#SELFISH: THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN SELFIE-SHARING
BEHAVIOR AND MATERIALISM
by
MILOU HARDENBOL
#SELFISH: THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN SELFIE-SHARING
BEHAVIOR AND MATERIALISM
by
MILOU HARDENBOL Faculty of Economics and Business
In Partial Fulfillment
ABSTRACT
TABLE OF CONTENTS
1. INTRODUCTION 5
2. THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK 8
2.1 Selfie-sharing behavior 8
2.1.1 Social media platforms 8
2.1.2 Self-presentation on social media 9
2.1.3 Selfies 9
2.1.4 Online social influence – the need to belong 10
2.2 Materialism 10
2.2.1 Definition of materialism 10
2.2.2 Selfie-sharing behavior and materialism 11
2.2.3 Online social influence and materialism 12
2.3 Extraversion 13
2.4 Narcissism 14
3. RESEARCH DESIGN 16
3.1 Research procedure and measurements 16
3.1.1 Selfie-sharing behavior 16
3.1.2 Materialism 16
3.1.3 Extraversion and narcissism 17
3.2 Data collection 18 3.3 Plan of analysis 19 4. RESULTS 21 4.1 Preliminary results 21 4.2 Control variables 22 4.3 Hypotheses tests 24
5. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 28
5.1 Conclusion 28
5.2 Limitations 28
5.3 Recommendations for further research 28
1. INTRODUCTION
The increased ascendancy and use of information communication technologies (ICT) had transformed and still keeps transforming many consumer’s lives in terms of how they work, form, and maintain social relationships and plan and use leisure time (Anawati & Craig, 2006). It feels like social media platforms and new applications for smartphones are thrown up; it’s very difficult to keep track. Nowadays, the use of social media goes hand in hand with the way consumers present themselves to their surroundings and the way they communicate with other consumers online. In the past few years, during the rise of the social media platform Facebook, researchers examined personality traits associated with the way consumers express themselves by sharing status updates on Facebook (Seidman, 2013). It turns out, that one of the most important motivations for the use of social media platforms is self-presentation. The need for positive attention and need to promote themselves results in the fact that individuals are likely to be concerned about their self-image and are willing to manipulate their presentation on social media platforms to create a socially desirable self-image (Bazarova et al., 2013; Lin et al., 2014).
Online activities that include self-presentational goals are sharing photographs, profile information, status updates and wall content (Zhao, Grasmuck & Martin, 2008). Consumers have almost full control over informational disclosure online; they can be more strategic in managing self-presentation, as compared to traditional face-to-face interaction (Kramer & Winter, 2008). Since the inception of Facebook in 2004, status updates have been one of the most preferred features, in which consumers share their thoughts, feelings, and activities with their online friends, who have the opportunity to “like” and comment in return (Marshall, 2015). The way consumers express themselves on social media, especially the content they share, has been matched with an expanding body of research. An interesting and relatively new area of research when it comes to self-presentation on social media, is the way consumers express themselves by sharing photographs.
self-promoting activity, namely taking selfies (Sorokowski et al., 2015). In combination with the fast development of technology, like including a front camera in mobile phones, a new phenomenon was born. A selfie has recently been defined as “a self-portrait photograph of oneself (or of oneself and other people), taken with a camera or a camera phone, held at arm’s length or pointed at a mirror, which is usually shared through social media” (Sorokowski et al. 2015, p.124). Sorokowski (2016) even mentioned in his article that the word “selfie” had become Oxford Dictionary’s word of the year in 2013 and it’s still growing in popularity based on its increased usage on social media and references in various types of mass media. In this research I will focus on selfie-sharing behavior on social media, to accomplish to new findings in consumer’s social media behavior in relation to consumer’s level of materialism.
