ARAB AND DUTCH CULTURAL VALUES: A
COMPARISON OF TELEVISION ADVERTISING
by
Aya Amairi
University of Groningen
Newcastle University Business School
Faculty of Economics and Business
Msc Advanced International Business Management and Marketing
Abstract
This dissertation examined the use of cultural values in television commercials in Kuwait, Lebanon and the Netherlands. A two month–long analysis of multiple television channels from the three countries spanning 10 different cultural values was completed. A total of 200 television commercials were analyzed through content analysis in a quantitative method. The results of the study show that the difference between the West and the Arab world are not as big as initially thought as many similarities were found between the two cultures with regards to advertising content and the manifestation of certain cultural values. Advertisements in the Arab sample portrayed significantly more traditional values (harmony, tradition, interdependence and respect for elderly) than in the Dutch sample. However, Arab and Dutch commercials shared all four modern values (beauty enhancement, independence, enjoyment and competitiveness). The traditional cultural value thriftiness significantly appeared more frequently in Dutch ads than in Kuwaiti ads, whereas no difference was found compared to Lebanon. Thus, although the Arab countries are focusing more on individuality their behaviour is still considered more collectivistic compared with Western societies. The country of origin of the brand did not seem to play a decisive role for the portrayal of cultural values within a commercial. Lastly, this study provides some interesting insights within the debate over the standardization or adaption of international advertising messages.
Acknowledgements
First of all, I would like to thank the Ms. Drogendijk for her guidance and support during the process of writing this thesis. Her constructive feedback and her insights about culture were a great contribution for this study. In addition, I want to thank Mr. Bhattacharya for his valuable feedback.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Chapter 1 Introduction ... 1
Chapter 2 Literature Review ... 5
2.1 Cultural Values
...5
2.2 Standardization versus Adaption
...6
2.3 Common Characteristics of the Arab Culture ... 7
2.4 Common Characteristics of the Dutch Culture ... 8
2.5 Cultural Values and Advertising ... 9
Chapter 3 Methodology ... Fout! Bladwijzer niet gedefinieerd.
3.1. Research method ... Fout! Bladwijzer niet gedefinieerd.
3.2 Population and Sample ... 20
3.3 Coding procedure ... 21
3.4 Data analysis ... 21
Chapter 4 Findings ... 22
4.1 Sample characteristics ... 22
4.2 Hypotheses testing ... Fout! Bladwijzer niet gedefinieerd.
Chapter 5 Discussion ... 30
Chapter 6 Conclusion... 33
Chapter 7 Reference list ... 35
1
1.Introduction
During the 1994 World Cup, Heineken created a special bottle displaying the flags of all the participants in the tournament, including Saudi Arabia, as a way to honour the great diversity of the world and showing respect for all the participating countries. However, the Saudi Arabian flag shows a verse from the Quran, which forbids the use of alcohol. Arabs evince great pride in their fate which led thousands of Muslims to register complaints for displaying the verse. Heineken eventually had to recall all the bottles and adjust its design (Dalgic & Heijblom, 1996). This shows that the misuse of religious iconography and being unaware of cultural differences can damage a company's image.
Therefore, one of the challenges that organizations face when entering new foreign markets is to understand and to manage cross-national distinctions in advertising. Furthermore, global marketers need to decide whether they can utilize standardized strategies in the foreign markets. The cultural gap between the Arab World and the West has generated innumerable misconceptions and misperceptions (Al-Kandari & Gaither, 2011). More cross-cultural research can help to rectify misinformation between Arab cultures and the West. Kalliny (2010) suggests that one may have a better way of understanding cultural and even religious differences between countries through the study of advertising content. This argument is made based on the presumption that if advertising content reflects society’s cultural and religious believes, one can understand those values through the study of advertising content.
