow 20 4.72 [1.14] .92 - .74

Blue 20 4.59 [1.37] .82 .74 -

Total 60 4.66 [1.22]

Note. Using one-way ANOVA, the relation between the wine label conditions and the liking of the taste of the

wine was measured.

5.4 Relation Between the Wine Labels and Gustatory Perception

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Table 4

Descriptives and ANOVA on the measure of gustatory perception as a function of label color

Levene’s test for equality of variances ANOVA Gustatory perception Label Color n M [SD] p F(2, 60) p Sour Neutral Yellow Blue Total 20 4.45 [1.19] .48 0.08 .92 20 4.40 [1.05] 20 4.30 [1.30] 60 4.38 [1.17] Bitter Neutral Yellow Blue Total 20 3.55 [1.50] .36 0.08 .93 20 3.40 [1.19] 20 3.40 [1.54] 60 3.45 [1.40] Sweet Neutral Yellow Blue Total 20 3.40 [1.05] .48 1.03 .36 20 3.90 [1.07] 20 3.50 [1.36] 60 3.60 [1.17] Salty Neutral Yellow Blue Total 20 2.90 [1.45] .37 0.17 .84 20 2.75 [1.25] 20 2.65 [1.35] 60 2.77 [1.33]

Note. Using one-way ANOVA, the relation between the wine label conditions and the gustatory perception

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Table 5

Pairwise comparison of label color per gustatory perception

Neutral Yellow Blue Gustatory perception Label color p p p

Sour Neutral - .89 .69 Yellow .89 - .79 Blue .69 .79 - Bitter Neutral - .74 .74 Yellow .74 - 1.00 Blue .74 1.00 - Sweet Neutral - .18 .79 Yellow .18 - .28 Blue .79 .28 - Salty Neutral - .73 .56 Yellow .73 - .82 Blue .56 .82 -

Figure 4: Effect of the Label Color on the Gustatory Perception. (2 = disagree; 3 = somewhat disagree; 4 =

neither agree nor disagree; 5 = somewhat agree)

4.45 4.40 4.30 3.80 4.00 4.20 4.40 4.60

Neutral Yellow Blue

Sour

3.40 3.90 3.50 3.20 3.40 3.60 3.80 4.00

Neutral Yellow Blue

Sweet

3.55 3.40 3.40 3.20 3.40 3.60 3.80 4.00

Neutral Yellow Blue

Bitter

2.90 2.75 2.65 2.40 2.60 2.80 3.00 3.20

Neutral Yellow Blue

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Although these results were not statistically significant, there was a small effect of the color of the label on the gustatory perception. Figure 4 shows that participants perceived the taste of the wine as sweeter in the yellow color condition than in the other two color conditions. In the neutral condition participants perceived the sweetness of the taste as neither strong nor weak, but in the yellow condition the participants indicated the taste of sweetness to be somewhat strong. Even though these differences were small, they did occur. Regarding the sourness of the taste, the participants thought the wine taste slightly less sour in the yellow condition than in the neutral condition. Thus, it can be concluded that hypotheses 2 is not supported. A yellow wine label does not make the gustatory perception of the wine more sour.

5.5 Does Color Have an Influence on Emotional State?

In order to determine whether there was a significant difference in the emotional state of the participants before and after exposure of the wine labels, an ANCOVA was conducted. A separate ANCOVA was conducted for the calm emotional state and the happy emotional state variables.

In the case of the happy emotional state, happy emotional state pre exposure was the covariate, the IV was label color and the DV was happy emotional state post exposure. The covariate, happy emotional state pre exposure, see table 6 for descriptives and statistics, was significantly related to the happy emotional state post exposure, F(1, 54) = 144.94, p = .00. There was no significant effect of label color on happy emotional state post exposure after controlling for the effect of the happy emotional state pre exposure, F(2, 54) = .03, p = .97. The pairwise comparison of the three color conditions was non-significant, see table 6.

Table 6

Descriptives and pairwise comparisons of the measure of happy emotional state as a function of label color

Pairwise comparisons*

Neutral Yellow Blue

Neutral 18 4.57 [.12] - .80 .86

Yellow 20 4.61 [.10] .80 - .94

Blue 20 4.60 [.10] .86 .94 -

Note. Using ANCOVA, the difference between happy emotional state pre and post exposure to the color

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In the case of the calm emotional state, calm emotional state pre exposure was the covariate, the IV was label color and the DV calm emotional state post exposure. The covariate, calm emotional state pre exposure, see table 7 for descriptives and statistics, was significantly related to the calm emotional state post exposure, F(1, 56) = 86.04, p = .00. The effect of label color on calm emotional state post exposure after controlling for the effect of the calm emotional state pre exposure was close to being statistically significant, F(2, 56) = 2.73, p = .07. The pairwise comparison, see table 7, showed a significant difference between the yellow color condition and the blue color condition. The marginal means showed that the participants exposed to the yellow condition were in a less calmer emotion state than the participants in the blue condition.