Material objects gain social meaning not only because they have instrumental use in sustaining and developing our daily lives but also because they function as symbols of identity, personality and self-expression (Burroughs et al., 1991). The research of Goldsmith and Clark (2012) already confirmed that materialism is positively related to buying products that confer status. The fact that consumers are more and more focused on their online self-presentation, in which they need to keep confirming their status, could contribute to an increase in materialism. Consumer psychologists are interested in materialism because it influences specific aspects of consumer’s online behavior. The relation between selfie-sharing behavior and materialism needs yet to be better understood for marketers to anticipate on consumer’s online self-presentation. This leads to the following problem statement: How can marketers define consumer’s level of materialism based on their online selfie-sharing behavior and online social influence?
shown that selfie-sharing behavior is positively related to narcissism, especially in the case of men (Sorokowska 2016; Sorokowska 2015). Narcissism is characterized by inflated self-views and attempts to seek attention and admiration from others (Weiser, 2015). Both personality traits are included in this research to answer the following research questions:
- What is the effect of consumer’s level of extraversion on the relationship between consumer’s selfie-sharing behavior and materialism?
- What is the effect of consumer’s level of narcissism on the relationship between consumer’s selfie-sharing behavior and materialism?
2. THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK 2.1 Selfie-sharing behavior
2.1.1. Social media platforms
There are various tools on social media platforms, which together create a consumer’s overall online portrait. In addition to the content consumers create themselves (profile pictures, status updates, etc.) is content also generated by followers on social media platforms or by the system. Followers are other consumers that are interested in the profile of the consumer and the shared content. Followers are able to comment on content, create a discussion, and let the consumer know that the content is appreciated. The system on the other hand, defined as the social media platform, provides information about the number of followers a consumer has, the number of shared content, and the activity of the consumer on the social media platform (Ong et al., 2011). Besides all the possibilities per social media platform, nowadays a consumer has plenty of choice when it comes to deciding which social media platform to use. All the platforms afford social exposure, but each in a different way: consumers are able to share and evaluate different types of content on each platform. One gives the opportunity to share status updates (Facebook), the other to share short messages (Twitter), yet another to share photographs (Instagram).
2.1.2 Self-presentation on social media
Prior research found out that the online social media environment is able to alter personal identities, such that individuals tend to disclose more information about themselves, compared to other means of communication (Chen & Marcus, 2012; Christofides et al., 2009). Consumers tend to be honest and realistic on social media because they realize that their friends and followers would question false information (Hew, 2011). On the other hand, it has also been found that consumers tend to stretch the truth a little in their online self-presentation, for example by only sharing flattering photographs of themselves (Chen & Marcus, 2012; Gibbs et al., 2006). Users of social media platforms have almost full control over information disclosure; they can be strategic in managing their self-presentation and are able to make stable personality traits (Kramer & Winter, 2008). These two aspects are drivers for social media use, in which consumers address a broad audience (Hum et al., 2011). Past studies have analyzed a wide range of social media behaviors related to self-presentation, including the choice of profile pictures (on Facebook), and other online photo-sharing behavior (Back et al., 2010). It turns out that up to the emergence of the selfie, profile pictures have been posited as the most important means for self-presentation because it best represents the individual (Ong et al., 2011). The effect of the new social phenomenon “selfie” has yet to be better understood, but one thing is very clear: selfies are used for self-presentation on social media platforms (Qui et al., 2015; Mehdizadeh, 2010; Papacharissi, 2011).
2.1.3 Selfies
This research is designed to further explore the selfie phenomenon and to contribute to the small body of research that focuses on the difference in psychological characteristics of consumers who differ in selfie-sharing behavior (Sorokowska, 2016). Sharing selfies have become increasingly popular on social media platforms. When making and sharing a selfie, consumers have full control over the way they want to express themselves on a photograph and the way they want to express themselves to the outside world. Selfies provide consumers with more freedom of controlling their face visibility, emotional expression and camera position, compared to other types of photos (Qui et al., 2015). This is one of the reasons why selfies are a better measurement for finding personality traits than other photos (Gosling et al., 2002).
that a self-taken picture including other people is also referred to as a selfie. Past research shows that various personality traits, like level of narcissism and extraversion, also correlate with the frequency of shared selfies (Sorokowska et al., 2016; Ong et al., 2011). For this research, selfie-sharing behavior will be measured based on its frequency and the division between individual pictures and pictures with other people on it (partners and friends).
