The role of nature on
impulsive behavior
The effects of nature imagery in advertising on the need for
cognitive closure and impulsive behavior, and the moderating
role of product related nature imagery
by
Lisa Zoet
2
The role of nature on
impulsive behavior
The effects of nature imagery in advertising on the need for
cognitive closure and impulsive behavior, and the moderating
role of product related nature imagery
by
Lisa Zoet
June, 2015
University of Groningen
Faculty of Economics and Business
Master Thesis, Marketing Management
Thesis supervisor: Dr. Y. Joye
2nd Thesis supervisor: Dr. K. van Ittersum Archipelweg 52, 8924 AC LEEUWARDEN zoet.lisa@gmail.com
1 ABSTRACT
Marketers have long recognized the significance of impulse buying. Retailers are continually trying to increase the number of impulse purchases through, for example store design, product displays, package design, and sales (Hoyer & MacInnis, 1997). Despite the observation that nature inhabits an absolutely central position, relatively little attention has been paid to the changing use, and to the ‘construction’ of nature in advertising (Hansen, 2002). We wanted to test with the current exploratory study whether the use of different types of nature imagery (spectacular vs. mundane) and the product relatedness (product related vs. product un-related) has different effects on consumers’ need for cognitive closure and, as a consequence, their impulsive behavior. Advertisements that use mundane nature imagery are those of the brand Campina. In Campina’s advertisements the dairy products are presented in a meadow; a product related context. On the contrary, advertisements that use spectacular nature imagery are those of the brand BMW. In BMW’s advertisements the new BMW six series is presented in front of mountains and rocks; a product un-related context. We found no effects on the relationship between nature type and impulsive behavior. Additionally, we found no effects on cognitive closure and impulsive behavior. Interestingly, we found an interaction between nature type and product relatedness on the need for cognitive closure. Specifically, participants who were exposed to the product un-related spectacular nature advertisement were less in need for cognitive closure than participants exposed to the product un-related mundane nature advertisement. Implications and areas for future research are also addressed.
Key words: advertising, nature imagery, need for cognitive closure, elaboration likelihood model, impulsive behavior, product (un-)related imagery
PREFACE
2 TABLE OF CONTENT
1 - INTRODUCTION ... 4
2 – LITERATURE REVIEW ... 8
2.1-USE OF NATURE IMAGERY IN ADVERTISING ... 8
2.2-PSYCHO-PHYSIOLOGICAL RESPONSES TO NATURE IMAGERY ... 9
Attention Restoration Theory ... 9
Stress Recovery Theory ... 10
2.3-STATE EXPERIENCE OF AWE ... 11
2.4–NEED FOR COGNITIVE CLOSURE ... 13
2.5–ELABORATION LIKELIHOOD FRAMEWORK ... 14
2.6–IMPULSIVE BEHAVIOR ... 15
Mood and Impulsive Behavior ... 16
Cognitive closure and Impulsive Behavior ... 17
Affective-Cognitive model and Impulsive Behavior ... 17
2.7–PRODUCT RELATED NATURE ... 19
2.8-CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK ... 22
3 - METHODOLOGY ... 23
3.1–EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN &PARTICIPANTS ... 23
3.2–MATERIALS &MEASUREMENT SCALES... 24
Materials ... 24
Measurement Scales ... 26
3.3-PROCEDURE ... 29
4 – RESULTS ... 30
4.1–NATURE EFFECTS ON IMPULSIVE BEHAVIOR ... 30
4.2–NATURE EFFECTS ON NEED FOR COGNITIVE CLOSURE ... 32
4.3–EFFECTS OF NEED FOR COGNITIVE CLOSURE ON IMPULSIVE BEHAVIOR ... 34
4.4-DISCUSSION ... 35
5 – DISCUSSION ... 37
5.1-SUMMARY ... 37
5.2–LIMITATIONS AND FUTURE RESEARCH ... 39
5.3–THEORETICAL AND MANAGERIAL IMPLICATIONS ... 40
Theoretical implications ... 40
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5.4–CONCLUSION ... 41
REFERENCES ... 42
APPENDIX ... 49
1-SCALES NEED FOR COGNITIVE CLOSURE ... 49
2-EXPERIMENT FLOW ... 49
4 1 - INTRODUCTION
Marketers have long recognized the significance of impulse buying. In fact, the study by Bellenger, Robertson and Hirschman (1978) has reported that 38.7% of department store purchases are bought on impulse. Researchers agree that impulse buying occurs when a consumer makes an unintended, unreflective, and immediate purchase (cf. Rook, 1987; Rook & Fisher, 1995). Retailers are continually trying to increase the number of impulse purchases through, for example store design, product displays, package design, and sales (Hoyer & MacInnis, 1997). To increase impulse purchases, nature imagery could be used in advertising. Nature imagery contains elements such as pictures (e.g., backgrounds representing natural landscapes, forests) or elements that exert more subtle influence, which activate implicit references to nature through colors (e.g., green, blue) (Parguel & Moreau, 2013). According to Hartmann, Apaolaza, and Alija (2013), nature imagery in advertising could potentially improve the attention towards advertising messages, compared to other rather attractive product-unrelated images. The beneficial emotional effects of nature, discussed in literature on environmental psychology, may result in an increase in advertising effectiveness. Hartmann, Apaolaza, and Alija (2013) study indicates that attention towards advertising messages can be enhanced by showing pleasant nature imagery in advertisements.
When reviewing the literature concerning the use of nature imagery in advertising, different theoretical streams suggest that there might be a relationship between exposure to nature imagery and impulsive behavior. Impulse buying occurs when consumers suddenly decide to purchase something they had not planned on buying (Hoyer, MacInnes, & Pieters, 2012). Literature on environmental psychology refers to the existence of a not previously addressed perceptual mechanism. In this perceptual mechanism a link is established between psycho-physiological responses to nature imagery and an enhanced cognitive elaboration of the message containing the nature imagery. This environmental psychology research stream encompasses the Attention Restoration Theory (ART; Kaplan & Kaplan 1989; Kaplan 1995) and Ulrich’s psycho-physiological stress recovery theory (SRT; Ulrich 1981, 1983; Ulrich et al. 1991). These research streams suggest that visual exposure to nature imagery reduces stress and enhance cognitive functioning.
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research identifies a distinction between two concepts. On the one hand side are the self-diminishing effects of awe, caused for instance by spectacular nature imagery. Spectacular nature imagery can, for example refer to mountains, vistas, storms, and oceans (Keltner & Haidt, 2003). On the other hand side are the self-focused attentional effects (Keltner & Haidt, 2003) and the experimentally induced happy affect (Salovey, 1992; Silvia & Abele, 2002). These opposite effects of awe are induced by familiar interaction partners such as mundane nature imagery. Mundane nature imagery is ordinary, for instance, a meadow or a green lawn (Dale, 2009).
