Managing across boundaries: The influence of managerial soft skills on performance in technology-enabled supply chains

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1 Master Thesis

Managing across boundaries:

The influence of managerial soft skills on performance in technology-enabled supply chains

B. J. Huisman S2355973

Primary supervisor: dr. B. Müller Secondary supervisor: prof. dr. J. de Vries

MSc Supply Chain Management &

MSc Business Administration – Change Management Faculty of Economics and Business

University of Groningen January 2018

Word count: 11.989

Word count including references and appendices: 17.482

ABSTRACT

The goal of this study is to understand how managerial soft skills influence performance in technology-enabled supply chains. The combination of having and using information technologies (IT), or inter-organisational system (IOS), supports managers in achieving supply chain performance goals. They need soft skills to effectively employ these IOS, but it is unclear how these influences work. Adaptive Structuration Theory is used to interpret the interaction between IOS and managerial soft skills. Within-case and cross-Within-case analyses of semi-structured interviews with managers in the food and e-commerce sectors show that a set of personal soft skills and social skills influence IOS use and IOS reconstruction via readiness, effective communication and cooperation, and that IOS use and IOS reconstruction influence performance via information integration and relational integration.

Key words: supply chain performance, soft skills, inter-organisational systems (IOS), Adaptive

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INTRODUCTION

Supply chain performance is increasingly important in modern business (Wu, Chuang, & Hsu, 2014). Globalisation and increased competition give rise to uncertain, ill-defined situations. To deal with this, organisations form complex supply chains which are enabled through information technology (IT) (Christopher, 2012). The combination of human and technological structures is what is called an inter-organisational system (IOS). The increasingly complex nature of supply chains and IT calls for attention on two major concerns: information sharing and collaborative effort (Wu et al., 2014). Developments in IT support improvements regarding these concerns. Managers develop specific hard skills to use the IT (Gravier, 2017). Employing the right set of hard skills suffices in well-defined situations. Nowadays’ ill-defined situations require soft skills to employ hard skills (Liu, Chen, Chen, & Sheu, 2010). But it is unclear how soft skills influence supply chain performance (Zhang, Van Donk, & Van der Vaart, 2016).

This gives rise to the main research question of this paper: “How do managerial soft skills influence performance in technology-enabled supply chains?” Interviews are conducted to answer this main research question and lead to propositions about specific aspects of this question.

Many supply chains partners dedicate significant assets to IT to remain competitive. However, approximately 75% of all IT implementation projects fail (Markus, 2004). In some cases IT are implemented well, but continued use leads to disappointing results. Not using appropriate performance measures might be one reason for these disappointing results (Wu & Chiu, 2018). Not using appropriate soft skills is another (Ellinger & Ellinger, 2014). Investigating how certain soft skills stimulate IOS interaction contributes to performance. Managers can assess if they possess the right soft skills for good performance and identify which skills to develop.

An increasing number of scholars acknowledges that supply chain management requires soft skills (Ellinger & Ellinger, 2014). In ill-defined situations and complex supply chains, Adaptive Structuration Theory (AST) allows for encompassing interpretations of differing views. Following this view, organisational IT systems are integrated and emergent phenomena expressing underlying assumptions, which can be altered through social constructions (DeSanctis & Poole, 1994). With this view, the relation between soft skills and IT is highlighted. This research addresses the call for insight how soft skills can be used in inter-organisational perspectives (Schotter, Mudambi, Doz, & Gaur, 2017).

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THEORETICAL BACKGROUND

This chapter introduces supply chains, inter-organisational systems, supply chain performance, soft skills and Adaptive Structuration Theory. Three sub research questions emerge from gaps in literature and build up to the main research question. The foci of the sub questions are shown in Figure 1.

Supply chains

Competitive forces lead organisations to focus on their core activity and to outsource supporting activities (Leuschner, Rogers, & Charvet, 2013). Highly specialised organisations develop under these pressures, which form strategic networks to deliver value to end customers.

Supply chains are networks of organisations that have the common objective to produce value in the form of products or services through uniting different processes and activities (Bowles & Lu, 2014; Christopher, 1992). The network connects upstream suppliers with downstream customers through information and product exchange. Increased digitization and globalization decreases the need for physical nearness, leading to global dispersion. As information and product exchange are more vulnerable to disruption, it is important to manage supply chains (Christopher, 2012).

Supply chain integration (SCI) addresses ongoing coordination challenges of supply chains, or inter-organisational networks. SCI is “the degree to which a manufacturer strategically collaborates with its supply chain partners and collaboratively manages intra- and inter-organisation processes” (Flynn et al., 2010, p.59). It is used to create a cooperative and mutually beneficial supply chain (Lambert & Cooper, 2000; Wisner & Tan, 2000). Thus, SCI seeks to improve performance by enhancing supplier and customer integration as well as internal integration (Van Der Vaart & Van Donk, 2008; Yu, Jacobs, Salisbury, & Enns, 2013).

Cross-functional integration in an organisation, or internal integration, is the structuration of organisational procedures, practices, and behaviour into collaborative, manageable and synchronized processes in order to satisfy customers (Zhao, Huo, Selen, & Yeung, 2011). It can be referred to as the integration of departments and functions within an organisation (Leuschner et al., 2013). The effect of internal integration on operational performance is mediated by external integration in product supply chains (Yuen, Yuen, & Thai, 2017).

External integration is simultaneous integration of customers and suppliers (Jayaram, Kannan, & Tan, 2004) and is a beneficial practice in SCI (Leuschner et al., 2013). Organisational outcomes are directly and indirectly influenced by the strength of external integration. Thus, organisations should not only focus on internal, but also on external integration of business processes.

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partners to create mutual advantages. Information integration enhances the data flow throughout the supply chain (Leuschner et al., 2013). Data such as logistics planning can spread through the supply chain using shared IT systems. The ability to access these data allows supply chain partners to make better informed decisions (Essex, Subramanian, & Gunasekaran, 2017), thereby improving performance.

Inter-organisational systems

An inter-organisational system (IOS) refers to ongoing human interaction with an IT system that is integrated in multiple organisations to share information (Homburg, 1999). IOS exceeds traditional organisational boundaries by using permanent electronic inter-organisational links (Rajaguru & Matanda, 2013). An example of IOS is electronic data interchange (EDI) technology, which reduces the need for human intervention when ordering products. Although the system in itself does not create value, combining the technology with other organisational resources can create inimitable competitive advantages (Zhang et al., 2016). For the remainder of this paper, IOS interaction refers to the ongoing interaction between users and inter-organisational IT systems.