Table 7

Descriptives and pairwise comparisons on the measure of calm emotional state as a function of label color

Pairwise comparisons* Neutral Yellow Blue

Neutral 20 4.64 [.12] - .12 .46

Yellow 20 4.38 [.12] .12 - .03

Blue 20 4.76 [.12] .46 .03 -

Note. Using ANCOVA, the difference between calm emotional state pre and post exposure to the color

conditions was measured. * Based on adjusted means.

Figure 5. Effect of wine label colors on the

happy emotional state of participants (pre and post exposure)

Figure 6. Effect of wine label colors on the

calm emotional state of participants (pre and post exposure)

4.57 4.61 4.60 4.20 4.40 4.60 4.80 5.00

Neutral Yellow Blue

Happy Emotional State

Adjusted mean 4.64 4.38 4.76 4.20 4.40 4.60 4.80 5.00

Neutral Yellow Blue

Calm Emotional State

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The results indicate that hypothesis 3a can be rejected, a yellow wine label does not evoke a

happier emotional state than the blue and neutral wine labels. Hypothesis 3b is partly supported,

the blue wine label does not evoke a calmer emotional state than the neutral wine label, but it does evoke a significant calmer emotional state than the yellow wine label. Figure 5 and 6 show the difference of the adjusted mean scores of the happy and calm emotional state post exposure to the color conditions. These figures confirm the previous finding of the ANCOVA’s, indicating that there was almost no difference between the different color conditions in the happy emotional state of the participants. However, participants exposed to the blue wine label showed they were calmer than those exposed to the neutral and yellow label.

5.6 Do Happy Consumers Find the Label More Attractive?

A Pearson Correlation was used to test whether there was an association between the emotional state and label attractiveness. A separate Pearson Correlation was conducted for happy emotional state and calm emotional state. There was no significant correlation between happy emotional state and label attractiveness, r = .12, p = .37, N = 59. These results show that consumers whom were in a happier emotional state did not find the wine label more attractive. There was also no significant correlation between happy emotional state and bottle attractiveness, r = .13, p = .34, N = 58. Consumers whom were happier did not find the bottle more attractive. There was no significant correlation between happy emotional state and overall attractiveness, r = .14, p =.29, N = 58, showing that happier consumers did not find the overall wine bottle more attractive.

There was no significant correlation between calm emotional state and label attractiveness, r = -.13, p = .31, N = 59. These results show that consumers whom were in a calm emotional state did not find the wine label more attractive. There was also no significant correlation between calm emotional state and bottle attractiveness, r = .02, p = .88, N = 60. Consumers whom were calmer did not find the bottle more attractive. There was also no significant correlation between calm emotional state and overall attractiveness, r = -.06, p = .64, N = 59, indicating that calm consumers did not find the wine label more attractive.

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5.7 Is There a Correlation Between Label Attractiveness and Liking of the Taste of the Wine?

A Pearson correlation was used to test whether there was a correlation between the label attractiveness and liking of the taste of the wine. There was a significant correlation between label attractiveness and liking of the taste of the wine, r = .28, p = .03, N = 59, indicating that consumers whom found the label more attractive liked the taste of the wine better. The correlation between bottle attractiveness and liking of the taste was close to being statistically significant, r = .24, p = .07, N = 60. There was a significant correlation between overall attractiveness and liking of the taste of the wine, r = .26, p = .05, N = 59. In conclusion, hypothesis 5 is supported, low involved wine consumers whom find the label more attractive like the taste of the wine better.

5.8 Serial Mediation

In order to discover whether there was a serial mediation effect, we used the PROCESS serial mediation model 6 by Andres Hayes. Two models were run, one with happy emotional state and label attractiveness and another one with calm emotional state and label attractiveness as mediators (see figure 7 and 8). In this serial mediation the overall attractiveness was used as the attractiveness variable. Label attractiveness and bottle attractiveness showed a significant correlation, r = .81, p = .00, N = 59, thus these variables were combined into one. The serial mediation model was conducted with the label and bottle attractiveness separately as well, in order to be sure that there would be no different results regarding the serial mediation. These results showed no significant difference.