Nature imagery inhabits an absolutely central position in social discourse in general, and more specifically in film and media representation. Despite this observation, relatively little attention has been paid to the changing use, and to the ‘construction’ of nature in advertising (Hansen, 2002). Moreover, the use of tactical marketing instruments, such as nature imagery, has not concretely been addressed until now (e.g. Gillespie, 2008; Horiuchi & Schuchard, 2009). Additionally, we found a gap in literature on the differential effects of using mundane nature imagery compared to spectacular nature imagery in advertising. Moreover, there is a lack in literature on the effects of the use of product (un-)related nature imagery in advertising (Hartmann & Apaolaza-Ibanez, 2009). Advertisements that use mundane nature imagery are those of the brand Campina. In Campina’s advertisements the dairy products are presented in a meadow; a product related context. On the contrary, advertisements that use spectacular nature imagery are those of the brand BMW. In BMW’s advertisements the new BMW six series is presented in front of mountains and rocks; a product un-related context.
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In addition to the research avenues for the effects of using nature imagery in advertising and the probability of need for cognitive closure functioning as a situational inducible state, marketers have recognized the significance of impulsive behavior. Therefore, the consumer behavior variable impulsivity will be tested. Impulse buying is an important topic to retailers and product manufacturers seeking to increase category sales. Several billion dollars are spent each year on in-store advertising materials in the hope that consumer choice will be influenced as a result. However, the process by which consumers make such decisions is not well understood (Inman, Ferraro, & Winer, 2004).
The aim of this study is to broaden the scope of existing advertising literature on the representation of nature imagery. As stated previously, need for cognitive closure could represent a situational inducible state. Therefore, we propose that the two different nature types (spectacular vs. mundane) function as stimulus conditions, which could induce different situational states. These different situational states are subject to the two nature imagery types being processed in different ways. We suggest that these different stimuli and states lead to different levels of need for cognitive closure. In sequence, these different levels of need for cognitive closure influence consumers’ impulsive behavior.
We propose that exposure to advertisements with spectacular nature imagery causes a state of awe in the mind of consumers. This state of awe leads to the advertisement being interpreted in light of argument cues. When argument cues are used to process an advertisement, consumers may carefully consider the merits of the message, paying close attention to the quality of the arguments. According to the elaboration likelihood framework (ELM) this represents the systematic processing route. In this processing route, consumers’ need for cognitive closure is assumed to be low. On the contrary, we propose that exposure to advertisements with mundane nature imagery causes a happy affect. This happy affect leads to the advertisement being interpreted in light of heuristic cues. When heuristic cues are used to process an advertisement, consumers may not engage in a thorough consideration of the message’s merits. According to the ELM this represents the heuristic processing route. In this processing route, consumers’ need for cognitive closure is assumed to be high.
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better process the advertisement. These consumers can better process the advertisements since they can better cope with the ambiguity of the product not matching its context (e.g. origin of product), compared to consumers that are exposed to mundane nature imagery.
Our main proposition is that consumers that are exposed to in-store displays containing spectacular nature imagery will have a lower likelihood of impulse buying behavior. Because, as previously stated, the advertisements will be interpreted in light of arguments cues. Moreover, we propose that in this state, consumers’ need for cognitive closure is low, which in sequence, will result in a lower likelihood of impulsive behavior. In sum, we can state the following research question:
“What are the effects of spectacular nature imagery compared to mundane nature imagery in advertising on the level of need for cognitive closure and impulsive behavior, and what is the moderating role of product related nature imagery?”
Our contributions to literature are as follows. By conducting this study, we have tested if the use of spectacular nature imagery in advertising leads to a low need for cognitive closure and whether the use of mundane nature imagery leads to a high need for cognitive closure. Additionally, we determine if product un-related nature imagery may lead to differences in the level of need for cognitive closure and impulsive behavior, compared to using product related nature imagery. Furthermore, we extend the conceptual framework of previous research on nature-evoking advertising by including the effects of nature imagery on impulsive behavior. By doing this, we provide marketers and retailers with information that could influence consumers’ choice in their impulse buying behavior.
8 2 – LITERATURE REVIEW
The aim of this study is to understand the different effects of using spectacular nature imagery compared to mundane nature imagery in advertising. We will focus primarily on the different effects of nature on consumers’ need for cognitive closure and, in sequence, on their impulsive behavior. Additionally, we study if the effects on the need for cognitive closure and impulsive behavior are different when using product related nature imagery versus product un-related nature imagery. The literature review is structured as follows. First, the use of nature imagery in advertising is discussed; in which spectacular nature imagery and mundane nature imagery are covered. Second, the psycho-physiological responses to nature are outlined. Third, the state experience of awe is defined. Fourth, the effect of exposure to spectacular and mundane nature imagery on consumers’ need for cognitive closure and elaboration likelihood is discussed. Fifth, a link is established from consumers’ need for cognitive closure and elaboration likelihood of processing the advertisement and their reflective level of impulsive behavior. Sixth, the effects of the moderator product (un-)related nature is outlined. Finally, this section ends with a conceptual model that summarizes the main hypotheses of the current research.
2.1 - USE OF NATURE IMAGERY IN ADVERTISING
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2009). This significant aspect of human behavior is demonstrated in numerous studies, humans have a preference for environments with natural elements over built environments or environments that are dominated by built elements (Kaplan & Kaplan, 1989; Purcell et al., 1994; Cackowski & Nasar, 2003).
In addition to nature being a significant aspect of human behavior, the beneficial behavioral effects of interaction with nature can potentially be yielded by advertising (Hartmann, Apaolaza, & Alija, 2013). This section outlines the different uses of nature in advertising. Advertising execution refers to ‘how advertising messages are presented’ (Stanton & Burke, 1998) and includes elements, such as color (Gorn, Goldberg, Chattopadhyay & Litvack, 1991), visual type (Grossman & Till, 1998) or picture quality (Miniard, Sirdeshmukh, & Innis, 1992). In green advertising tactical marketing instruments are chosen to communicate the ecological character of the product or brand through backgrounds representing natural landscapes (e.g. mountains, forests), pictures symbolizing endangered animals (e.g. pandas, dolphins) or renewable sources of energy (e.g. wind, waterfalls). In this study, two types of nature imagery will be used, namely spectacular nature imagery and mundane nature imagery. Spectacular nature imagery can, for instance, refer to mountains, vistas, storms, and oceans (Keltner & Haidt, 2003). On the contrary, mundane nature imagery is the opposite of spectacular nature imagery. Mundane nature imagery is ordinary, for instance, a meadow or a green lawn (Dale, 2009). 2.2 - PSYCHO-PHYSIOLOGICAL RESPONSES TO NATURE IMAGERY
We already named two environmental psychology theories in the introduction, namely the ART and the SRT. We will review these theories to address some of the beneficial effects of nature on consumer behaviour. We will briefly explain the ART and the SRT below to give a review about the psycho-physiological responses to nature, and will focus the remainder of the paper on the cognitive effects of the state experience of awe.