Two elements of IOS interaction are IOS use and IOS reconstruction (Checkland, 2000). IOS use is more than merely acquiring and implementing IT systems. It is the actual use of IT systems, including using the IT according its design, as well as workarounds or alternative use of functions (Schotter et al., 2017). Continuous engagement with IT might result in emerging functionalities of the IT. IOS reconstruction refers to taking deliberate action to change the IOS. This includes reprogramming or changing functions in the IT, as well as changing social structures or rules for future use of the IT.

The importance of ongoing interaction between user and system suggests that the organisation’s IT is only as good as the manager’s ability to use it (Fawcett, Wallin, Allred, Fawcett, & Magnan, 2011). Well-managed organisations succeed in using IT effectively, while mismanagement of IT causes confusion in improperly structured processes (Mithas & Rust, 2016). The latter occurs when managers fail to understand the role of IT in organisational processes and leads to disappointing results of continued IT use.

Traditionally, organisations ascribe IT an external and independent and static role, leading to specific outcomes when implemented (Orlikowski & Iacono, 2000). This view of technology is not favourable in fast-changing environments. As technology is seen as unable to change, embedded values, opinions and rhetoric become outdated and create a barrier to improvements. IT and use thereof should not be considered separate artefacts, but integrated parts of supply chains.

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congregate in the ensemble view of technology, in which dynamic interactions between people and technology are viewed in ongoing organisational practices (Orlikowski & Iacono, 2001).

One of the four variants of the ensemble view is technology as a structure. This variant conceptualizes that technology is enmeshed with use, and therefore neither a dependent, nor an independent variable in the system (Orlikowski & Iacono, 2001). More specifically, technology embodies social structures that designers built into the system, which are then appropriated by users. Therefore social structures are subject to changes and appropriation is an ongoing process.

An IT system can be implemented in different supply chains, but through interactive development result in different outcomes (Orlikowski & Iacono, 2000). Therefore, proper alignment and use of IOS allows supply chains to improve economic performance (Mithas & Rust, 2016).

Supply chain performance

Supply chains become longer as more specialised organisations are involved. Every new link in the supply chain increases the potential for a weak spot and the inherent risk of decreased performance. Good supply chain performance is the supply chain’s ability to meet end-customer requirements while serving organisational requirements (Beamon, 1999). What these end-customer and organisational requirements are is determined by numerous factors and differs per setting. Performance measures can be categorized into three main supply chain performance determinants: resource, output, and flexibility (Beamon, 1999).

Time and costs are aspects of resource as a performance measure. Decreasing the time spent in any of the supply chain’s processes allows the total supply chain to respond faster to changes in demand and thereby to improve performance. Manufacturing costs, distribution costs and inventory costs are most prevalent costs in supply chains (Ho, Au, & Newton, 2002). Decreasing costs is a performance aspect that is mostly influenced by shareholders’ expectations of increased profitability (Leuschner et al., 2013). Decreasing costs while maintaining other performance aspects leads to increased profit.

Developments in digital communication support supply chains in communicating faster and decreasing inventory costs. Using inter-organisational IT allows supply chain partners to accelerate the existing order process and to align production planning of all partners to meet customer demands. However, it is also possible that there is no fit between the IOS and organisational or supply chain processes. IOS reconstruction can be used to achieve alignment, creating more efficient processes. By engaging in proper IOS use or reconstruction, resources could be affected positively.

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imminent. Dissatisfaction decreases the probability of future purchases, thereby decreasing the supply chain’s long-term profitability. Improving quality is therefore desired by supply chain partners and shareholders. IOS reconstruction can be used to safeguard data quality and thereby improve output.

Flexibility refers to the ability to align scheduling between suppliers, manufacturers and customers (Wu & Chiu, 2018). Adding this non-financial performance determinant might provide new insights into the concept of supply chain performance. IOS interaction facilitates in coordination and collaboration (Schotter et al., 2017). It seems evident that IOS interaction influences performance, and it is important to understand how. This leads to sub question 1. The focus of this question is depicted by ‘Q1’ in Figure 1.

Sub question 1: “How does IOS interaction influence performance?”

Merely having integrated inter-organisational IT systems designed to support performance aspects is not sufficient to improve performance. Managers must possess and develop capabilities to understand the interaction between the IT system and users, and the influence of this on supply chain processes. These capabilities are influenced by different soft skills (Essex et al., 2017).

Soft skills

Soft skills are critical attributes for supply chain professionals (Gibson & Kerr, 2016) since globalization led to shifting from well-defined situations to rather ill-defined situations. In well-defined situations, technical abilities and factual knowledge to understand the technology of the organisation (Dubey & Gunasekaran, 2015; Wheeler, 2016) are used to manage known and predictable job functions (Crawford, Costello, Pollack, & Bentley, 2003). But through use of soft skills, less predictable jobs can be performed effectively in ill-defined situations (Checkland, 2000; Liu et al., 2010).

Soft skills were first defined as “important job-related skills that involve little or no interaction with machines and whose application on the job is quite generalized” (Whitmore & Fry, 1974, p.3). Corresponding to the beliefs prevailing at the time, this definition holds the view that social constructions and technology are separate phenomena with little or no interaction. Contemporary beliefs are influenced by globalization and digitization and show the need for collaboration and coordination. The initial definition of soft skills provides a good basis, yet does not fully comprise soft skills today.

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communication and management of globally dispersed teams (Cottrill, 2010) and social skills, decision making and time management skills (Myers, Griffith, Daugherty, & Lusch, 2004) can be added to this list. As supply chains are subject to changes, supply chain managers must learn continuously (van Hoek et al., 2002). However, none of these soft skills were identified specifically acknowledging IOS, thus viewing IT as an integrated part of the supply chain.

When viewing IT and the use thereof as an IOS, managers require different soft skills than initially identified. Subsequently it seems imperative that the set of soft skills is adapted to the current context. This gives rise to sub question 2. The focus of sub question 2 and the relation to the other concepts is depicted with the encircled ‘Q2’ in Figure 1.

Sub question 2: “Which soft skills are relevant to supply chain managers working with

inter-organisational systems?”

Adaptive Structuration Theory

This research follows thoughts of the Social Technology School (STS). STS integrates perspectives of the Decision-making School and the Institutional School. These schools respectively hold the views that technology consists of structures that overcome human weaknesses once implemented, and that social constructions of technology are generated by people through ongoing discourse (DeSanctis & Poole, 1994; Orlikowski, 1992). According to STS technology has structures, but these can be altered through social practices (DeSanctis & Poole, 1994; Guetk, Bikson, & Mankin, 1984).