2 picture of the research trends and patterns across the advertising, marketing, and communication disciplines over the past half century. The study showed that international advertising research has examined a total of 98 countries in that time frame. The results revealed that the United States has been the most frequently researched country in international advertising research, followed by China, the United Kingdom, Japan, Germany, France, and South Korea. Notably, research concerning countries from the Middle East is missing.
This shows that not much has changed since Taylor's (2005) research as the Middle East is still often overlooked in the advertising literature. For multinational companies with ambitions for international growth, the Middle East presents an opportunity. The region is considered a big export market that is continuously growing (Best, 2014). Best (2014) explains that nowadays many markets have matured around the world which means there are limited growth possibilities, therefore many multinationals have started to focus their business in the Middle East region. Although some research has been done exploring the cultural content of advertising in the Middle East (Kalliny & Gentr, 2007; Kalliny, 2010; Turnbull et al., 2016) these studies have concentrated primarily on nations with predominant Muslim cultures and have ignored the influence of Christianity and the large Christian population of countries such as Lebanon, Egypt, Syria and Iraq. For example, in their 2007 research of cultural values in Arab and American television advertisements Kalliny and Gentr included Lebanon as a Muslim country and fail to mention the fact that almost half the population is Christian (CIA World Factbook, 2012). Therefore, the cultural value system of the Lebanese is not solely derived from Islam, but also Christianity. The failure to not include the influence of Christianity in the cultural value systems of several large Arabic countries means that the findings cannot be generalized to the entire Middle East, especially Lebanon. Therefore, more research needs to be done to bridge the continued gap in order to get a better understanding of the cultural values in the region. In response to Taylor's call, this research wishes to further extend the international advertising literature to the Arab world and to include both predominant local religions Islam and Christianity in the research where relevant.
3 Lebanon is considered the most westernized and culturally liberal (David, 2011). Furthermore, it holds the largest proportion of Christians in the Arab world as 40,5% of its population is Christian (David, 2011). Whereas Kuwaiti culture strictly adheres to traditional Islamic values solely(Al-Kazi, 2011) as 97.34% of its population identifies as Muslim (Kuwait Government, 2016). One could argue that its neighbour Saudi Arabia is more extreme, however Saudi TV hardly airs commercials making the country unsuitable for this research. Furthermore, the Netherlands is chosen as it is considered to have one of the most liberal and tolerant cultures in Europe (van Noort & Wiche, 2010). The primary purpose of this study is to investigate the similarities and differences of the manifestation of cultural values in contemporary Dutch and Arab television advertisements.
Despite the general global shift of TV audiences to other platforms, TV as a media platform has proven fairly resilient to this effect in the Arab world. Moreover, the average amount of time spent watching TV has slightly increased among Arab viewers (Dubai Press Club, 2012). Kuwait has the fourth highest advertising spend in the Arab region, after the UAE, Egypt and Saudi Arabia. Furthermore, Lebanon has a well-developed and diverse media landscape, especially in the television, audio-visual production and advertising sectors which reflects the country’s vibrant political and cultural mosaic (Dubai Press Club, 2012). Therefore, the decision has been made to focus on television advertising content. This study aims to fill the aforementioned research gap with the following research questions:
1. How are cultural values visible in TV advertisements?
2. What are the types of products that are commonly advertised on Dutch and Arab TV? 3a. What are the cultural value differences that are visible in TV advertisements on Dutch and Arab TV?
3b. What are the cultural value differences that are visible in TV advertisements on Lebanese and Kuwaiti TV?
5
2. Literature review
2.1 Cultural Values
Culture has been defined as ''the fundamental values, attitudes, beliefs, and patterns of thinking which are rooted in view of a region or society of how the world works and how individuals and or groups can and should operate in that world'' (Obeidat, 2012). Culture and its implications play an important role in how people behave, act and respond to things in their communities (Obeidat, 2012). The understanding of cultural differences is often considered essential for successful international advertising since consumers grow up in a particular culture and become aligned with that culture's value system, beliefs and perception processes. Culture surrounds the creation, transmission, reception, and interpretation of ads and brands and influences every aspect of consumption (Semenik et al., 2012).