ATTENTION RESTORATION THEORY
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landscapes) captures involuntary attention modestly (Kaplan, 1995). Such environments minimise the requirement for directed attention (Hartmann, Apaolaza & Alija, 2013).
A stream of empirical research has provided support for ART. Berman, Jonides and Kaplan (2008) have carried out two experiments. These experiments show that walking in nature or viewing nature imagery can improve directed attention capabilities as measured with a backwards digit-span task and an attention network task.
Thus, the restoration of recipients’ directed attention may lead to improved cognitive advertising message elaboration and memory. As suggested by ART, nature imagery could enhance cognitive elaboration and recall, even if experienced as an accompanying visual element of an advertisement (Hartmann, Apaolaza & Alija, 2013).
STRESS RECOVERY THEORY
In addition to the ART, another research stream has investigated the effects of nature imagery on humans’ affective reactions; namely Ulrich’s SRT. According to the SRT (Ulrich, 1981, 1983, 1984, 1986, 1993; Ulrich et al., 1991), exposure to natural environments (including visual exposure to nature on colour slides or video) induces positive emotional responses and a state of sustained, wakefully relaxed attention. This state of sustained, wakefully relaxed attention improves cognitive elaboration. After nature exposure, negatively toned feelings are reduced and a decrease in physiological arousal from high to moderate levels takes place. These effects lead to a decrease in stress, which in turn improves emotional, physiological and cognitive functioning (Hartmann, Apaolaza & Alija, 2013).
11 2.3 - STATE EXPERIENCE OF AWE
The theories mentioned above, cover the literature stream regarding the ATR of Kaplan and the SRT of Ulrich. However, there is another research stream regarding the use of spectacular nature imagery which may lead to the feeling state of awe. Awe involves “being in the presence of something powerful, along with associated feelings of submission. Awe involves a difficulty in comprehension, along with associated feelings of confusion, surprise and wonder” (Keltner & Haidt 2003, p. 303). Prototypical elicitors of awe include panoramic views, works of great art, and others’ remarkable accomplishments.
The following summarized points will be elaborated on thoroughly in this section. The focus will be one the state experience of awe as this theory covers both responses towards conceptually complex, information-rich stimuli (e.g. spectacular nature imagery), as well as familiar interaction stimuli (e.g. mundane nature imagery). The state experience of awe serves primarily cognitive functions. Awe is triggered mainly by spectacular nature imagery, such as mountains, vistas, storms, and oceans, which is associated with low need for cognitive closure (Keltner & Haidt, 2003). Awe leads to low cognitive closure as it promotes accommodative, stimulus driven cognition. People that experience awe are more comfortable revising their own schemas, and creating new ones when necessary (Shiota, Keltner, & Mossman, 2007). Moreover, Griskevicius, Shiota, and Neufeld’s (2010) research shows that awe lead to decreased endorsement of a weak persuasive message, which is consistent with systematic processing. In contrast, the opposite of awe are familiar interaction partners or material rewards (Salovey, 1992; Silvia & Abele, 2002). Mundane nature imagery is used to experimentally induce a happy affect and increase self-focused attention. People come in contact with mundane nature often and, therefore, it is a rather familiar interaction partner. In general, positive affect has been found to heuristic processing. People in this state are less likely to scrutinize incoming information carefully, and more likely to base their judgments on simplifying heuristics (Griskevicius, Shiota, & Neufeld, 2010).
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outside the self (Keltner & Haidt, 2003). On the contrary, familiar interaction partners or material rewards lead to rather self-focused and self-enhancing effects (Keltner & Haidt, 2003). Keltner and Haidt (2003) propose that awe is a response to vastness and entails a need for accommodation, and therefore awe should lead to a decreased self-focused attention. In contrast, previous studies have found that experimentally induced happiness increases self-focused attention (e.g., Salovey, 1992; Silvia & Abele, 2002).
In this study, awe is elicited by spectacular nature which is associated with low need for cognitive closure (Keltner & Haidt, 2003). Awe leads to low cognitive closure, as awe promotes accommodative, stimulus driven cognition. Individuals who experience awe relatively often and/or intensely show greater than average schema change (Shiota, Keltner, & Mossman, 2007). Therefore, those individuals are more comfortable revising their own schemas, and creating new ones when necessary. Moreover, positive emotions of awe lead to decreased endorsement of a weak persuasive message, which is consistent with systematic processing. Therefore, the theorized function of awe is to increase systematic, accommodative processing, and therefore awe leads to more careful scrutiny of persuasive messages (Griskevicius, Shiota, & Neufeld, 2010).
13 2.4 –NEED FOR COGNITIVE CLOSURE
In this study, we focus on the effects that spectacular- and mundane nature imagery have on the need for cognitive closure and impulsive behavior. In this section, the focus will be on the different effects nature types will have on the need for cognitive closure. Need for cognitive closure refers to an individual’s desire for a firm answer to a question and an aversion toward ambiguity (Kruglanski & Webster, 1996). When need for cognitive closure is low, consumers become more curious and open-minded. Moreover, they prefer to suspend judgment until they have processed all the available information (Kruglanski & Ajzen, 1983; Kruglanski &Webster, 1996).
Need for cognitive closure is mainly assessed as a personality trait. However, as Van Hiel and Mervielde (2003) state, besides need for cognitive closure being a personality trait of stable individual differences, it could also be assumed that it represents a situational inducible state. The motivation for cognitive closure is defined as "the desire for a definite answer on some topic, any answer as opposed to confusion and ambiguity" (Kruglanski, 1989, p. 114). This need is assumed to represent a dimension of stable individual differences as well as a situationally inducible state. This situational induced state is evoked by contexts that highlight the benefits of possessing closure and the costs of lacking closure (Kruglanski & Webster, 1996). Kruglanski (1989, 1990) argued that individuals under heightened need for closure tend to "seize" and "freeze" on preexisting or otherwise accessible judgmental cues instead of elaborately processing new information. These tendencies may reflect the desire of individuals with a high need for cognitive closure to reach closure urgently and to keep it permanently (Kruglanski & Webster, 1996).
As a situational inducible variable, need for cognitive closure has been found to influence the extent of an individual's information processing in a number of person perception studies. Heaton and Kruglanski (1991) investigated the effects of time pressure on judgmental processes. Time pressure is assumed to situationally heighten need for closure by raising the costs of lacking closure. Moreover, alternative means of situationally inducing need for cognitive closure are noisy information processing environments (Kruglanski & Webster, 1991; Kruglanski, Webster, & Klem, 1993), mental fatigue (Webster, Richter, & Kruglanski, 1996), and subjectively unattractive judgmental tasks (Webster, 1993).