A theoretical approach within STS is Adaptive Structuration Theory (AST). AST is an alteration of Giddens’ Structuration Theory (Poole, 2009). According to Giddens (1984), social systems consist of patterns of social relations across space and time, thereby forming reproduced practices or structures. These patterns influence how new decisions are made in a social system. Thus, actions shape structures, and structures shape actions. This ‘duality of structure’ recognises the interplay between human action and technology structures. It thereby goes beyond the dualist view present in many organisations that human action and structures are two separate aspects (DeSanctis & Poole, 1994). Where Giddens’ Structuration Theory is used for implementation efforts, AST is applicable to situations of ongoing technology use.

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The importance of IT is determined by social interactions (Orlikowski, 2000). Organisational processes including arguments, the nature of decision making, and designers’ and users’ decision making are inscribed in, and become observable through, technology (Bowker & Star, 1994). But these processes and inscribed rules are not permanent. IT should be seen as an integrated and emergent phenomenon that captures and expresses underlying structures, which can be altered through social constructions.

AST extends other STS theories by incorporating technology structures and the social interactions in detail. Technology has no inherent power to shape human behaviour, as is assumed by Decision Theorists. Social constructions of technology are generated by people based on the larger context, as is assumed by Institutional Theorists, and are guided by existing structures that are embedded in technology.

After relevant soft skills for managers working in IOS are identified, it should be understood how these soft skills influence IOS interaction. This leads to sub question 3. The research focuses on the interplay between structures and human action. This leads to insights in the relationship between soft skills and IOS use, which is depicted by ‘Q3’ in Figure 1.

Sub question 3: “How do soft skills influence IOS interaction?”

Supply chain managers should use their soft skills to stimulate continuous engagement with technology, creating an IOS. When IOS interaction is properly managed, good supply chain performance can be achieved (Fawcett et al., 2011).

Figure 1. Overview of central concepts and relations.

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METHODOLOGY

This chapter discusses this research’s design, selection of research sites, data collection and data analysis. Quality criteria are addressed throughout the chapter.

Research design

This study answers the research question: How do managerial soft skills influence performance in technology-enabled supply chains? Relevant literature provides basic insights in supply chain managers’ soft skills. There is no explicit role for soft skills in existing IOS literature, which makes this literature insufficient to provide an answer. It must be identified which skills influence performance, and how.

New research topics requires qualitative research and theory development (Eisenhardt, 1989). Conducting qualitative research provides the opportunity to obtain insightful information and to formulate propositions (Ozcan & Eisenhardt, 2009). Therefore, semi-structured in-depth interviews are conducted.

Research sites

The research focuses on supply chain managers’ use of IOS in the Dutch food and e-commerce sectors. The food sector depends on alignment of supply chain processes as products spoil. The e-commerce sector depends on proper supply chain activities and integrated information, as customer demands can shift rapidly. This makes these sectors appropriate for this research.

Fifty-three people in 35 organisations were approached for an interview. Eleven of these organisations are in the e-commerce sector, 19 in the food sector, and five in other sectors. Thirteen people in 10 organisations agreed to an interview. Eight people work in the food sector and five people work in the e-commerce sector. No respondents work in other sectors. In three organisations, two people were interviewed.

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Data collection

Interviewee selection was based on position and the presence of an IOS. Eighteen people were approached via LinkedIn, 12 via telephone, 18 via email, and five people in person. Of the 13 respondents, five were approached via LinkedIn, two via telephone, five via email, and four in person. After confirmation of participation, dates were set for the interviews. All interviews were conducted within seven weeks.

The interview guide contains five main interview questions, each with a variety of directions for in-depth information (Appendix A). The interviews were semi-structured to explore the phenomenon in relevant directions, and allowed for flexibility during interviews. The pilot interviews focused on identifying the right questions. Four interviews focused mainly on identification of soft skills and six interviews on IOS interaction. There was an overall focus on how certain soft skills lead to performance. Earlier interviews discussed types of communication more thorough than later interviews. Insights gained in early interviews were discussed in later interviews, including the relevance of approaches for IOS reconstruction.

One pilot interview was conducted in English because the interviewee and interviewer did not share their native language. All other interviews were conducted in Dutch. Two interviews were taken by phone, four using Skype and six in person. All interviews were audio-recorded with a mobile phone. The pilot interviews lasted 43 and 53 minutes. Before conducting the remaining interviews, general questions about the type of IOS, experience, and functions were answered via email. These interviews lasted between 20-40 minutes, with an average of 26 minutes.

Each interview was transcribed within two weeks. Most interviews were transcribed by replaying the recordings and typing them in Microsoft Word. Two recordings were transcribed using the online tool Trint. After automatic transcription, these files were checked for mistakes and improved. The literal transcripts were anonymised. Interviewee names were replaced by numbers (01 to 12, including 05a and 05b) and specific references to persons, organisations, industries, locations, products, and unique functions were replaced by a corresponding code and number (e.g. [product5]). These references and codes were stored in a separate file. The anonymized transcripts were sent to the corresponding interviewees for verification. The researcher adhered to suggested improvements on spelling and anonymization by two interviewees.

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another person. The 10remaining organisations used internal databases that are linked to their partners’ information systems. Interviewee 08 mentioned that these linkages were not used, eliminating the idea of IOS. Therefore, this interview was omitted from the study too. This left a total of nine cases. Relevant information on these cases and demographics of the interviews are shown in Table 1.

A typical interview started with an informal introduction, followed by an explanation of how the interview would be conducted. The interviewee was asked permission to record the conversation. The interviewer asked the interview questions, and probed deeper by asking relevant questions. After discussing all questions, the recording was ended. The interviewer explained remaining actions. The conversation ended informally.

Table 1. Final respondents’ demographics.

Case Pseudonym Business

sector Position Experience (yr.) IT type Interview method Duration (min.) 1 Interviewee 03 Food Manager 10 SAP In person 25:44 2 Interviewee 04 Food Manager 11 GT Nexus Telephone 35:18 3 Interviewee 05a E-commerce Manager 6 SAP In person 24:39 4 Interviewee 06 E-commerce Manager 4 SAP In person 21:34

5 Interviewee 07 Food Manager 1 SAP Skype 38:34

6 Interviewee 09 E-commerce Manager 6 E-point Telephone 20:08

7 Interviewee 10 Food Manager 15 EDI Skype 32:29

8 Interviewee 11 Food Manager 1 GT Nexus & Transwide

In person 22:45 9 Interviewee 12 Food Manager 11 GT Nexus &

Transwide

In person 37:23

Data analysis

The transcripts were imported to qualitative data analysis software Atlas.ti, which was used to code transcripts following the methods of grounded theory. During first cycle coding, sections of the transcripts varying from a few words to a single paragraph were given initial inductive codes. The first interview was coded and analysed before the last interview was conducted, which made coding and analysis emerging processes. Descriptive codes represented the environment or conditions, including required soft skills (e.g. ‘well-informed’). Process codes represented actions (e.g. ‘explaining’). In some instances, emotions coding represented personal experiences (e.g. ‘irritation’). Simultaneous coding was also used, as small sections often represented various topics.