Previous research has shown that consumers are more likely to respond to advertisements that are congruent with their culture (Kalliny, 2010; Kuppens, 2009). When firms go abroad, they are likely to face different preferences for a particular value proposition from country to country as a result of varying cultural values. The focus is on cultural values at the national level, for national boundaries are strong forces that are stable over time and can produce substantial sharing of culture. Hence, national culture is a fundamental factor that differentiates consumers of one country from those of another country. People within a country have a distinct national character, which is a specific and stable pattern of behaviour. This shows that national culture is a useful tool for identifying culture differences between countries (Thompson & Chmura, 2015). The value system includes the sets of beliefs, attitudes and activities to which a culture or subculture subscribes and is reinforced by rewards and punishments for those who follow or deviate from these guidelines (Rokeach, 1973).
6 values are a strong foundation on which attitudes rest. Attitudes, in turn, are influenced by not only values but other sources as well. Advertising has to be consistent with values, for it cannot easily or quickly change them. If the advertisements are not, they will likely be rejected. Thus, Semenik et al. (2012) argue that it is senseless for an advertiser to speak of using advertising to change values in any substantive way. Advertising influences values very slowly and through cumulative impact over years. As can be seen in figure 2.1, cultural values also change advertising. Often advertisers try to associate their products with a cultural value or criticize competition for being out of step with one. Advertising is therefore considered a window to a given culture and a mirror that reflects culture. Furthermore, consumers understand advertising messages by relating them to culture (Kalliny & Gentry, 2007).
Figure 2.1: Cultural values (Semenik et al., 2012)
2.2 Standardization versus Adaption
7 (Hornikx et al., 2010). Some companies believe that the key to success is to add a touch of the local to ads for their global brands so that they at least appear to be consistent with the local culture. Several researchers (De Mooij, 2005; Kuppens, 2009; Hornix et al. 2010) have claimed that adaptation of advertisements to the needs and preferences of each local culture is a precondition for successful advertising. This claim is based on cultural studies that have shown that cultures are different in their value hierarchies, which is their rankings of which values are relatively important or unimportant.
If adaptation is an effective strategy, ads that appeal to important cultural values should be more influential than ads that appeal to relatively unimportant cultural values (Hornikx et al., 2010). Hornikx and O’Keefe (2009) summarized the findings of such cultural studies in a meta-analysis and discovered that, in general, ads with culturally adapted value appeals are more influential and better liked than ads with culturally unadapted value appeals. Thus, research has shown that there is a relationship between cultural values and advertising content. As the depiction of the appropriate cultural values in advertising content is considered important by societies, one could gain insight about the cultural values of a specific society by looking at their advertisements. Therefore, one could argue that in order for marketers to create appropriate and influential advertisements they need to understand the cultural values within a society. Hence, we will discuss the characteristics of the Arab and Dutch cultures next.
2.3 Common Characteristics of the Arab Culture
8 predominantly influenced by religious values based on Islamic principles, and to some extent Christianity (Wilson, 1996). As Islam is the main religion in most of the Arab world, Arab culture is mostly affected by the Islam’s main values, because language, social structure, and economic philosophy are thoroughly ingrained in the Islamic faith and most Arabs consider Islam as a complete way of life (Chun et al., 2015). Next to Islam, Christianity is the second largest religion in the region and Arab Christians view the Bible as a comprehensive code governing all areas of a Christian's life (Myhill, 2006). Arabs are proud people, evincing great pride in their faith and traditions (Al-Kandari & Gaither, 2011). Therefore, the cultural value system of the Arabs is derived from and guided by their religious beliefs (Anastos, Bedos, & Seman, 1980). Thus, many Arabs are guided by the Qu'ran or Bible in their lives and are likely to adopt them as an important guide for what is culturally suitable in their daily activities.