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2002). Since spectacular nature imagery is both more ambiguous and more incongruent opposed to mundane nature imagery, it should trigger the consumer’s sense-making equipment (curiosity about the brand). This sense-making equipment is likely to decrease the need for cognitive closure (Berlyne, 1971; Heckler & Childers, 1992; Lee & Mason, 1999; McQuarrie & Mick, 1992). At this point, consumers are less resistant to persuasive messages because of a decreasing need for cognitive closure. This low need for cognitive closure causes an increase in curiosity and open-mindedness, and thus a decrease in defensiveness. Interaction with mundane nature imagery leads to the opposite effect. Therefore, we suggest that spectacular nature imagery may decrease need for cognitive closure and mundane nature imagery may increase need for cognitive closure. Hence, we propose the following hypothesis:
H1: The use of (a) spectacular nature imagery in advertising leads to low need for cognitive closure, compared to (b) using mundane nature imagery, which leads to high need for cognitive closure. 2.5 – ELABORATION LIKELIHOOD FRAMEWORK
The discussion thus far suggests that availability of processing recourses is a critical variable which is likely to affect the relative impact of affective reactions and cognitions on choice. The availability of processing recourses has been central to various other popular models such as the Elaboration Likelihood Model (ELM; Petty & Cacioppo, 1986). Moreover, an individual's general motivation to expand mental effort significantly impacts persuasion processes by affecting both the type and amount of information processed (i.e., affecting the route to persuasion pursued) (Petty & Cacioppo, 1986). It follows then, that other variables known to exert a general influence on information processing may also affect persuasion. One such variable that affects social-cognitive processing is the need for cognitive closure (Klein & Webster, 2000).
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As previously mentioned, the ELM identifies two routes to persuasion. Recipients of a persuasive advertisement may arrive at an evaluative judgment in one of two ways. In one way, they may carefully consider the merits of the message, paying close attention to the quality of the arguments (systematic processing). As previously stated, positive emotions of awe lead to decreased endorsement of a weak persuasive message, which is consistent with systematic processing (Griskevicius, Shiota, & Neufeld, 2010). On the other hand, they may not engage in a thorough consideration of the message’s merits, but instead rely on heuristic cues such as the communicator’s expertise or the sheer length of the message (heuristic processing; e.g., Goldstein, Cialdini, & Griskevicius, 2008). As previously stated, mundane nature imagery experimentally induces a happy affect (Salovey, 1992; Silvia & Abele, 2002) and has been found to facilitate peripheral, heuristic, or simple processing (Griskevicius, Shiota, & Neufeld, 2010).
In the study of Klein and Webster (2000), individuals who are relatively high in need for closure processed a persuasive message according to heuristic cues, and failed to attend systematically to the message content. In contrast, individuals who are relatively low in need for closure scrutinized the message content, presumably due to a greater motivation to process information. Therefore, we propose that individuals experiencing the state experience of awe, elicited by spectacular nature imagery, will follow a systematic route of processing the advertisement, while their need for cognitive closure is low (Berlyne, 1971; Heckler & Childers, 1992; Lee & Mason, 1999; McQuarrie & Mick, 1992). On the contrary, individuals exposed to mundane nature imagery will rather follow a heuristic route of processing the advertisement, while their need for cognitive closure is proposed to be high.
2.6 – IMPULSIVE BEHAVIOR
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related to unfulfilled pleasure-seeking needs are often triggered by the consumer’s exposure to an external stimulus, such as an in-store display, a Web ad, or a TV ad with a phone number (Ramanathan & Menon, 2006).
Even though consumers’ purchase decisions are influenced by a variety of factors, their attitudes toward the product and the brand are powerful predictors of buying decisions. Attitudes are considered major determinants of behavior by practically all social psychological models of behavior (Eagly & Chaiken, 1993). People tend to buy products they consider attractive or useful and avoid buying products they think of as unattractive or useless (Fennis & Stroebe, 2010). Hartmann and Apaolaza-Ibanez (2009) provide evidence showing that visual cues such as nature imagery lead to more positive brand attitudes.
In following sections, we will review the literature on different mechanisms leading to impulsive behaviors. First, we will review pre-purchase mood and its effects on impulsive behavior. Second, we will review the positive relationship between the need for cognitive closure and impulsive behavior. Third, we will review the affective-cognitive model and impulsive behavior.
MOOD AND IMPULSIVE BEHAVIOR
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COGNITIVE CLOSURE AND IMPULSIVE BEHAVIOR
As mentioned earlier, the need for cognitive closure needed examination, since it is a variable related to impulsivity (Logan, Schachar, & Tannck, 1997) and moderates the impact of affective and cognitive reaction on consumer choice. Impulsive behavior may be positively related to the need for cognitive closure (Webster& Kruglanski, 1994). It has been referred to as a tendency to be impulsive, spontaneous, and careless as opposed to controlled, reflective, and cautious (Tellegen, 1982). Specifically, a heightened need for closure may increase the immediacy with which closure is desired. This may increase the readiness to accept and act on the first idea that comes to mind, that is, the tendency to be impulsive (Webster & Kruglanski, 1994). In this study, awe is proposed to be elicited by spectacular nature imagery, which is associated with low need for cognitive closure (Shiota, Keltner, & Mossman, 2007) and may, as a consequence, lower consumer’s impulsive behavior. Moreover, the function of awe increases systematic, accommodative processing, and therefore awe leads to a more careful scrutiny of persuasive messages (Griskevicius, Shiota, & Neufeld, 2010). In contrast, the opposite of awe are familiar interactions partners (Salovey, 1992; Silvia & Abele, 2002), for instance mundane nature. Therefore, mundane nature is proposed to be associated with a higher need for cognitive closure. Thus, mundane nature imagery may increase the immediacy with which closure is desired. Hence, it may increase consumers’ impulsive behavior, leading to more impulse purchases while shopping.
AFFECTIVE-COGNITIVE MODEL AND IMPULSIVE BEHAVIOR
To test for the effects of different nature types on impulsivity, we will follow the reasoning of Shiv and Fedorikhin (1999) and the affective-cognitive model of Berkowitz (1993). Shiv and Fedorikhin (1999) propose a binary choice context where one alterative (unhealthy food choice) is superior on the affective dimension (i.e. is associated with more intense positive affect), but is inferior on the cognitive dimension (i.e. is associated with less favorable cognitions) compared to the other alterative (healthy food choice).
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processing (Klein & Webster, 2000). These pre-attentive processes occur relatively quickly and may give rise to lower-order affective reactions. Therefore, choice is likely to be based primarily on the affective reactions. As a consequence, under these conditions the probability is high that the consumer will end up choosing the alterative that is superior on the affective dimension (unhealthy food choice).