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merged into the code ‘format for action’. A second researcher checked all coded transcripts. Due to this, the distinction between ‘empathy’ and ‘goal-oriented’ was clarified. A distinction was created between the content of a message (‘transform data to information’) and actually transferring a message (‘adapt communication to individual’) which were first combined in ‘communicate clearly’. Managerial actions unrelated to IOS were eliminated.

The digital open coding led to a list of 47 inductive, open codes. Codes from each interview were written on flash cards. Over time, these were placed in groups representing similar topics. For each group, an overarching code was created, which led to a list of 16 axial codes. This set of axial codes led to five core categories following selective coding strategy: performance, IOS use, IOS reconstruction, personal soft skills, and social skills. The codes ‘personal soft skills’ and ‘social skills’ represent different skills necessary to use or reconstruct IOS. Social skills require interaction, personal soft skills do not. The code ‘IOS use’ represents the steps taken to overcome the issue represented in the case. The code ‘IOS reconstruction’ represents activities taken to structurally improve the IOS beyond overcoming a specific issue. ‘Performance’ represents performance aspects as mentioned by the interviewees. The transcripts were re-read and selectively coded following this list of categories. The code book and example quotations are depicted in Appendix B.

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RESULTS

All cases were first analysed separately. Within-case analyses are structured following the categories identified during the coding process: IOS use, IOS reconstruction, soft skills, and performance. Results of these analyses are shown in Table 2 and are shortly discussed hereafter. A cross-case analysis focuses on reoccurring patterns which are shown in Figure 2.

Within-case analyses

In each case a problematic event was described that resulted in dissatisfying performance. These are listed in the column ‘problem statement’ of Table 2. Managers tackled these events by engaging in different activities regarding IOS use and IOS reconstruction. A variety of soft skills appears valuable for these activities, leading to improved performance aspects as depicted in the column ‘performance’ in Table 2.

For example, in case 3, data imparity manifests as discrepancy between the digital representation of inventory and actual inventory. One action the manager takes is to ‘communicate with partners’. As this action is a countermeasure to overcome the problem rather than to structurally prevent for problems alike, it is part of IOS use. Overseeing the impact of actions is one of the skills deemed necessary to communicate with partners.

This case also shows that ‘improvements are not communicated’. This step relates to the method of institutionalising IOS reconstructions. IT-related changes are typically not communicated throughout this supply chain. ‘Providing a safe environment’ for employees to try new things is important if improvements are not communicated.

In case 3, IOS use enhances change from customer dissatisfaction to satisfaction and ensure supply chain continuation. IOS reconstruction leads to improved resource efficiency. Remaining cases are analysed alike and depicted in Table 2.

Cross-case analysis

Events. All cases describe non-optimal situations that require alternative forms of action and

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Performance. Performance aspects mentioned in the interviews form three main categories:

resource efficiency, customer satisfaction and supply chain continuation. In which cases these performance aspects appeared is shown in the column ‘performance’ in Table 2. Table 3 and Appendix B show which codes form this category.

Performance aspects with direct monetary value are captured in the category resource efficiency. Time savings are often mentioned as a result of system reconstructions. Managers search less for alternative solutions or workarounds. They also require less help from colleagues, or rework. They can dedicate more time, sometimes several hours per day, to other issues. Increased profit also results from better use of resources. An illustration: “[…] you no longer have that eccentric high inventory. Or that another store takes all the inventory right in front of your eyes. It is divided fairly, in proportion with customer numbers and the size of the store”1. This change in inventory management results in less obsolete inventory, which in turn improves money flow.

Customer satisfaction captures customer expectations and emotions that accompany the purchasing process. Having to sell “no” is a reason for customer dissatisfaction. For example: “The customer orders the part and expects a certain price, product age or inventory level and is disappointed. That is not nice”2. Another issue is that customers get irritated because of IT inefficiencies. If the system does not work according its design, the customer waits longer. If reality is worse than customers’ expectations, they are dissatisfied to some extent. Long-term performance decreases if dissatisfied customers stop purchasing. Thus, customer satisfaction has indirect monetary value.

Supply chain continuation is the third performance aspect identified in this research. Supply chain disruption occurs frequently after data imparity and IT system inefficiency events. Downstream product flows stagnate as a result. All downstream parties have to realign their processes to make sure the disrupted supply chain gets operable again to deliver value to the end-user. Fast problem-solving allows the organisation return to normal operations quickly. This decreases impact on supply chain continuation.

IOS use. Managers can influence these performance aspects through IOS use. IOS use consists of

problem analysis, communication with colleagues, and communication with partners (Table 4). The goal of problem analysis is to identify the problem cause. For this, managers analyse and interpret data. They translate these data into information and communicate it to colleagues and partners. By addressing the cause, further unnecessary costs can be prevented, thereby improving resource efficiency.

1_{“[…] je hebt niet meer van die excentriek hoge voorraad, eh. Of dat een andere winkel zeg maar alle voorraad}

voor jouw neus wegkaapt. Dus het is nu dus gewoon eerlijk verdeeld en eh, naar rato van de klantenaantallen en grootte van de winkel zeg maar” (Huisman, 2018, interview 06, p46).

2_{“De klant bestelt het onderdeel en verwacht een bepaalde prijs, leeftijd of voorraadstatus en komt van een koude}

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Table 2. Within-case analyses, categorising problem statement, IOS use, IOS reconstruction, soft skills and performance.