2.1.4 Online social influence – the need to belong
Nadkarni and Hoffmann (2012) also investigated the social functions of the social media platforms, and found out that besides the need for self-presentation, consumers invest time and energy in social media to fulfill the need to belong. This was confirmed by the recent research of Sorokowska (2016). Studies to date show that consumers have been found to promote themselves and obtain positive feedback from their online followers by sharing pictures of themselves (Mehdizadeh, 2010) (Qui et al., 2015). Besides the ability to share content and pictures, consumers check the content and pictures of other consumers and opinion leaders, they participate in discussions, and are able to share their knowledge and opinions. In combination with checking content and pictures of others, consumers are able to respond to each other by giving a so called ‘like’ of ‘heart’, as a sign of appreciation. Another option is giving comments on each other’s content, which could be positive or negative. Both options are also included on the social media platform Instagram. Consumer’s need to belong can be fulfilled with positive online responses from their followers on shared selfies. It is stated that consumers are likely to be concerned about their online self-image and manipulate their self-presentation to create socially desirable self-image (Qui, et al., 2015; Bazarova et al., 2013; Ellison et al., 2006).
2.2 Materialism
2.2.1 Definition of materialism
high and low on materialism were equally happy with experiential purchases. Subsequent to these findings, it’s important to emphasize the fact that being materialistic does not logically constrain consumers to predominately engage in material consumption; materialistic consumers may engage in many experiential consumptions as well (Pandelaere, 2016; Zhang et al., 2014). There is even evidence that materialists’ positive feelings (like excitement and joy) from pre-purchase to post-purchase are decreasing more rapidly in the process than non-materialists (Richins, 2013).
Materialism can be defined as “the extent to which consumers attempt to engage in the construction and maintenance of the self through the acquisition and use of products, services, experiences, or relationships that are perceived to provide desirable symbolic value” (Shrum et al. 2013, p.1180). Materialistic consumers believe that it is important to prioritize the goal of attaining money and having many possessions (Richins & Dawson 1992). They like to splurge on big-ticket items because they believe that those items will impress others, and they strongly believe that price is a signal of quality (Pandelaere, 2016; Christandl, 2016). Materialists are consumers who are particularly interested in conspicuous consumption; a pattern of consumption aimed at signaling one’s status through luxurious and exclusive possessions (Pandelaere, 2016; Richins, 1994). In conclusion, materialistic consumers manage their self-image and self-presentation by acquiring and using products. Material possessions gain social meaning not only because they have instrumental use in sustaining and developing our daily lives, like using the newest smartphone to take the perfect selfie, but also because they function as symbols of identity, personality and self-expression (Karabati & Cemalcilar, 2010).
2.2.2 Selfie-sharing behavior and materialism
Materialists are more likely to believe that acquisition of products will offer a lot of pleasure, and enhance impressions one makes on others (Pandelaere, 2016). It’s about the importance materialists place on possessions and their acquisition as an essential desirable form of conduct to reach a desired end state; it also contributes to the construction and maintenance of consumer’s self-presentation (Chaplin et al., 2007; Richins & Dawson, 1992).
Consumers differ in how much they seek social status by means of purchasing the right products and brands. They differ in their level of status consumption; the motivational process by which individuals strive to improve their social standing through the conspicuous consumption of consumer products that confer and symbolize status both for the individual and surrounding significant others (Goldsmith & Clark, 2012; Eastman et al. 1999). Both the relation between status consumption and materialism, as well as the relation between status consumption and selfie-sharing behavior seems obvious. Status consumption is an outcome of materialism and it’s very likely that consumers with higher levels of selfie-sharing behavior acquire specific material goods that confer status. The first hypotheses of this research is therefore:
H1: Higher levels of selfie-sharing behavior will be positively associated with higher levels of materialism.