The second process is a more deliberative, higher-order cognitive process, the outcome of which may serve to strengthen or weaken the action tendencies arising from the lower-order affective reactions (Berkowitz, 1993). We propose that this happens when an advertisement with spectacular nature imagery is shown. As we already mentioned, advertisements with spectacular nature are associated with low need for cognitive closure (Shiota, Keltner, & Mossman, 2007). Moreover, as previously stated, the function of awe increases systematic, accommodative processing, and therefore awe leads to a more careful scrutiny of persuasive messages (Griskevicius, Shiota, & Neufeld, 2010). Shiv and Fedorikhin (1999) assume that the alternative that is superior on the affective dimension is also inferior on the cognitive dimension compared to the other alternative (healthy food choice). Therefore, the probability that the affective choice (unhealthy food choice) will be chosen is likely to be reduced.
Finally, the affective significance of the outcome of the order processing may result in higher-order affective reactions and action tendencies. These higher-higher-order affective reactions and action tendencies are engendered relatively slowly compared to lower-order affective reactions. These are engendered relatively slowly since the information is subject to more deliberative processes before these reactions can occur (Berkowitz, 1993).
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In sum, the above review of literature on the different mechanisms leading to impulsive behavior suggest the following hypotheses:
H2: When (a) spectacular nature imagery is used in advertising this will lead to a lower likelihood of impulsive behavior, whereas (b) mundane nature imagery is used in advertising this will lead to a higher likelihood of impulsive behavior.
H3: When (a) peoples’ need for cognitive closure is low, their likelihood of impulsive behavior is low, whereas (b) when people’s need for cognitive closure is high, their likelihood of impulsive behavior is high.
2.7 – PRODUCT RELATED NATURE
In this section, the potential moderator product (un-)related nature will be discussed. The research of Hartman, Apaolaza-Ibanez and Alija (2013) refers exclusively to verbal advertising messages presented in combination with un-related nature imagery. Their findings show that nature imagery in advertising potentially improves the attention towards the adverting messages. However, they did not consider the effects of product related nature imagery. Therefore, we have included the moderator product (un-)related nature imagery to assess these effects on people’s need for cognitive closure and their impulsive behavior.
Extant literature in implicit memory research provides evidence that processing fluency may be either perceptual or conceptual in nature (Tulving & Schacter, 1990). In this study the focus will be on conceptual fluency. This because conceptual fluency is influenced by variables like semantic priming, semantic predictability, context congruity, rhyme, etc. (e.g., Kelley & Jacoby; 1998; McGlone & Tofighbakhsh, 2000; Poldrack & Logan, 1998; Roediger, 1990; Whittlesea, 1993).
In this study, we propose that the moderator facilitates conceptual fluency, namely when the nature imagery used is product related. Conceptual fluency reflects the ease with which the target comes to consumers’ minds and pertains to the processing of meanings (e.g., Hamann, 1990). With product relatedness we have made a distinction between product related nature imagery, which is congruent and enhances conceptual fluency, and on the contrary product un-related nature imagery.
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of the product concept in memory during advertisement exposure. Consistent with the previously mentioned Whittlesea (1993) study, this in turn should create greater feelings of conceptual fluency. Greater feelings of conceptual fluency should lead to an increased likelihood of including the advertised product in a consideration set and forming more positive attitudes toward the target (Whittlesea, 1993).
As previously stated, conceptual fluency is influenced by variables like context congruity. In advertising, nature plays different roles. According to the study of Merten (1993), three categories of green claims can be identified; (a) the advertisement pretends to establish a direct relationship of the product with nature, emphasizing, for instance, its reduced environmental impact; (b) nature as the origin of the product; and (c) vague and mainly visual associations with nature through the use of imageries of landscapes or the colors green and blue. In this study, the focus will be on the second green claim, namely nature being the origin of the product and, thereby, presenting the product in a congruent context. For the product related nature condition, the product will be presented in front of its product origin (congruent with its context). In contrast, for the product un-related condition, the product will be presented in front of nature which is not related to the product origin (incongruent with its context).
We propose that when product related nature imagery is used in advertising, this will lead to a fluency effect. The product related nature imagery may function as a cue, in which the stimulus is "familiar". The stimulus is familiar because it shows the products’ origin. Moreover, product related nature imagery is semantically related because the product is displayed in a congruent context (e.g. the product and nature imagery are related to each other). A fluency-familiarity link is supported by empirical findings and computer simulations that identified several differences in the processing dynamics of familiar and novel stimuli (Winkielman, Schwarz, Fazendeiro & Reber, 2003). First, familiar stimuli are processed faster than novel stimuli (e.g., Haber & Hershenson, 1965; Jacoby & Dallas, 1981). Second, familiar stimuli elicit less attentional orienting than novel stimuli (Desimone et al., 1995). Third, familiar stimuli result in a sharper, more coherent network response than novel stimuli (Lewenstein & Nowak, 1989; Norman et al., 2000). Fourth, familiar stimuli do not generate a global "mismatch" signal (Carpenter & Grossberg, 1995; Metcalfe, 1993).
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Haber & Hershenson, 1965; Jacoby & Dallas, 1981). On the contrary, we predict that when product un-related imagery is used, this is rather seen as novel stimuli and the conceptual fluency effect does not occur. Moreover, product related nature imagery do not generate a global "mismatch" signal (Carpenter & Grossberg, 1995; Metcalfe, 1993), while the un-related nature imagery do. When consumers are exposed to an advertisement with product un-related spectacular nature imagery, they will have a lower need for cognitive closure. This low need for closure causes an increase in curiosity and open-mindedness, and thus a decrease in defensiveness. Therefore, consumers who are shown an advertisement with spectacular nature will not be affected when the advertised product does not match the context of the advertisement. On the contrary, we propose that consumers exposed to the product un-related mundane nature imagery cannot cope with the ambiguity and will experience a negative fluency effect. These consumers did not experience fluency when processing the advertisement and therefore formed less positive attitudes towards the target (Wittlesea, 1993) and, in sequence, became less impulsive. Therefore, we propose the following hypotheses:
H4: The moderating role of product un-related nature imagery in advertisements will result in (a) a low need for cognitive closure when using it in combination with spectacular nature, while on the contrary it will lead to (b) a high need for cognitive closure when using it in combination with mundane nature.
22 2.8 - CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK
Based on the literature review, a conceptual framework is created and displayed in Figure 1 - Conceptual Framework. It is predicted that the use of spectacular nature imagery in advertisement will result in a low need for cognitive closure, and this effect will be most pronounced in the product un-related condition. In contrast, the use of mundane nature imagery in advertising will result in high need for cognitive closure. We expect that consumers having a low need for cognitive closure show low impulsive behavior, compared to consumers having a high need for cognitive closure, who will show high impulsive behavior. Moreover, these effects are moderated by product relatedness. Product un-related imagery will have different effects on need for cognitive closure and impulsiveness depending on the use of spectacular nature imagery versus mundane nature imagery.