2.4 Common Characteristics of the Dutch Culture
9 rarely goes to church, and only 14% believes in a personal God. Thus, even though the Netherlands can no longer be considered a Christian nation many of its values are still based on Calvinistic principles but are no longer tied exclusively to religious beliefs.
2.5 Cultural Values and Advertising
In order to describe the main cultural differences and similarities between the Netherlands and the Arab World the cultural values from the Kalliny and Gentr (2007) study are selected for this study. This group of cultural values should not be viewed as conclusive for there are many other cultural values that could be investigated. However, this selection has been made based on the fore coming discussion of the cultural values as they provide a good contrast between the Western and Arabic culture. These values can be categorized under modern and traditional values (Zhang & Farwood, 2004). Beauty enhancement, competitiveness, independence and attitude toward enjoyment are considered modern values. Whereas tradition, respect for elderly interdependence, harmony, thriftiness and attitude toward nature are considered traditional values. Whereas Kalliny & Gentr (2007) focused solely on religion to explain the cultural values, this study will use broader literature and include cultural dimension frameworks such as Hofstede (2010) and Schwartz (2006) as some of these cultural values relate to the dimensions used in these models. The cultural values and the dimension they relate to are provided in Table 2.1 below.
10 thus this will not be the main point of focus when describing contemporary Dutch culture. However, some Dutch cultural values descend from Calvinism and where relevant this need to be mentioned.
Many studies have found that Hofstede’s and Schwarz' dimensions support the presence of culture-specific content in advertisements (Albers-Miller and Gelb, 1996; Saleem et al., 2015). However, a few studies did not find support for the presence of culture-specific advertising content and the reflection of values that were persuasive (Mortimer & Grierson, 2010; Fischer, 2006). Therefore, some authors (e.g. Paek et al., 2011) argue that the data from both Hofstede's and Schwartz's frameworks are too old to be of any modern value, especially with today’s rapidly changing global environments, internationalisation and convergence. Hofstede countered saying that the cross-cultural results were based on centuries of indoctrination, with recent replications having supported the fact that culture will not change overnight. Thus since culture only changes very slowly, these scores can still be considered relevant (Hofstede, 2010).
Table 2.1: The K&G (2007) cultural values and related Hofstede and Schwartz cultural dimensions
Kalliny & Gentr (2007) cultural values Hofstede (2010) cultural dimension Schwartz (2006) cultural dimension Feminine Appearance and Beauty Enhancement
X X
Tradition Long Term Orientation versus Short Term Orientation
X Independence /Interdependence Individualism versus Collectivism Embeddedness versus Autonomy
Attitude toward Nature X Harmony versus Mastery
Attitude toward Enjoyment Indulgence versus Restraint Affective Autonomy Competitiveness Masculinity versus Femininity X
Thriftiness X X
Harmony with Others Individualism versus Collectivism X
11
Feminine Appearance and Beauty Enhancement
One of the main cultural differences between the Netherlands and the Arab world is how woman should appear in society. However, even within the Arab world there is a difference among countries. For example, some countries allow females to wear bikinis whereas others force them to be completely covered. The cultural differences in modesty in dress often reflect the local predominate religion and how strict people follow these religious guidelines. The following Qu'ran passage provides some guidance as to how Muslim women should appear in the public:
''And say to the believing women that they should lower their gaze and guard their modesty; that they should not display their beauty and ornaments except what ordinarily appear thereof that they should draw their veils over their bosoms and not display their beauty except to their husbands, their fathers... ''(Qu'ran 24:31).