2.2.3 Online social influence and materialism
norms of consumer reference groups adhering instead to personal preferences and tastes despites the apparent deviation from the prescribed norms of consumer behavior absent the motivation to actively rebel against existing norms” (Goldsmith & Clark 2012, p.46).
Materialism is positively related to buying products that confer status, and negatively related to consumer independence. We can assume that when consumers are likely to show more consumers independence online when they receive positive reactions on selfies than when they receive negative reactions on selfies. Negative reactions on selfies can evoke feelings of insecurity, feelings of powerlessness, low self-esteem, social exclusion, financial constraints, relative deprivation, and exposure to other people’s wealth (Pandelaere, 2016). These effects all spur materialism. There is a good reason to propose that as levels of online social influence increase in a negative way based on their selfie-sharing behavior, consumers will become more materialistic. Therefore, the second hypothesis of this research is;
H2: As the levels of online social influence increases, the relationship between selfie-sharing behavior and materialism decreases.
2.3 Extraversion
comment more frequently on other’s online content as introverts (Lee et al., 2014). Research of Bibby (2008) suggests that extraverts manifest themselves through much self-generated content, like selfies. Based on the findings mentioned above, the third hypotheses is formed: H3: As the levels of extraversion increases, the relationship between selfie-sharing behavior and materialism also increases.
2.4 Narcissism
H4: As the levels of narcissism increases, the relationship between selfie-sharing behavior and materialism also increases.
In conclusion of this chapter, all previous mentioned hypotheses, that include selfie-sharing behavior (independent variable), materialism (dependent variable), online social influence (moderator), and extraversion and narcissism (moderators), are visualized in a conceptual model (Figure 1).
FIGURE 1
CONCEPTUAL MODEL
Note. The arrows visualize the hypotheses, in which H1 represents the belief of a positive
relationship between selfie-sharing behavior and materialism. H2 represents the belief of a negative moderation effect, H3 and H4 represents the belief of a positive moderation effect on the
3. RESEARCH DESIGN
3.1 Research procedure and measurements
The main instrument used for this research was an online questionnaire. The purpose of this questionnaire was to gain insights in consumer’s selfie-sharing behavior, their level of online social influence, and their level of materialism, extraversion and narcissism. Only Instagram users were selected for this research.
3.1.1 Selfie-sharing behavior
The first questions of the questionnaire were about selfie-sharing behavior. In the introduction part of the questionnaire I mentioned that respondents contribute to a research about selfie-sharing behavior, and to be clear it was important to start with this variable at the beginning of the questionnaire. First, respondents were asked how many of all the pictures they shared via the social media platform Instagram were selfies. They had to fill in the number of all shared photographs in the past month, and how many of those were selfies. The number of selfies in relation to the total number of shared photographs gives a good insight in the difference between consumers when it comes to selfie-sharing behavior. These two questions were followed by the question to divide the total number of selfies between three different types; selfies of yourself, selfies with your partner, and selfies with friends. This type of questioning was based on the theory of Sorokowska (2016) who was one of the first researchers that included selfie-sharing behavior in her research. To create insights in consumer’s online social influence, respondents were asked to fill in the second part of the research. They were asked how many followers they have on Instagram, how many likes (“hearts”) they approximately get on the selfies they shared, and how many positive and negative comments they received on the selfies.
3.1.2 Materialism
the success of others and oneself, the centrality of possessions in a person’s life, and the belief that possessions and their acquisition lead to happiness and life satisfaction (Richins, 2004). All the eighteen items of materialism were measured on a 7-point Likert scale that ranged from “strongly disagree” to “strongly agree” with “neither agree nor disagree” in the middle.
3.1.3 Extraversion and narcissism
After finishing the materialism part, the personality traits extraversion and narcissism were measured with several items on a 7-point Likert scale. For measuring the moderator narcissism, the NPI-16 (Narcissism Personality Inventory) scale of Ames, Rose and Anderson (2005) was used. This value scale is based on the most widespread measure used by non-clinical researchers (NPI-40), that captures a range of different facets of narcissism. Unfortunately, the length may prohibit its use in settings where time pressure and respondent fatigue are major concerns. Therefore a shorter and unidimensional personality measure was drawn, and based on the previous mentioned concerns, also used for this research (Ames et al., 2005) (Table 2).