23 3 - METHODOLOGY
In this section, the research methodology is discussed. First, the objective of the study will be explained. After that, the experimental design and participants are discussed. Moreover, the materials used for the study and the procedure of the study are outlined.
The objective of this study was is to understand the different effects of using spectacular nature imagery compared to mundane nature imagery in advertising. It was proposed that these two nature imagery types have different effects on consumers’ need for cognitive closure and subsequently on their impulsive behavior. Moreover, these effects are moderated by nature imagery which is product (un-)related. We proposed that spectacular nature imagery leads to a low need for cognitive closure, which is in line with the systematic processing route of the ELM. As a consequence, low need for cognitive closure leads to a low level of impulsive behavior. On the contrary, we proposed that mundane nature imagery leads to a high need for cognitive closure, which is in line with the heuristic processing route of the ELM. In sequence, high need for cognitive closure leads to a high level of impulsive behavior. Moreover, we have analysed the moderating role of product related nature imagery. We proposed that the use of product un-related nature imagery results in a low need for cognitive closure and higher impulsivity when using it in combination with spectacular nature. On the contrary, we proposed that the use of product un-related nature imagery result in a high need for cognitive closure and lower impulsivity when using it in combination with mundane nature imagery.
3.1 – EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN & PARTICIPANTS
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Mundane nature Spectacular nature
Product related nature Condition 1 Condition 2
Product un-related nature Condition 3 Condition 4
Table 1 – Experimental design
The sample was composed of 179 persons (106 females and 58 males), with the mean age of 30 (M = 29.87; SD = 11.55). We randomly assigned the participants to one of the four conditions. Of the total sample, we excluded 55 participants, while they did not complete the whole survey. Moreover, when checking the dataset for possible outliers, we detected one participant with extreme values on the need for cognitive closure measure, which is possible a result of a mistake in the data input. Therefore, we also have discarded this participant when running the different analysis.
3.2 – MATERIALS & MEASUREMENT SCALES
In this section, the materials used for the experimental conditions and the measurement scales are outlined.
MATERIALS
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Figure 2 – Nature imagery used in experiment (left mundane nature / right spectacular nature) To make sure that the nature imagery and product investigated are a good reflection of mundane nature, spectacular nature and an impulsive product, a pre-test was done. Fifteen participants participated in the pre-test. We showed participants different images of nature. The participants had to rank on a seven-point scale if they found it rather ordinary or spectacular nature and if they found it images of everyday nature or special nature (scored from 1 = mundane nature to 7 = spectacular nature). Moreover, they had to indicate which nature type was related to the products’ origin. This was done in order to see which nature imagery could be used for the product (un-)related conditions. Additionally, we showed the participants the different images of nature in combination with a product. The participants had to rank on a seven-point scale if the nature represented the products origin or not (scored from 1 = product un-related to 7 = product related). Furthermore, we tested what kind of products participants would buy on impulse, via a choice set (cookies, candy, chocolate).
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nature images were perceived correctly regarding product related nature and product un-related nature, we performed a paired samples t-test on the product related nature variable and the product un-related nature variable. The paired samples t test was significant, t (14) = 4.675, p = .000. The product related nature image (M = 4.7, SD = 1.28) was perceived significantly different than the product un-related nature image (M = 2.6, SD = 1.28). Finally, we tested what kind of product participants would buy on impulse. This was done by naming a couple of products and participants had to choose which one they would buy. Results show that chocolate was the product bought most on impulse, with 73%.
MEASUREMENT SCALES
The independent variables environment (spectacular vs. mundane) and nature imagery (product related vs. product un-related) were manipulated using different imagery, as explained in the section “Materials”. The dependent variable “need for cognitive closure” and “impulsive behavior” were measured using scales.
Need for cognitive closure – Need for cognitive closure was measured because it might function as a mediator between the environmental conditions and impulsive behavior. It is proposed that the two different nature imagery types have different effects on participants’ need for cognitive closure. The original scale need for cognitive closure is composed of forty-two, six-point Likert statements that assessed the extent to which a person expressed a need for definite answers rather than ambiguity. However, in this study a shorter version of the scale was used (Roets & Van Hiel, 2007). This need for cognitive closure scale was composed of six, six-point Likert statements (scored from 1 = strongly disagree to 6 = strongly agree). The scale consisted of the following items, two sample items are stated and the preceding items can be found in appendix 1; 1 = “When I have made a decision, I feel relieved”; 2 = “When I am confronted with a problem, I’m dying to reach a solution very quickly”. Reliability analysis on the six scales measuring need for cognitive closure showed together had a Cronbach’s Alpha α = 0.724. When NFC1 was excluded, the Cronbach’s Alpha α went up to 0.774. Therefore, a mean variable was computed excluding NFC11.
Moreover, as need for cognitive closure could be interpreted as a trait scale, and act as potential confound, we developed some revised items to emphasize the fact that the need for closure can be
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influenced by situational factors. Therefore, we have composed the following two, six-point Likert statements (scored from 1 = strongly disagree to 6 = strongly agree). The scale consisted of the following items; 1 = “Right now, I would like to make a decision quickly” and 2 = “Right now, I would quickly become impatient”. Analyses assessed if the need for cognitive closure scale achieved satisfactory levels of reliability and if the measures were significantly related to their corresponding construct. Reliability analysis on the two developed scales measuring the need for cognitive closure had a Cronbach’s Alpha α = 0.650. Therefore, a mean variable of the scales measuring need for cognitive closure was computed including all items2.
Impulsive behavior – To assess impulsivity of participants when exposed to the different conditions in the experiment, we used two tasks; namely temporal discounting and making a choice decision between healthy and unhealthy food. In the temporal discounting tasks, respondents had to choose between different amounts of rewards - €8, €9, €10, €11, €13, €14, €15, or €16 and choose between receiving the reward immediately or after a delay of one week (Tsukayama & Duckworth, 2010). Participants made eight choices between the different amounts of money and the delays; on a seven-point semantic differential scale. We randomized the order of the rewards (Tsukayama & Duckworth, 2010).
Analyses assessed if the temporal discounting tasks measuring impulsivity achieved satisfactory levels of reliability and if the measures were significantly related to their corresponding construct. Reliability analysis on the eight choices measuring impulsiveness had a Cronbach’s Alpha α = 0.965. Therefore, a mean variable of the temporal discounting scales measuring impulsive behavior was computed including all items3.
The second task participants had to perform to measure their impulsivity was making a choice decision between healthy and unhealthy food. Shiv and Fedorikhin (1999) proposed a binary choice context where one alternative (unhealthy food choice) was superior on the affective dimension (i.e. was associated with more intense positive affect) but was inferior on the cognitive dimension (i.e. is associated with less favorable cognitions) compared to the other alternative (healthy food choice). Therefore, we decided to use also a binary choice set. Across eight different choice sets participants had to choose between two alternatives: one being unhealthy (e.g. imagery of hamburger, french
2 A correlation analysis showed that that the two developed scales (ONFC1, ONFC2) measuring need for
cognitive closure did correlate significantly (p = .00).