Case Problem statement IOS use IOS reconstruction Soft skills Performance

1

Data imparity leads to inefficient inventory management and rework

Analyse the situation Translate data to information

Resource efficiency & Supply chain continuation Overview of process

Educate employees Individual communication

Monitor progress Overview of process

Communicate with supplier Formulate clear messages Seek consensus

Solution-oriented Flexible

2

Data imparity leads to supply chain disruption

Analyse the situation

Sense of organisation's priorities

Supply chain continuation Dare to ask for support

Abstract thinking Courage to try new things Communicate with partners

Use alternative communication Convey clear messages

Seek consensus

Convincing skills Explaining skills

Sense of organisation's priorities

Create support

Explaining skills

Resource efficiency Convincing skills

Sense of organisation's priorities Communicate ideas

Explaining skills Convincing skills Not communicate improvements

Courage to try new things Dare to ask for support

3

Data imparity leads to dissatisfied customers

Expect discrepancies Distrust towards IT system

Supply chain continuation & Customer satisfaction Communicate with partners

Use alternative communication Estimate urgency Overview of process Communicate ideas Explaining skills Resource efficiency Convincing skills

Not communicate improvements

Courage to try new things Provide safe environment

4

Data imparity leads to dissatisfied customers

Customer satisfaction Communicate with partners Formulate clear messages

Create alternative solution Flexible Communicate improvements Solution-oriented

5

IT system inefficiency leads to supply chain disruption

Analyse the situation Understand and follow manuals Supply chain continuation & Resource efficiency

Ask for support

Dare to ask for support

Supply chain continuation Individual communication

Formulate clear messages Speak (business) language Communicate with partners Use alternative communication

Estimate urgency

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Table 2 (continued).

Case Problem statement IOS use IOS reconstruction Soft skills Performance

5 (cont.) IT system inefficiency leads to supply chain disruption

Communicate ideas Explaining skills

Resource efficiency Create support Explaining skills

Convincing skills Realize training Dare to ask for support

6

Data imparity leads to inefficient inventory management and dissatisfied customers

Correct faulty information Flexible

Customer satisfaction Overview of process

Communicate with partners Translate data to information Overview of process Expect discrepancies Distrust towards IT system

Communicate ideas Formulate clear messages Resource efficiency Not communicate improvements Courage to try new things

7 IT system inefficiency leads to supply chain disruption and dissatisfied customers

Supply chain continuation Analyse the situation Sense of organisation's priorities

Overview of process

Communicate with partners

Use alternative communication Formulate clear messages Translate data to information Individual communication

Redesign process

Solution-oriented

Resource efficiency & Customer satisfaction Create informal relationships

Individual communication Confidence

Communicate ideas Speak (business) language Not communicate improvements Courage to try new things

8

IT system inefficiency leads to supply chain disruption

Notice problematic events

Overview of process

Supply chain continuation Distrust towards IT system

Solve problematic events

Courage to try new things Dare to ask for support

Communicate with partners

Flexible Explaining skills

Sense of organisation's priorities Empathy

Communicate improvements Explaining skills

Resource efficiency Realize training Explaining skills Empathy 9 IT system inefficiency leads to supply chain disruption Switch procedures Limited flexibility

Supply chain continuation Overview of process

Analyse the situation Sense of organisation's priorities Communicate with partners Formulate clear messages

Seek consensus

Listening skills Empathy Creating support

Communicate ideas

Courage to try new things

Resource efficiency Creating support

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Table 3. Categorisation of codes related to ‘performance’.

Open code Axial code Category code

Irritation

Customer satisfaction

Performance Selling "no"

Job becomes easier

Resource efficiency Better use of resources

Rework Time savings Workarounds Fast problem-solving

Supply chain continuation Supply chain continuation

Supply chain disruption

Once the cause of the problem is identified and understood, managers communicate with colleagues and/or partners. Communication with colleagues, internal communication, mainly consists of explaining problems and monitoring progress to prevent events from reoccurring. Perseverance might be necessary, as appears from this fragment: “[…] but in the end, I am responsible for inventory availability, so if I don’t like the thing, it will go the way I want it to. But […] that is also a weakness, because it is better to do it in consensus, as the decision has larger support”3. If problem analysis is too indefinite to propose further action, managers consult colleagues: “[…] at a certain moment you reach the point that you think, well, I can continue searching for three more hours, but it will not get me any further. That is a waste of my time and a waste of the company’s time. So then you start looking if there is a colleague [who could help you out]”4. Although organisational resources are used to solve the issue, this saves much time and rework in the long run, and thus improves resource efficiency. Less experienced managers ask for help more than experienced managers.

Most interviewees use alternative communication methods for communication with partners. The IT system does not work as intended, or managers find alternative communication methods more effective: “[…] we do that via telephone or email sometimes, or mail, but in general, we just call the suppliers”5. When communicating via these alternative methods, it is important to speak a common business language. This helps explaining the issue and aligning subsequent actions so that unnecessary

3_{“[…] in the end ben ik wel verantwoordelijk voor de voorraadbeschikbaarheid, dus als iets mij niet zint, dan zal}

het toch zo gaan zoals ik dat wil. Ehm, maar […] dat is ook een zwakte, want je kunt het beter in consensus doen, dan heb je een beter gedragen besluit” (12, p81).

4_{“op een gegeven moment bereik je dan zo’n punt dat je denkt, ja, ik kan nu nog drie uur zoeken, maar ik kom niet}

verder. Dat is zonde van mijn tijd, dat is zonde van het bedrijf z’n tijd. Dus ga je iets dichter bij je kijken of

er misschien een collega [is die je kan helpen]” (07, p50).

5_{“[…] telefonisch doen we natuurlijk, e-mail doen we wel eens, eh, ja post doen we, maar over het algemeen gaan}

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costs and inefficient processes can be prevented. Most managers value informal relationships with partners highly, as these foster efficient problem solving: “[…] in general, people will work more

solution-oriented, rather than filing claims or creating a controversial atmosphere. […] That is why it

is important that personal relationships exist to prevent us from getting into war”6.

Resource efficiency is positively impacted by all three components of IOS use. Problem analysis allows identifying costs and inefficiencies, thereby contributing to improved resource efficiency. Communication with colleagues decreases process time and rework in the long run. Communication with partners allows aligning actions, thereby contributing to resource efficiency. For example, with better allocation of inventory, the amount of lost sales is decreased and actual sales are increased.

Supply chain continuation is positively impacted by communication with partners. Creating alternative ways to work allows continuation of operations, even though IOS inefficiencies are restricting. Personal relations that are important for efficient problem solving also contribute to stronger supply chains. This leads to improved supply chain continuation.

Table 4. Categorisation of codes related to ‘IOS use’.