12 The need to maintain an attractive look remains among the top priorities for most Dutch people (Passport, 2016). However, the Dutch are known for preferring a natural look (Dutch Ministry of Foreign Affairs, 2016). Calvinism preaches a sober, reserved and minimalist lifestyle which is said to be the reason for the Dutch preference for simplicity. The famous Dutch saying ''doe maar gewoon, dan doe je al gek genoeg'' translated to ''act normal, that is already crazy enough'' shows that the Dutch enjoy simplicity (De Jong, 2003). Dutch women prefer to wear comfortable clothes and do not use too many beauty products to enhance their beauty for this could result in a somewhat unnatural look. Furthermore, products that are heavy on the skin or hair are less popular in the Netherlands. It is forecasted that the majority of Dutch women are likely to remain interested in keeping a more natural look in the future as well (Passport, 2016). Therefore, the following hypothesis is proposed:
H-BE: The focus on women's beauty enhancement will on average be more present in Lebanese
advertising compared to Kuwait and the Netherlands.
Tradition
13 This shows in the higher Hofstede score of 67 of this dimension compared to the Arab countries. Therefore, the following hypothesis has been formulated:
H-Trad: Arab television commercials will on average manifest more traditions compared to Dutch
television commercials.
Independence/Interdependence
14
H-Ind: The cultural value ''independence'' will on average be more present in Dutch television
commercials compared to Arab television commercials.
H-Int: The cultural value ''interdependence'' will on average be more present in Arab television
commercials compared to Dutch television commercials.
Attitude toward Nature
Schwartz distinguishes harmony versus mastery cultures in his theory of basic human values. This discusses how a society regulates how people manage their relations to the natural and social world. Harmony emphasizes fitting into the world as it is rather than to change or to exploit it. Important values include unity with nature and protecting the environment. Mastery encourages active self-assertion in order to master, direct, and change the natural and social environment to attain group or personal goals (Schwartz, 2006). According to his 2006 research, The Netherlands attribute medium-low importance to harmony and thus prefer emphasizing mastery values at the expense of harmony values.
The Qu'ran teaches the following about altering nature: “..the nature made by Allah in which He has made humanity. There is no alteration of Allah's creation.”(Qu'ran 30:30).
Whereas the Bible says the following: ''...fill the earth and subdue it; have dominion over the fish of the sea, over the birds of the air and over every living thing that moves on the earth '' (NKJV, Genesis 1:27-28). Thus, whereas the Qu'ran says that nature is not to be altered, the Bible encourages management of the earth. Considering the fact that Lebanon's population is split between Muslims and Christians whereas Kuwait is solely Islamic, it is expected that there will be a difference in the manifestation of this cultural value between the two Arab countries. Therefore, the following hypotheses are proposed:
H-Nat1: Dutch television commercials will on average manifest the cultural value ''mastery over
nature'' more than Arab television commercials.
H-Nat2: Arab television commercials will on average manifest the cultural value ''oneness with
nature'' more than Dutch television commercials.
H-Nat3: Lebanese television commercials will on average manifest the cultural value ''mastery over
15
Attitude toward Enjoyment
Schwartz (2006) discusses affective autonomy in his theory of basic human values . This discusses whether a society encourages individuals to pursue affectively positive experience for themselves. Important values include pleasure, exciting life, and varied life. According to results from his research, The Netherlands attribute high importance to this value. Furthermore, both Islam and Christianity encourage its followers to take joy in life. ''Whosoever does right, whether male or female, and is a believer, we shall make them live a good life, and We shall pay them a recompense in proportion to the best of what they used to do”(Qu'ran 16:97). This “good life” is happiness
itself. Thus, by doing right (through faith and good deeds and actions) one will achieve happiness. The Bible says the following about enjoyment: ''This is the day the Lord has made; We will rejoice
and be glad in it'' (Psalm 118:24) . Both religions also warn their followers not to indulge
themselves in the enjoyment of this life at the expense of the afterlife. The Hofstede (2010)
Indulgence versus Restrain dimension stands for whether a society allows relatively free
gratification of basic and natural human drives related to enjoying life and having fun or a society
that suppresses gratification of needs and regulates it by means of strict social norms. The score for
this dimension is 25 for Lebanon which means that the culture of Lebanon is one of restraint. The Netherlands scores 68 and is considered a culture of indulgence. Data on Kuwait is missing however its neighbour Saudi Arabia scores 52 and thus does not point to a clear preference on this dimension. Considering the fact countries in the GCC (Gulf Cooperation Council) have similar cultures (McCoy, 2008) it is highly likely that Kuwait will be in the same range. According to the Hofstede scores one would argue that in Lebanon the cultural value enjoyment would not have a high presence in advertisement. However, Lin (2003) argues that some values are more universal than specific. For instance, all human beings strive for the feeling of happiness. Therefore, the following hypothesis has been formulated:
H-Enj: The cultural value ''attitude toward enjoyment'' will on average be manifested in the same
proportion in the Arab and Dutch television commercials.