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fries, chocolate cake, Milka, Coca-Cola, Fanta, potato chips, salted nuts) associated with more intense positive affect but less favorable cognitions, compared to a second choice, being more healthy (e.g. fruit salad, cucumber, green salad, coffee, carrots, apple) associated with less favorable affect but more favorable cognitions. These choices were represented in the form of pictures, to make it more vivid. An example can be found in Figure 3 – Example choice decision task.
Figure 3 – Example choice decision task
Participants chose their preference based on a collection of eight possibilities, ranging from healthy towards unhealthy on a seven-point semantic differential scale. For the sake of reliability, a set of two ‘unhealthy’ product combinations were included (hamburger vs. french fries and Coca-Cola vs. Fanta). This was done to disguise the real purpose of the study (Luchs, Naylor, Irwin & Raghunathan, 2010). Upon analyzing the data, the outcomes of these two choice sets were removed from the data set to allow for a reliable outcome.
Analyses assessed if the choice decision task measuring impulsivity achieved satisfactory levels of reliability and if the measures were significantly related to their corresponding construct. Reliability analysis on the eight scales measuring impulsive behavior showed that together had a Cronbach’s Alpha α = 0.570. When CDT4 was excluded, the Cronbach’s Alpha went up to α = 0.742. Therefore, a mean variable was computed excluding CDT44.
Control variables – There are several other variables that could explain significant amounts of variance in the dependent variable. Therefore, we have included demographical variables (e.g. gender and age), a standardized mood scale of Allen and Janiszewski (1989) and a measure to test when it was the last time participants ate (in hours).
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The mood scale of Allen and Janiszewski (1989) was a seven-point semantic differential scale purported to measure a participant’s affective mood state at a particular point in time. The scale was asked two times, namely before the nature condition and after the nature condition. The mood scale consisted of the following items; 1 = “Good / Bad”; 2 = “Unpleasant / Pleasant” (reversed asked) 3 = “Happy / Sad”; and 4 = “Negative / Positive” (reversed asked). Analyses assessed if the mood scale achieved satisfactory levels of reliability and if the measures were significantly related to their corresponding construct. Reliability analysis on the four scales measuring pre-mood had a Cronbach’s Alpha α = 0.9275. Reliability analysis on the four scales measuring post-mood had a Cronbach’s Alpha α = 0.9496. Therefore, a mean variable of the scales measuring pre-mood and the scales measuring post-mood was computed including all items.
3.3 - PROCEDURE
In this section the experiment flow is outlined, which describes in detail each of the steps of the study. The online survey was posted on different social media platforms (Facebook, LinkedIn) to attract and recruit participants, which led to a snowball effect. An invitation, containing an embedded URL link to the website Qualtrics, hosting the online survey, was posted on these social media platforms. To ensure diversity in the sample, we recruited participants from both the social platform Facebook and the professional platform LinkedIn.
The study began with a briefing about the purpose of the study. Then we asked some general questions, namely the age, gender and mood of the participants. The participants were exposed (for a minimum of ten seconds) to one of the four conditions, either mundane nature imagery or spectacular nature imagery, and either product related nature imagery or product un-related nature imagery. These different manipulations were introduced with a short text in which they were asked to imagine if they were grocery shopping and encountered an advertisement display of the chocolate product Milka. After viewing the imagery we took the need for cognitive closure measure, followed by the two different impulsivity tasks (description of these measures can be found under section measurement scales). Finally, we asked when the participants had last eaten and thanked them for participating. For the entire overview of the experiment, we refer to the appendix 2, in which the experiment with the different measures is outlined.
5 A correlation analysis showed that that the four different scales (Pre_Mood1, Pr_Mood2, Pre_Mood3,
Pre_Mood4) measuring pre-mood did correlate significantly (p = .00).
6
30 4 – RESULTS
In this section, the results of the study are outlined. First, the main effects of the different nature types and their product relatedness on impulsive behavior are discussed. Second, the effect of the different nature types and their product relatedness on participants’ need for cognitive closure is discussed. Third, the effects of participants’ need for cognitive closure on impulsive behavior are discussed. Finally, this section is summarized by means of a discussion.
4.1 – NATURE EFFECTS ON IMPULSIVE BEHAVIOR
Seeing nature imagery might contribute to participants’ impulsive behavior, but that effect might differ across nature type (spectacular vs. mundane) and product relatedness (product related vs. product un-related). Thus, the following hypotheses were tested: “H2: When (a) spectacular nature imagery is used in advertising this will lead to a lower likelihood of impulsive behavior, whereas (b) mundane nature imagery is used in advertising this will lead to a higher likelihood of impulsive behavior” and “H5: The moderating role of product un-related nature imagery in advertisements will result in (a) a higher level of impulsiveness when using it in combination with spectacular nature, while on the contrary it will lead to (b) a lower level of impulsiveness when using it in combination with mundane nature.” A two-way analysis of variance was conducted to test for participants’ impulsive behavior7.
Outcome temporal discounting task - The main effect of environment yielded an F ratio of (F(1, 93) = 0.87, p = .351, indicating that the mean temporal discounting score did not significantly differ between the mundane nature condition than for the spectacular nature condition. The main effect of relatedness yielded an F ratio of (F(1, 93) = 0.107, p = .744, indicating that the mean score on temporal discounting did not differ between the product related condition and the product un-related condition. The interaction effect was non-significant, (F(1, 93) = 1.52, p = .221.
Post hoc tests revealed that within the product un-related condition there was a marginal significant difference on temporal discounting score between mundane nature and spectacular nature (p =
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.089). Participants were less impulsive in the product un-related mundane nature condition (M = 5.3, SD = 1.51), compared to the product un-related spectacular nature condition (M = 4.53, SD = 1.97). In the product related condition, there was no significant difference between the mundane (M = 4.88, SD = 1.52) and spectacular nature condition (M = 5.12, SD = 1.34) (p =.619). Moreover, there were also no significant differences within the nature conditions regarding product relatedness (mundane condition p = .326; spectacular condition p = .227).
Figure 4 – Temporal Discounting Task
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Outcome choice decision task – In order to test for impulsivity in the choice decision task, we performed a two-way analysis of covariance8, while time since last eaten was included as covariate. The main effect of environment yielded an F ratio of (F(1, 105) = 0.140, p = .709, indicating that the mean choice decision score did not significantly differ between the mundane nature and the spectacular nature condition. The main effect of relatedness yielded an F ratio of (F(1, 105) = 0.989, p = .322, indicating that the mean score on choice decisions did not differ between the product related condition and the product un-related condition. The interaction effect was non-significant, (F(1, 105) = 0.968, p =.327. Moreover, there was no covariate effect of time since the participants had last eaten, (F(1, 105) = 0.309, p =.579.