TABLE 1
ITEMS OF THE MATERIALISTIC VALUE SCALE ARRANGED BY SUBSCALE Success
I admire people who own expensive homes, cars, and clothes.
Some of the most important achievements in life include acquiring material possessions.
I don’t place much emphasis on the amount of material objects people own as a sign of success. (R) The things I own say a lot about how well I’m doing in life.
I like to own things that impress people.
I don’t pay much attention to the material objects other people own. (R) Centrality
I usually buy only the things I need. (R)
I try to keep my life simple, as far as possessions are concerned. (R) The things I own aren’t all that important to me. (R)
I enjoy spending money on things that aren’t practical. Buying things gives me a lot of pleasure.
I like a lot of luxury in my life.
I put less emphasis on material things than most people I know. (R) Happiness
I have all the things I really need to enjoy life. (R)
My life would be better if I owned certain things I don’t have. I wouldn’t be any happier if I owned nicer things. (R)
I’d be happier if I could afford to buy more things.
It sometimes bothers me quite a bit that I can’t afford to buy all the things I’d like. (R) denotes a reverse scale item.
Extraversion was measured based on the ten-item measurement system of the Big-Five dimensions. Gosling et al. (2003) met the need of researchers for a very brief measure and developed and evaluated a ten-item inventory for all five personality traits (extraversion, agreeableness, conscientiousness, emotional stability, and openness to experience), who was also used for this research (Gosling et al., 2003) (Table 2). Finally, the questionnaire was ended with five demographical questions about respondent’s gender, age, level of education, occupation and average monthly net income. For level of education respondents had to answer, “What is your highest level of education?” in which they had the option to choose between: less than high school, high school, Bachelor’s degree (including Pre-master), or Master’s degree. For occupation, respondents had the option to choose between: student, graduated and looking for work, part-time worker, full-time worker, unemployed or retired. Finally, respondents had to indicate their average monthly net income on a scale with increments of €500,-, ending with €3000,- or more.
TABLE 2
ITEMS OF MODERATORS EXTRAVERSION AND NARCISSISM Extraversion
My friends regard me as a sociable person.
Compared to most people I know, I’m good at making new friends.
My friends see me as an active person who likes to participate in various activities at the same time. I feel comfortable working in groups.
When I’m with people who I don’t know, I’m always able to enjoy myself. I like doing things with other people.
I enjoy talking to people I don’t know.
When I’m in a small group, I participate more than others. I see myself as an enthusiastic person.
I find it very hard to start conversations with other people. (R) Narcissism
I like to be the center of attention. I like having authority over people. I find it easy to manipulate people.
I insist upon getting the respect that is due to me. I always know what I’m doing.
Everybody likes to hear my stories.
I really don’t like to be the center of attention. (R) People always seem to recognize my authority. Overall, I believe I’m more capable than other people. I’m an extraordinary person.
3.2 Data collection
To answer the research questions and test the hypotheses, respondents were recruited online via two ways. An online questionnaire was spread through the social media platforms Facebook and Instagram, via my personal accounts, to reach a random sample of approximately 150 active social media users. Facebook was used for sending a status update about the questionnaire and to send direct messages to potential respondents. On Instagram, a photo was shared with a direct link to the questionnaire in the comment section.
Because Instagram has been chosen as the social media platform of this research, the respondents were first asked if they use the social media platform at all. The question that followed was worded; do you share selfies on Instagram? If both questions were answered with a “yes” the respondents were allowed to continue with the questionnaire. The study included a total of 110 respondents, 71 female respondents (64,5%) and 39 male respondents (35,5%), with an average age of 24,6 years old (SD = 4,43). All respondents provided informed consent prior to their inclusion in the study, after mentioning at the beginning of the questionnaire that all collected data would be treated anonymously so that individual identities are protected.