Competitiveness
16 field. A low score on the dimension (femininity) means that the dominant values in society are caring for others and quality of life. The fundamental issue is what motivates people in society, wanting to be the best (Masculine) or liking what you do (Feminine) (Hofstede, 2010). Kuwait scores 40 on this Hofstede dimension and is thus considered a relatively feminine society. The Netherlands scores 14 and is therefore also a feminine society Lastly, Lebanon scores 65 and is considered a relatively masculine society. Hofstede, 2010) The following hypotheses is therefore proposed:
H-Comp: Compared to Dutch and Kuwaiti television commercials, Lebanese television
commercials will on average have a stronger presence of the cultural value ''competitiveness''.
Thriftiness
The Dutch are known for being thrifty people and generally are not big spenders. Many Dutch people pride themselves on their thrifty ways. Additionally, study shows that the Dutch spend significantly less money on holiday gifts and celebrations compared to other European countries (Metronieuws, 2014).
A popular explanation for this 'typically Dutch' behaviour is Calvinism, as this stresses thriftiness and a minimalist lifestyle in order to please God. It is however important to stress that the Dutch Calvinistic ways today are no longer tied exclusively to religious beliefs (Dekkers et al., 2010). The Islamic faith teaches the following about thriftiness: '...waste not by excess, for Allah loveth not the wasters'' (Qu'ran 7:31). Whereas the Bible says the following: '' A person without self-control is like a city with broken-down walls'' (Proverbs 25:2). Thus, it is expected that all countries attach importance to thriftiness. Therefore, this leads to the following hypotheses:
H-Thrift: The cultural value ''thriftiness'' will be manifested in the same proportion in the Arab and
Dutch television commercials.
Harmony with Others
17 The Qu'ran states that individuals need to band together to achieve shared welfare. The Prophet Muhammad said that “The hand of Allah is with the hand of the group”. Christians are also taught to look out for each other and be peacemakers: ''Blessed are the peacemakers, for they shall be called sons of God'' (Matthew 5:9). A lot of different cultures can be found in the Netherlands and the country is considered to have one of the most tolerant societies in the world despite being an individualistic society. The reason for this stems back to the seventeenth century, the Dutch Golden Age. At that time, the Netherlands was the only country in which freedom of conscience was incorporated in the law which led to refugees of all possible religious backgrounds entering the country (Frijhoff & Spies, 2004).Liberty, equality and solidarity became important values in the Dutch society and nowadays both the Dutch government and people continue stressing the importance of these values as they are considered to be an in important part of Dutch identity (Ministry of Social Affairs and Employment, 2014). Therefore, the following hypothesis is proposed:
H-Har: The cultural value ''harmony with others'' will be manifested in the same proportion in the
Arab and Dutch television commercials.
Respect for the Elderly
In high-power distance cultures consumers have high respect for authority, directing them to what is right or wrong (Hofstede, 2010). Advertisements in such societies will tend to be more efficient when opinion leaders stand up in commercials recommending products/services to the target audience. Opinion leaders include older people, family elderly and authoritative sources (Kindel, 1985). Gratitude towards parents, who were instrumental in one's coming to life, is considered important in Arab societies. The Arab family system is patriarchal and the oldest in the family is considered the leader and the wisest: this authority passes on from grandparents, to parents to brothers and sisters (Al-Kandari & Gaither, 2011).