Analyse

Problem analysis

IOS use Data interpretation

Identify the problem

Transfer data to information Ask help

Communicate with colleagues Explaining colleagues

Monitor progress Persevere

Alternative communication

Communicate with partners Communicate with partners

Explaining partners Informal communication Business language

IOS reconstruction. If events occur regularly, managers engage in IOS reconstruction. This is

not an alternative to IOS use, but a method to prevent further events. IOS reconstruction captures two elements: creating support and creating improvements (Table 5). Creating support includes to enthusiasm

6_{“[…] over het algemeen, dan zal men meer oplossingsgericht te werk gaan. En niet zozeer in de claimsfeer of de}

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others for cooperative development, as is illustrated here: “[…] pulling along other organisations who are involved, making them enthusiastic for changes, you will eventually get that done, and that is of interest for your organisation”7

. User experiences help understand how IOS could be improved and increase support. Most interviewees engage in this activity by asking direct colleagues and partners: “[…] do you have any ideas for improvement? What do you miss? What does work well, what does not?”8 With this involvement, intentions regarding IOS reconstruction are aligned. Supply chains becomes stronger, leading to improved supply chain continuation.

Creating improvements is the second aspect of IOS reconstruction. It includes having a format for action and engaging in training. One interviewee describes the format for action with an example for designing new IT system updates: “We come together to look at improvements for the system itself. […] and then we discuss that with other customers […]”9. Outcomes of these meetings could include ideas on how to improve resource efficiency and customer satisfaction. These are discussed with the IT system provider. If they approve the ideas, they develop them. In that case, training for the reconstructed IOS might be used to improve customer satisfaction and supply chain continuation. However, few interviewees mention to engage in training: “[…] we went to the logistics provider and showed how it works, with instructions, and they also have PDF-files that contain instructions”10. The majority mentions that there is no training for IOS reconstructions.

Creating improvements impacts resource efficiency. By implementing reconstructions regarding the structural processes, time and money could be saved. For example: “[…] because I come from the period that you had to count everything by hand, and use a calculator to find the expenses for [a product]. […] It is just, all those data are immediately available. So, it saves an enormous amount of time”11

. In other cases, IOS reconstruction constitutes altering inventory strategies, leading to decreased costs.

Creating improvements also impacts customer satisfaction. Because of structural improvements, processes within the supply chain are better aligned. The total process time can be decreased and customers wait less. This decreases irritation and improves customer satisfaction. This is illustrated here:

7_{“[…] de andere bedrijven die er ook bij zitten, die meetrekken, ook enthousiast maken voor veranderingen,}

uiteindelijk krijg je dat voor mekaar, en heb je daar gewoon een belang bij binnen het bedrijf” (04, p33-34).

8_{“[…] hebben jullie nog ideeën of het beter zou kunnen, wat missen jullie erin, ehm, wat werkt wel, wat werkt}

niet?” (04, p33).

9

“Maar ook zitten we samen om te kijken naar verbeteringen voor het systeem zelf. […] dan gaan we dat ook overleggen met zeg maar de andere klanten […]” (04, p33).

10_{“[…] we zijn toen naar de vervoerder gegaan en laten zien dat, hoe werkt dat, met instructies, en ze hebben ook}

PDF bestanden waar instructies in staan” (11, p74).

11

“[…] want ik kom nog uit de periode dat wij gewoon echt eh, handmatig, eh, elke dag alles moesten tellen, en dan gewoon echt met een rekenmachientje moesten gaan uitrekenen van eh, ja, dit is wat wij gemiddeld besteden aan, kwijt zijn aan [product3]. […] Het is allemaal gewoon, al die gegevens zijn gewoon, ja, direct

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“Because of multiple complaints, the headquarters changed the clarified the inventory data on the website. […] That way the customers always knew the waiting time [….]”12

.

Supply chain continuation is impacted by creating improvements and support. Creating improvements such as: “You can control the inventory better and you know when something will

arrive”13, allow better control of supply chains. The effect of creating support is that people are more willing to create strong supply chains, as is illustrated: “Well, the effect is that things will go smoother than would possibly have been the case when everything was done formally”14.

Table 5. Categorisation of codes related to ‘IOS reconstruction’.

Enthusiasm others

Create support

IOS reconstruction User experience

Format for action

Create improvements Provide training

Managerial soft skills. Five soft skills were identified by the majority of the interviewees:

checking information, process thinking, conveying clear messages, individual communication, and flexibility. Goal-oriented thinking, making people feel safe and showing empathy are soft skills that are mentioned by three or less interviewees. These fewer notions do not make them less important.

The identified soft skills are divided into two categories: personal soft skills and social skills. Personal soft skills are the skills one can express without necessary interaction with others. Checking information, process thinking, goal-oriented thinking, and conveying clear messages are personal soft skills (Table 6). Social skills are the skills that do require interaction with others. Making people feel safe, showing empathy, and individual communication are social skills (Table 7).

Personal soft skills. Checking information before trusting the IT system is necessary to keep

daily operations working. In the case of IT system inefficiencies, distrust towards IT systems is often combined with a process overview. For example: “The system broke down, and today I must ship freight to a certain customer, but I cannot write it off, so I do that in my administration. And then the next day there is an order from a different customer for the same product. At the time SAP works again, the

12_{“Doordat er meerdere klachten ingestuurd waren […] heeft het hoofdkantoor de voorraadstatus op de website}

zodanig aangepast dat ontzettend duidelijk was […] Op die manier was het voor de klant dus altijd duidelijk hoe lang iemand […] moest wachten” (09, p62-63).

13_{“Dat je betere controle hebt over de voorraad en dat je weet wanneer iets aan gaat komen […]” (11, p74).} 14_{“Nou het effect is dat dingen allemaal soepeler lopen dan misschien het geval was geweest als het allemaal}

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product is still in the system but we also think that this freight has already been shipped”15. Managers must understand the impact of actions that were taken in IT system downtime and that the rebooted IT system does not display correct information. In case of data imparity, a history of events causes managers to check information. One interviewee still checks the data daily, even though IOS reconstruction made new events unlikely.

Checking information enhances managers’ ability to perform problem analysis. In a setting where IOS are used, interrelations are often complex. It could take much time to get well-informed after an event occurred. When managers check information to be up-to-date at any time, they are able to perform good and fast problem analysis. As discussed previously, this would improve resource efficiency.

Process thinking includes having an overview of processes, abstract thinking and an understanding of the market. It helps understanding linkages throughout the supply chain and how they impact the organisation’s interests. One interviewee states: “[…] it has to do with knowing the linkages. And if you change something on one side, you need to know the impact on the other side”16.