3.3 Plan of analysis
The collected data were analyzed with several different analyses. Descriptive statistics were used to find preliminary results in the data set, especially for selfie-sharing behavior items and the moderator online social influence, in relation to demographics. The different scale items of the moderators extraversion and narcissism and the dependent variable materialism were checked on their reliability by performing a correlation analysis, followed by a reliability analysis.
dependent variable materialism and the two personality traits. To test whether higher levels of selfie-sharing behavior result in higher levels of materialism, I performed a linear regression analysis. To check whether there is a moderating effect of each moderator (online social influence, extraversion, and narcissism) on the relationship between selfie-sharing behavior and materialism, I performed moderation analyses by using the Process tool of Andrew Hayes (2013).
4. RESULTS
4.1 Preliminary results
The sample group (a total of 110 respondents), accounted for more than half of current students (57,3%), the second largest group of the sample is fulltime workers, with a total of 33 (30%). The highest level of education of all respondents is a Master Degree (30,9%), although most of the respondents’ highest level of education is a Bachelor Degree, including Premaster (50,0%). The average monthly net income of all respondents lies between €500 - €999 (SD = 1,61). All respondents use the social media platform Instagram and share selfies on this platform. The respondents shared an average of 10,95 pictures on Instagram (SD = 21,92) in the past month, and an average of 4,39 selfies (SD = 8,73). When looking at the distribution of selfies, 38,5% consisted of selfies with friends, 34,7% consisted of selfies with only the person itself on it, which results in a remaining percentage of 26,8% for selfies with a partner. When looking at the moderator “online social influence”, results indicate that the respondents have an average of 315 followers on Instagram. 90% of the total respondents had less than 700 followers on Instagram. The respondents receive an average of 42,74 likes, 5,13 positive comments and 1,18 negative comments per selfie they share. The amount of 105 respondents (95,5%) never receives a negative comment on their selfies.
Looking at the moderator extraversion, a correlation analysis showed that almost all extraversion items correlate with each other (p < 0.05). To further test if all items are reliable for measuring extraversion, a reliability analysis was performed (α = 0,84). All ten items of extraversion were computed into a sum variable. The same tests were also performed for the moderator narcissism. One item (“I always know what I’m doing”) did not significantly correlate with other items (p < 0.05) when performing a correlation analysis, and showed an increase in Cronbach’s Alpha if item was deleted (from α = 0,84 to α = 0,85). Therefore this item was not added to the sum variable of narcissism.
4.2 Control variables
In order to analyze whether selfie-sharing behavior of men is different from selfie-sharing behavior of women, I performed an independent samples t-test with gender and multiple selfie-sharing behavior items (Table 4). The independent samples t-test was only significant for the percentage of selfies with friends. The percentage of selfies with friends of men does significantly differ from the percentage of selfies with friends of women. The independent samples t-test was marginally significant for the percentage of selfies with a partner and the total selfies shared (p < 0.1), and not significant for selfies of yourself. Looking at the moderator online social influence, the independent sample t-test with gender was significant, and showed that men feel more satisfied about the likes and comments they receive than women (Table 4).
TABLE 3
RESULTS RELIABILITY ANALYSIS ON MATERIALISM SCALE ITEMS
Subscales Cronbach’s Alpha*
Success 0,88
Happiness 0,77
Centrality 0,78
All subscales included
Materialism 0,73
*(α > 0,6)
TABLE 4
INDEPENDENT SAMPLE T-TEST WITH GENDER AND SELFIE-SHARING BEHAVIOR AND ONLINE SOCIAL INFLUENCE
Men Women
p
M SD M SD
Total selfies shared 58,37 28,58 48,73 25,69 0,07
Selfies of yourself 36,38 11,31 33,85 13,88 0,33
Selfies with friends 34,30 13,08 40,79 13,08 0,01
Selfies with partner 29,31 12,30 25,35 9,04 0,08
Online social influence – satisfaction likes/comments
5,41 0,97 4,96 1,10 0,03
Besides selfie-sharing behavior and online social influence, the moderator narcissism showed further discrepancy between men and women. I performed an independent samples t-test with gender and narcissism (Table 5). The independent samples t-test was significant, the level of narcissism among men does significantly differ from the level of narcissism among women.