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Figure 7. Output Serial Mediation: happy emotional state Note. N = 58

Table 8

Indirect effect(s) of X on Y

Effect BootLLCI BootULCI

Total -.03 -.20 .09

Ind1 -.01 -.13 .03

Ind2 -.00 -.07 .00

Ind3 -.01 -.16 .08

Note.

Ind1 = label color à happy emotional state à liking of the taste of the wine

Ind2 = label color à happy emotional state à label attractiveness à liking of the taste of the wine Ind3 = label color à label attractiveness à liking of the taste of the wine

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Figure 8. Output Serial Mediation: calm emotional state Note. N = 59

Table 9

Indirect effect(s) of X on Y

Effect BootLLCI BootULCI

Total -.04 -.23 .07

Ind1 -.01 -.12 .03

Ind2 ,00 -.01 .05

Ind3 -.04 -.22 .05

Note.

Ind1 = label color à calm emotional state à liking of the taste of the wine

Ind2 = label color à calm emotional state à label attractiveness à liking of the taste of the wine Ind3 = label color à label attractiveness à liking of the taste of the wine

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6. Discussion

6.1 Conclusion

There was no significant difference found with regards to the different color wine labels and the liking of the taste of the wine. Consumers whom were exposed to a yellow wine label did not like the taste of the wine better than consumers whom were exposed to a neutral or blue wine label. Furthermore, consumers did not perceive the wine to be of a more sour taste when exposed to a yellow label. Although the results from the ANOVA showed no significant results, consumers exposed to the yellow wine label indicated the wine to have a sweeter taste than the consumers exposed to the neutral and blue wine labels. This finding is not in line with earlier found research, indicating that exposure to a yellow label was expected to be associated with a more sour taste. A possible explanation could be the association which consumers have with yellow with more sweeter foods and drinks. The yellow paprika, for example, is sweeter than the green or red paprika, and the yellow wine gum is often described to taste sweeter than the other wine gums.

Consumers whom were exposed to the yellow wine label were not in a happier emotional state than consumers exposed to the blue and neutral label. However, in the calm emotional state condition there was a significant difference between the yellow label and blue label. Indicating that the consumers whom were exposed to the blue label were in a significant calmer emotional state after exposer than the consumers whom were exposed to the yellow label. This is in line with previous research which found that blue is a cool color which evokes a calming emotion (Berlyne, 1960; Birren, 1978; Davidoff, 1991; Kreitler & Kreitler, 1972; Spielberger et al., 1970; Valdez & Mehrabian, 1994).

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A significant correlation was found between how attractive the consumers found the wine label and how much they liked the taste of the wine. When consumers find the label design of a wine bottle attractive this will have a positive influence on how much they like the taste of the wine. These results support the earlier findings that visual cues influence the taste perception (Auvray & Spence, 2008; Hoegg & Alba, 2007; Stevenson, 2009).

There does not exist a serial mediation of emotional state and attractiveness influencing the relationship between wine label color and liking of the taste of the wine. All coefficients in the serial mediation were non-significant. The liking of the taste of the wine is not influenced by the emotional state of consumers and their attractiveness towards the wine labels.

To conclude, the findings of this study have several consequences for you as a low involved wine consumer deciding which wine to buy. First of all, different color wine labels appear not to influence how much you will like the taste of the wine. It does however influence your gustatory perception of the wine. A bottle of wine with a yellow label makes the wine taste sweeter. Hence, if you like sweeter wines, it is advised to choose a wine with a yellow label. Secondly, not all label colors will have an influence on your emotional state. This study only found a significant relation among consumers exposed to the blue label compared to the yellow label. This does not rule out that other label colors, which were not included in this study, could have an influence on your emotional state. Thirdly, the emotional state you are in when deciding which wine to buy does not appear to have an influence on how attractive you find the wine label or bottle. However, it should be noted that the focus of this study was solely on the happy and calm emotional state, it could be that other emotions do influence the level of attractiveness. Lastly, you are however affected by how attractive you find the design of the label and bottle. When you perceive it to be more attractive this will positively influence how much you like the taste of the wine. Thus, choosing a wine bottle to take with you to your friend which has, according to you, an attractive aesthetic design positively influences how much you enjoy the taste of the wine.

6.2 Limitations

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there might be the possibility that the results will show larger significant differences. Furthermore, taste is a personal opinion, therefore, with a small sample size it is difficult to gather coinciding results. Thus, for future research a larger sample size is advised.