This skill enhances problem analysis by allowing managers to have a large understanding of relations and linkages in the processes. Awareness of these interlinkages and ability to reason with them allows managers to determine the possible causes of a problem. A difficulty here is that managers must not only be able to understand social processes and IT processes, but also the interconnectedness between those social and IT processes, to fully understand problem causes.

Goal-oriented thinking allows managers to reach predefined goals. Managers must have a sense of the supply chain’s priorities in different situations, as is displayed in this fragment: “[…] because at a certain moment I just make a decision. Because if you meet all different requirements, you will end up with seven different EDI systems”17. This manager keeps the overall and most important goals in mind when weighing requirements before making a decision.

Goal-oriented thinking is especially important in an IOS setting. Complexity of supply chain processes might diffuse managers’ attention. Different requirements can make a decision process difficult, and having a clear sense of direction allows managers to make proper decisions. Goal-oriented thinking is what keeps them on track. It also helps determining which colleagues should be consulted, and therefore impacts communication with colleagues.

15

“Het systeem is uit de lucht, en ik heb vandaag een vracht te leveren aan een bepaalde klant, maar ik kan het niet afboeken, dan doe ik dat administratief. En dan de volgende dag komt er een order van een andere klant voor hetzelfde product. Op het moment dat SAP weer in de lucht is staat dat product nog in het systeem maar denken we ook dat die vrachtwagen al weg is” (12, p. 81).

16

“[…] dat heeft dan ook weer te maken dat je weet waar de link ligt. En als je dan aan de ene kant wat verandert, dan weet je dat aan de andere kant invloed heeft” (11, p75).

17_{“[…] doordat ik op een gegeven moment ook maar gewoon een knoop doorhak. Want als je tegemoet komt aan}

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To convey clear messages, managers must be well-informed and transform raw data into information that colleagues and partners understand. Recipients influence how information is transferred. Consider the following fragment: “[…] it is different for each problem. I have one colleague, who every once in a while gives me […] two numbers on a post-it, and then I know what must be done. […] for us that is clear communication, while that could work out very differently with another colleague”18.

Conveying clear messages enables managers to communicate better with colleagues and partners. The fragment shows that understanding of an action plan depends on the receiver’s understanding of the message. While this might seem trivial, but the large amount of possible receivers of the message, including colleagues and partners, and their respective preferences regarding information exchange demand a large variety of methods in terms of what clear messages are.

Table 6. Categorisation of codes related to ‘personal soft skills’.

Not trust the system

Checking information

Personal soft skills Suspicion

Overview of process

Process thinking Understanding of market

Organisation's priorities clear

Goal-oriented thinking Goal-oriented

Importance Courage Well-informed

Convey clear messages Transform data into information

Social skills. The personal click between two persons and the amount of trust projected onto each

other largely influence making people feel safe. This skill is not used much within the interviewee’s organisations. An example: “This could be done by inspecting people, but also by supervisors checking in the IT system what buyers provide as input”19. But a two-directional relationship exists between partners. This shows from: “Sometimes our IT department receives a call from the customer’s IT

18

“[…] dat wisselt per probleem. Ik heb één collega, die geeft me af en toe […] twee nummers op een post-it, en dan weet ik wat er moet gebeuren. […] tussen ons is dat al heldere communicatie, terwijl dat voor een andere collega heel anders kan werken” (05a, p40).

19_{“Dit kan bijvoorbeeld door, eh, controle op mensen uit te voeren maar ook doordat supervisors in het systeem}

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department, ‘there is something odd going on, is there a problem at your side? Or is there a problem at

our side?’”20. The ability to make people feel safe thus impacts communication with partners.

Besides that, it is also important for creating support. Managers take in feedback on individual experiences and enthusiasm partners for active collaboration on improvements. Cooperative reconstruction efforts will lead to sustainable improvements. “We see the value of the changes we implement. If you are not actively involved eh, and you can […] enthusiasm other companies about the changes. Ultimately you will succeed, and your benefit from that”21. It is especially important to provide safety in IOS settings, as active involvement contributes to problem solving.

Showing empathy consists of empathy and coaching skills. Showing that you want the best for another and that you support each other helps creating strong relationships: “Because we know how the process works and you are interested and you want to listen to each other”22.

Empathy allows creating strong personal relations with partners. Solving events is easier if these interpersonal relations are in place, because partners are more compliant as they understand where their partners come from. Thus, showing empathy stimulates problem solving through enabling better communication with partners. It improves understanding and coming to consensus.

In settings of globally dispersed supply chains with IOS, showing empathy can be difficult. Personal relationships are difficult to create when there is no chance of meeting physically. This requires managers to show empathy, even when using email.

For individual communication, managers must adapt communication methods to conversation partners. One interviewee mentions: “I think it is very important that you can level your social skills, that you know who you are talking to and which information you should give”23. Speaking the same language and being able to use business language fall in this category. Also, listening to, explaining and convincing partners are relevant in that sense.

For communication with colleagues, this skill mostly includes explaining actions and providing a safe environment to perform jobs. For communication with partners it applies to maintaining relationships. Some partners prefer informal communication, others prefer formal communication. Understanding and adhering to partners’ preferences helps creating stronger relationships. Furthermore, this skill is useful to create support and improvements. As partners feel more valued, they are more likely

20_{“Dan wordt ook wel eens onze IT-afdeling gebeld door de IT-afdeling van de klant, er is iets raars aan de hand, is}

er soms bij jullie iets niet goed? Of zou het bij ons zitten?” (10, p66-67).

21

“[…] we zien de waarde van de verandering die we doorvoeren, als je daar zelf niet actief mee aan de slag gaat, eh, en de andere bedrijven […] ook enthousiast maken voor veranderingen, uiteindelijk krijg je dat voor mekaar, en heb je daar gewoon een belang bij […]” (04, p33-34).

22

“Omdat we allemaal goed weten hoe het proces werkt en je ook interesse hebt in de ander en je graag wilt

luisteren naar elkaar” (12, p81).

23_{“Ik denk dat dat wel heel belangrijk is, dat je sociale skills kunt levelen, zeg maar, dat je weet tegen wie je het}

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to cooperate in IOS reconstruction. Effective communication could also stimulate idea generation as a part of IOS improvement, because of aligned communication methods.

Flexibility is mainly used to deploy alternative actions and communication after events happened. Flexibility allows managers to minimise negative consequences. An example: “[…] then I just ask the

transporters, […] is it still possible to drive? That could be ‘yes’ or ‘no’. If they cannot drive, you alter the planning in such a way that transportation is not necessary […]”24. Thus, being flexible allows a manager to find solutions.