In order to analyze whether there is a relationship between personality traits (extraversion and narcissism) and selfie-sharing behavior, a Pearson correlation analysis was performed (Table 6). The correlation analysis was marginal significant for total selfies shared and extraversion, and the correlation coefficient showed hardly any correlation (r = 0,17). Extraversion did not correlate with the selfie subscales: selfies by yourself (r = 0,11), selfies with friends (r = -0,03), and selfies with partner (r = -0,10). A correlation analysis also showed that the personality trait narcissism did not correlate significantly with total selfies shared (r = 0,15) and it’s subscales: selfies by yourself (r = 0,13), selfies with friends (r = -0,11), and selfies with partner (r = -0,03).
Looking further at the personality traits extraversion and narcissism, a Pearson correlation analysis was performed to check whether there is a relationship between these personality traits and consumer’s level of materialism (Table 7). The correlation analysis showed that the personality trait extraversion did correlate significantly and negatively with materialism’s
TABLE 5
INDEPENDENT SAMPLE T-TEST WITH GENDER AND NARCISSISM
Men Women p M SD M SD Narcissism 4,58 0,84 4,02 0,99 0,00 N (male) = 39, N (female) = 71 TABLE 6
PEARSON CORRELATION ANALYSIS WITH PERSONALITY TRAITS AND SELFIE-SHARING BEHAVIOR
Extraversion p
Narcissism p
Total selfies shared 0,07 0,13
Selfies by yourself 0,27 0,17
Selfies with friends 0,78 0,26
subscale happiness (r = -0,19). The more extraverted consumers are, the less they believe that possessions and their acquisition lead to happiness and life satisfaction.
Looking at narcissism and materialism, the correlation analysis showed that this personality trait did correlate significantly and positively with materialism (r = 0,38, p = 0.000) and its subscales: success (r = 0,41, p = 0,000), happiness (r = 0,26, p = 0,01), and centrality (r = 0,22, p = 0,02). When consumers shows higher levels of narcissism, they also show higher levels of materialism; possessions play an important role in their lives, they more judge the success of others and oneself based on possessions, and they do believe that possessions and their acquisition lead to happiness and life satisfaction.
4.3 Hypotheses tests
In order to analyze whether or not a higher level of selfie-sharing behavior leads to a higher level of materialism (H1), I performed a regression analysis of the total shared selfies, relative to the total amount of pictures shared on Instagram, on materialism (Table 8). The results of this regression, R² = 0,09, F(1,11) = 11,13, p = 0,00, reveal a significant effect. There is a positive relationship between selfie-sharing behavior and materialism, β = 0,01, t (109) = 3,34, p < .005. A higher level of selfie-sharing behavior does lead to a significantly higher level of materialism.
TABLE 7
Looking at H2, I analyzed whether or not online social influence has an effect on the relationship between selfie-sharing behavior and materialism, by using the number of likes a consumers receives when posting a selfie. With the use of Process v2.15 (Hayes, 2013), a moderation analysis was conducted with number of likes as moderator between selfie-sharing behavior and materialism (Table 9). The overall analysis was significant, F (1,11) = 3,67, p = 0,02. However, the analysis shows that the interaction effect (selfie-sharing behavior*number of likes) is not significant (β = 0,000, p = 0,79). This indicates that there is no moderation effect of online social influence in the relationship of selfie-sharing behavior on materialism.