In order to analyze whether or not the mean choice decision score for the product related condition was different from the product un-related condition, we performed an independent samples t-test9. The independent samples t-test was not significant, t(119) = 0.64, p = .523. The mean choice decision score of the product related condition (M = 3.99, SD = 1.39) did not differ from the mean choice decision score of the product un-related condition (M = 3.83, SD = 1.34). Moreover, we conducted an independent samples t-test10 to analyze whether or not the mean choice decision score for the mundane nature condition was different from the spectacular nature condition. The independent samples t-test was not significant, t(119) = 0.097, p = .907. The mean choice decision score of the mundane nature condition (M = 3.93, SD = 1.35) did not differ from the mean choice decision score of the spectacular nature condition (M = 3.9, SD = 1.38).
4.2 – NATURE EFFECTS ON NEED FOR COGNITIVE CLOSURE
Seeing nature imagery might contribute to participants’ need for cognitive closure, but that effect might differ across nature types (spectacular vs. mundane) and product relatedness (product related vs. product un-related). Thus, the following hypotheses were be tested: “H1: The use of (a) spectacular nature imagery in advertising leads to low need for cognitive closure, compared to (b) using mundane nature imagery, which leads to high need for cognitive closure” and “H4: The moderating role of product un-related nature imagery in advertisements will result in (a) a low need for cognitive closure when using it in combination with spectacular nature, while on the contrary it
8 “Choice Decision Task” as the dependent variable, “nature type” (spectacular nature vs. mundane nature) and
“nature relatedness” (product related vs. product un-related) as the between-subjects variable and “time since last eaten” as covariate.
9 “Choice Decision Task” as the dependent variable, “nature relatedness” (product related vs. product
un-related) as the grouping variable.
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will lead to (b) a high need for cognitive closure when using it in combination with mundane nature”. A two-way analysis of variance tested the need for cognitive closure level11.
The main effect of environment indicated that the mean change score was greater for the mundane nature condition (M = 3.48, SD = 0.99) than for the spectacular nature condition (M = 3.25, SD = 0.9). However, this main effect was not significant, F ratio of (F(1, 123) = 1.97, p = .162. The main effect of product relatedness yielded an F ratio of (F(1, 123) = 0.066, p = .798, indicating that the mean score on need for cognitive closure did not differ between the product related condition and product un-related condition (M = 3.36, SD = 1.02). The interaction effect between nature type and product relatedness was marginally significant; (F(1, 123) = 3.328, p = .071.
Post hoc tests revealed that within the un-related nature condition there was a significant difference on the need for cognitive closure score between mundane nature and spectacular nature (p = .049). Participants in the product un-related mundane nature condition had a significant higher need for cognitive closure score (M = 3.59, SD = 1.02), compared to the participants in the product un-related spectacular nature condition (M = 3.16, SD = 0.98). In the product related condition, there was no significant difference between the mundane (M = 3.35, SD = 0.96) and spectacular nature condition (M = 3.42, SD = 0.8) (p = .768). Moreover, there were also no significant differences within the nature conditions regarding product relatedness (mundane condition p = .300; spectacular condition p = .218).
Moreover, we also considered the effects of mood. A two-way analysis of covariance12 tested the post-mood of the participants, in which the different nature types was the independent variable and participants’ pre-mood was inserted as covariate. The main effect of environment yielded an F ratio of (F(1, 131) = 0.402, p = .527, indicating that the mean change score was not significantly different for the mundane nature condition (M = 5.27, SD = 1.24) than for the spectacular nature condition (M = 5.64, SD = 1.24). Moreover, there was a significant covariate effect of pre-mood, (F(1, 131) = 536.49, p = .000.
As can be seen in figure 5, participants in the product un-related mundane nature condition scored higher on the level of need for cognitive closure compared to participants in the product un-related spectacular nature condition. Participants who score higher on the need for cognitive closure scale
11 “Need for Cognitive Closure” as the dependent variable, “nature type” (spectacular nature vs. mundane
nature) and “nature relatedness” (product related vs. product un-related) as the between-subjects variable.
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were in need for a definite answer rather than ambiguity. One can say that the product un-related nature condition lead to a certain amount of ambiguity, as there was a conflict between the products’ origin and the nature depicted in the advertisement. Participants in the mundane nature condition could not cope with this ambiguity and therefore scored higher on their need for a definite answer. On the contrary, participants in the spectacular nature condition can cope with this ambiguity and did not experience the feeling of wanting a definite answer.
Figure 5 – Contrast product un-related: spectacular nature and mundane nature 4.3 – EFFECTS OF NEED FOR COGNITIVE CLOSURE ON IMPULSIVE BEHAVIOR
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A correlation analysis13 showed that participants’ need for cognitive closure and their temporal discounting task did not significantly correlate, r(127) = 0.052, p = .764. Participants with a high need for cognitive closure (M = 3.37; SD = 0.95) did not have a corresponding higher level of impulsiveness on their temporal discounting task (M = 3.37; SD = 2.06). The second correlation analysis14 showed that participants’ need for cognitive closure and their choice decision task did not significantly correlate, r(127) = -0.106, p = .521. Participants with a high need for cognitive closure (M = 3.37; SD = 0.95) did not have a corresponding higher level of impulsiveness on the choice decision task (M = 3.9; SD = 1.66).
4.4 - DISCUSSION
In this section, we discussed the outlined results above more thoroughly. Moreover, in table 2 an overview of the hypotheses is given.
Nature effects on impulsive behavior – The results show that the main effect of different nature types and their product relatedness had no significant effect on participants’ impulsive behavior. This accounts for both the temporal discounting task and the choice decision task. Therefore, we concluded that the following hypothesis “H2: When (a) spectacular nature imagery is used in advertising this will lead to a lower likelihood of impulsive behavior, whereas (b) mundane nature imagery is used in advertising this will lead to a higher likelihood of impulsive behavior” was not confirmed.
However, there were some marginally significant effects in the contrast between product-unrelated conditions in the temporal discounting task. When participants were exposed to the product un-related spectacular nature advertisement they were marginally more impulsive than participants exposed to the product un-related mundane nature advertisement. Therefore, we concluded that the following hypothesis “H5: The moderating role of product un-related nature imagery in advertisements will result in (a) a higher level of impulsiveness when using it in combination with spectacular nature, while on the contrary it will lead to (b) a lower level of impulsiveness when using it in combination with mundane nature” was only partly confirmed. This effect was expected while participants in the spectacular nature condition could cope with the ambiguity of a product depicted in an advertisement with un-related nature. However, participants in the mundane nature condition
13
“Need for Cognitive Closure” and “Temporal Discounting Task”