Second, the experiments have not been conducted in the same setting. Some experiments were conducted individually and others were in a group, of no larger than five participants. The results chapter shows that for most variables the setting did not show a significant difference. However, there was a significant difference found with regards to attractiveness of the label. Hence, it would have been advised to conduct the experiment in exact similar settings in order to not influence the reliability and validity of this study

Third, in this research the compatibility effect was not taken into account. The choice of the different colors of the wine labels was based on literature research and not possible associations which people have with wine labels and its color. Throughout the research one participant mentioned that she thought the blue wine label did not fit with a red wine, negatively influencing her perception of the wine label. Besides color mismatches negatively influencing the perception of the wine label, it can also influence the identification of the taste of the product (Liang, Roy, Chen, & Zhang, 2013). The latter issue has been taken into account in this research, as gustatory perception was covered in the study. However, this issue could have been solved by conducting a pre-test in which color associations with wine labels are researched.

Fourth, although the wine used in this experiment was based on extensive research, it would have been advisable to have conducted a pre-test. The choice of the wine could then have been based on the specific preferences of the target group, low involved wine consumers. Although the chosen Merlot is a rather standard, non-complex wine, feedback was received from several participants that they did not like the taste of the wine. On the other hand, taste differs and with every wine there will be participants who do not prefer its taste. However, basing the type of wine for the experiment on a pre-test conducted amongst the target group could have been a valuable addition to the research.

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attractiveness of wine labels amongst age generations. However, our results discharge this conclusion, as there is no significant correlation between age and attractiveness.

6.3 Future Research

Based on the limitations there are several suggestions for future research. First of all, color is just one manipulation of the wine label. A wine label consists of many different aspects which can influence the consumers’ perception. For example, the region, the year and/or the picture on the label could also have an influence. These aspects are not controlled in this research. Therefore, to gain a complete picture of the influence of the wine label on the taste experience, it is advised to focus in future research on other aspects and how these aspects in combination with color influence the taste experience. Besides these aspects, consumers could have a different preference when it comes to white wine. This study focusses solely on red wines; it might be interesting to see whether the same effects occur when using white wine.

Secondly, an addition to this study could be conducting a field research studying which color wine labels low involved wine consumers choose when in the supermarket or liquor store. This way it can be investigated in the field which are the most attractive wine labels among low involved wine consumers. Assembling information on the actual consumer behavior in the field would be a relevant addition to this research.

Thirdly, this study focuses on the liking of the taste. The actual type of taste, for example roundness or sharpness of the taste, is not taken into account in this research. Furthermore, the choices of gustatory perception, sour, bitter, sweet, and salty, were based on literature research and not based on tastes that fit with wine, such as fruit, herbs and oak. For future research it might be interesting to see how color has an influence on these taste perceptions instead of just the liking of the taste and the gustatory perception.

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6.4 Theoretical and Practical Implications

Much research has been conducted focusing on the information which wine labels should include. What is lacking till thus far had been the focus on color in wine label designs, which is the first thing which consumers see when confronted with a product. This research sheds some light on the possibilities regarding label colors and its effects. Although not significant in this research, different colors might influence the gustatory perception. This study shows that colors can influence the way that you and I perceive the taste of the wine. Secondly, there has not yet been made a link between consumers’ emotional state and the influence on liking of the taste in wine research. Much research focusses on the information provided and how that influences the buying behavior. This thesis dives deeper into what influence there is on the emotional state of consumers and how that influences not their buying behavior but their taste perception. Which is valuable information for the wine industry, because when consumers like the taste of the wine this is expected to positively influence their buying behavior. Thirdly, this study confirms prior research arguing that physical appearance of food and beverages has an influence on liking of the taste of the product (Lyman, 1989). Providing evidence that taste perception is influenced by visual cues of the product (Auvray & Spence, 2008; Hoegg & Alba, 2007; Stevenson, 2009). Lastly, a valuable contribution to the existing literature of this study is that it shows that there is a correlation between how attractive consumers find a product and liking of the taste. It is questionnable whether this statement holds in every industry, but regarding the wine industry this outcome provides profitable insights.

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Colorful Wine: The Relationship Between Wine Label Colors and the Liking of the Taste of the Wine and the Gustatory Perception

Colorful Wine: The Relationship Between Wine Label Colors and the Liking of

the Taste of the Wine and the Gustatory Perception

Colorful Wine: The Relationship Between Wine Label Colors and the Liking of

the Taste of the Wine and the Gustatory Perception

Abstract

Preface

Table of Contents

1. Problem Statement

2. Literature Review

3. Conceptual Model

4. Methodology

5. Results

Sour

Sweet

Bitter

Happy Emotional State

Calm Emotional State

6. Discussion

Bibliography