To fully test H3, I analyzed whether or not extraversion influences the relationship between selfie-sharing behavior and materialism. A moderation analysis was conducted, by using Process v2.15 (Hayes, 2013), with extraversion as moderator between the independent
TABLE 8
REGRESSION ANALYSIS SELFIE-SHARING BEHAVIOR AND MATERIALISM Model summary R R² F p 0,09 0,09 11,13 0,00 Model β SE t p Selfie-sharing behavior 0,01 0,00 3,34 0,00 p < 0.05 TABLE 9
MODERATION ANALYSIS ONLINE SOCIAL INFLUENCE ON SELFIE-SHARING BEHAVIOR AND MATERIALISM
variable (selfie-sharing behavior) and the dependent variable (materialism) (Table 10). The overall analysis was significant, F (1,11) = 5,83, p = 0,00. However, the analysis shows that the interaction effect (selfie-sharing behavior*extraversion) is not significant (β = 0,00, p = 0,56). This results in the fact that there is no moderation effect of extraversion in the relationship of selfie-sharing behavior on materialism.
Closing the chapter results with testing H4, I analyzed whether or not the personality trait narcissism influences the relationship between selfie-sharing behavior and materialism. With the use of Process v2.15 (Hayes, 2013), a moderation analysis was conducted with narcissism as moderator between the selfie-sharing behavior and materialism (Table 11). The overall analysis was significant, F (1,11) = 9,90, p = 0,000. However, the analysis shows that the interaction effect (selfie-sharing behavior*narcissism) is not significant (β = 0,01, p = 0,26). This results in the fact that there is no moderation effect of narcissism in the relationship of selfie-sharing behavior on materialism.
TABLE 10
TABLE 11
5. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 5.1 Conclusions
The present study is one of the first in investigating the emerging and fast-growing consumer behavior of sharing selfies on social media platforms. It distinguishes itself from previous research by using the relatively new photo-sharing social media Instagram as platform for this research. This study provides empirical support that higher levels of selfie-sharing behavior indeed are associated with significantly higher levels of materialism. This result is in line with previous research that highlights the fact that consumers use social media platforms to manage self-presentation and fulfill their need to belong. To reach their desired end state, consumers place a lot of importance on possessions and their acquisition. Whether or not fulfilling the need to belong plays a more important role in consumers’ social media behavior than self-presentation, consumers’ level of online social influence was measured. Results show that online social influence, measured by using the number of likes a consumers receives when posting a selfie, does not significantly influence the relationship between selfie-sharing behavior and materialism.
Men feel more satisfied about the likes and comments they receive than women, and men are more narcissistic than women. Consumers with higher levels of narcissism show higher levels of materialism, but the personality trait does not influence the relationship between selfie-sharing behavior and materialism. This also applies to the personality trait extraversion. There is still a conflict in the literature when it comes to extraversion and online selfie-sharing behavior. My results are in line with previous research that highlights the fact that consumers high on extraversion disclosed the most honest information in an online environment The more extraverted consumers are, the less they believe that material possessions lead to happiness and life satisfaction. The results of this study highlight the key individual differences among consumers who use social media, and may provide insight for marketers to define consumer’s level of materialism based on their selfie-sharing behavior on the social media platform Instagram.
5.2 Limitations
could well be that consumers with higher levels of narcissism inflated their response. For further research on selfie sharing behavior and personality traits, I recommend to take a more reliable approach, in which researchers should investigate consumer’s Instagram profile themselves. Another important note is that privacy settings of Instagram were not taken into account in the present study. These privacy settings can limit the number of followers, and therefore the number of likes and comments.
Reliance on online social influence is another major limitation of this research. The variables assessed in this study were subjective. They were created for the purpose of this study and therefore their reliability and validity are not well established. Further investigation is needed to determine which aspects, per social media platform, drive consumer’s online social influence.
5.3 Recommendations for further research
The results of this study offer a diversity of further research ideas. Further research may choose to incorporate a wider array of social media platforms, such as Facebook and Snapchat. Perhaps other researchers could consider including a broader age range, that allows information about some social media platforms to be more relevant for one age group over another. This research really focused on the frequency and content of one specific social media behavior (selfie-sharing behavior), instead of focusing on the motivations for sharing selfies. Focusing on motivations for social media usage may aid in understanding the relationship between personality traits and social media use. Interesting is to incorporate how honest and realistic consumers are on social media, and to find out what truly are the reasons behind differences in consumers’ online self-presentation.
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