Flexibility is used for communication with partners. With the great interdependencies of IOS, flexibility is necessary to resume operations timely after events happened. This means that some moments organisational interests are subordinate to partners’ or supply chain interests, while at other times the organisation might prioritise own interests. Flexibility also stimulates creating improvements, as idea generation involves alignment with partners and customers.

Table 7. Categorisation of codes related to ‘social skills’.

Adapt communication to individual

Individual communication Social skills Consensus Convincing Listen Explaining Personal click

Making people feel safe Trust person

Empathy

Showing empathy Coaching skills

Flexible Flexibility

Figure 2 represents an inclusive list of managerial soft skills and their influences on IOS interaction. The goal of this phase of the research was to include all relevant concepts rather than to distinguish between settings in which certain concepts are more relevant than other concepts. In Figure 3, these different relationships are conjoined per subgroup. Here too, different configurations might come about depending on the contextual setting.

24

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Figure 2. A visual representation of concepts and interrelations that were identified in the interviews.

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DISCUSSION

In this section, the findings related to the three sub questions are discussed and compared to existing literature to formulate an answer to the research question. Propositions result from these discussions throughout the text.

Sub question 1:

How does IOS interaction influence performance?

Resource efficiency, customer satisfaction and supply chain continuation are identified as performance categories. These differ from the performance measures as identified by Beamon (1999): resource, output, and flexibility. Resource efficiency and resource both focus on time and costs. This supports that efficient use of tangible and specifically measurable assets remains of high importance throughout supply chains, although situational contexts might be shifting,.

Customer satisfaction strongly relates to, yet differs from output. Output is operationalized as a composite of product quality, delivery and customer responsiveness, and is generally referred to as customer responsiveness (Beamon, 1999). Although customers play a major role in determining the performance levels, the focal point is the supply chain. Customer satisfaction, on the other hand, takes the customer as focal point and allows supply chains to shift from rather responsive to proactive positions.

Supply chain continuation encompasses and extends beyond flexibility. Flexibility is the ability to align scheduling between suppliers, manufacturers and customers (Wu & Chiu, 2018). Supply chain continuation takes this operationalization as a basis and extends with the ability to improve operations after events. Supply chain continuation thus specifically and proactively accounts for disruptive events, while flexibility holds a more responsive approach to possible disruptions. This supports the idea that supply chains are not using appropriate performance measures (Wu & Chiu, 2018), resulting in proposition 1.

Proposition 1: Resource efficiency, customer satisfaction, and supply chain continuation determine

performance in technology-enabled supply chains.

IOS interaction is a combination of IOS use and IOS reconstruction. IOS use overcomes problematic events. Small changes that result from overcoming these events cause the IOS to evolve. After repeated events, the IOS is reconstructed. New events will happen, requiring IOS use and IOS reconstruction. Thus, ongoing IOS interaction must be seen as a trajectory of continuous interaction with IT systems and human action.

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information sharing (Wu et al., 2014). Similar to the results of this research, information integration or sharing allows supply chain partners to benefit from improved data quality. Information needs to be available for problem analysis, and needs to be communicated in person as well as via alternative communication methods. IOS support information exchange throughout complex interrelations. Thus, through IOS use, supply chain partners are able to integrate information, thereby improving resource efficiency and supply chain continuation.

The two components of IOS reconstruction contribute to improved performance on all three components. This outcome links well to relational integration (Leuschner et al., 2013) and collaborative effort (Wu et al., 2014). These concepts focus on establishing long-term relationships and creating mutual advantages. Establishing long-term relationships is achieved by communicating with partners and creating support. Creating mutual advantages is achieved by creating improvements. This research shows that both components of IOS reconstruction and one component of IOS use (i.e. communicating with partners) improve performance through building and maintaining relationships. This leads to propositions 2 and 3.

Proposition 2: IOS use improves performance via information integration and relational integration. Proposition 3: IOS reconstruction improves performance via relational integration.

Thus, IOS interaction is a combination of IOS use and IOS reconstruction to continue operations and to improve existing structures. Engaging in problem analysis, communicating with colleagues and partners, and creating improvements in the IOS improve resource efficiency and supply chain continuation through information integration. Engaging in communication with partners, creating improvements, and creating support improve resource efficiency, customer satisfaction and supply chain continuation through relational integration.

Sub question 2: Which soft skills are relevant to supply chain managers using IOS?

Four personal soft skills are identified. Process thinking is comparable to the ability to keep the big picture in mind while focusing on details, as identified by Van Hoek et al. (2002). Goal-oriented thinking is similar to problem-solving as identified by Cottrill (2010). Checking information before assuming that the IT system provides correct information is not mentioned as a soft skill before. Conveying clear messages includes understanding what information is required and how to transfer it. This links to effective communication as identified by Cottrill (2010).

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specific than the social skills as identified by Myers et al. (2004). Showing empathy is effective in forming horizontal relationships. While Beamon (1999) sees flexibility as an outcome, this research finds it an enabling soft skill.

Most interviewees deem social skills unnecessary in situations where IOS work as intended and no events happen. This supports the idea that hard skills play a larger role in well-defined situations than soft skills (Dubey & Gunasekaran, 2015; Wheeler, 2016). IOS work as designed and only few variations to these processes come about. As a result, job functions are mostly known and predictable and do not require process transcending social skills.

When IOS do not work as designed, so-called events happen. Two types of events identified in this research are data imparity and IT system inefficiencies. These can identify as quality problems and IT system failures respectively (Coates, 2014; Dittmann, 2014). Data imparity means that data in the system do not represent reality and thus, the quality of the data is lacking. IT system failures represent events in which electronic linkages do not work as intended by the designers. IT system inefficiencies extend this with electronic linkages that do not work as desired by users. Countermeasures to data imparity require a combination of personal soft skills and social skills. Countermeasures to IT system inefficiencies primarily require social skills. Thus, configurations of soft skills and IOS interaction activities might differ per setting.

In case of data imparity events, managers tend to turn to IOS use activities, thereby requiring a combination of personal soft skills and social skills. Only when the data imparity event occurs frequently, they turn to IOS reconstruction activities, requiring predominantly social skills. However, when IT system inefficiencies are the case, managers tend to turn straight to IOS reconstruction activities. The type of managerial soft skills required for each type of situation differs, yet there are also differences between different cases in similar types of situations. This gives rise to Proposition 4 and 5.

Proposition 4: Personal soft skills help overcome data imparity events.

Proposition 5: Social skills help overcome data imparity and IT system inefficiency events.

Managing across boundaries: The influence of managerial soft skills on performance in technology-enabled supply chains