The Qu'ran says the following about respect for elderly: ''We have enjoined upon man goodness towards his parents: his mother bore him by bearing strain upon strain, and his utter dependence on her lasted two years. Hence, be grateful towards me and towards thy parents'' (Qu'ran 31:14). The Bible has a similar concept: ''Honour your father and your mother, as the Lord your God has commanded you...'' (NKJV, Deuteronomy 5:25).
18 of one's authority or age. This is supported by the KBO (Catholic Association for Elderly), the largest seniors organization in the Netherlands whom defend the interests of seniors in the country. In 2012 the organization performed a research among seniors in the Netherlands about their lives. The Netherlands scored below standard (5,7/10) when it came to respect for the elderly in the country. The elderly felt there was a strong lack of respect from the younger generation. For example, younger people hardly offered their seat in public transport (KBO, 2012). Both Lebanon (75) and Kuwait (90) score high, meaning that people accept a hierarchical order in which everybody has a place and which needs no further justification (Hofstede, 2010). Therefore, the following hypothesis has been formulated:
H-Eld: The cultural value ''respect for elderly'' will on average be more present in Arab television
19
3. Methodology
3.1 Research method
The data is analysed through content analysis in order to examine the depiction of cultural values in advertising content for both Arab and Dutch advertisements. This method is widely conducted in the field of global marketing and advertising in order to research the characteristics of the target market and cross-cultural values among countries and is an established and extensively used tool for examining objective, systematic and quantitative studies of communication content (Chun et al., 2015). Therefore, many past researchers have used content analysis in order to examine the manifestation of cultural values in advertising and communication mediums (Chun et al., 2015; Kalliny & Gentry, 2007; Singh & Matsuo, 2004; Cheng & Schweitzer, 1996). When doing content analysis the identification of contents can be subject to the subjective biases of the coder. However, this study tried to bring more objectivity by using multiple coders and providing a table with the inter-rater reliability, calculated by dividing the number of times coders were in agreement by the total number of ads coded. The cultural values are adopted from the Kalliny and Gentr (2007) research as reported in Table 3.1 and were used to code the advertisements.
Table 3.1: Operational Definitions of Cultural Values (Kalliny & Gentr, 2007)
Cultural Value Operational Definition Adopted from
Beauty Enhancement
The advertising highly suggests that the use of a product will enhance the loveliness, attractiveness, elegance, or handsomeness of an individual.
Cheng and Schweitzer (1996)
Competition This value encourages individuals to compete with others or the self. In advertising, the emphasis is on distinguishing a product from its counterparts by aggressive comparisons. While explicit comparisons may mention the competitor's name, implicit comparisons may use such words as "number one, leader."
Mueller (1987, 1992)
Thriftiness The inexpensive, affordable, and cost-saving nature of a product is emphasized in the advertising content.
Pollay (1983)
Attitude toward Enjoyment
This value encourages the individual to pursue temporary happiness and to enjoy life. The advertising suggests that a product will make its user wild with joy. Typical examples include the capital fun that beer or soda drinkers demonstrate in some advertising.
Pollay (1983)
Harmony with Others
This value emphasizes the importance of having good interpersonal relationships. It also suggests that people should be in harmony with others and avoid anything that might damage the relationship.
Yau (1988)
Independence The emphasis here is on the self-sufficiency and self-reliance of an individual. This value also addresses the improvement, self-freedom, or individual
accomplishment.
20
Interdependence The emphasis of this value is on the individual in relation to others typically in the reference group. Individuals are depicted as integral parts of the group.
Yau (1988)
Attitude toward Nature
This attitude reflects two distinct ways of viewing nature. Both constructs may include a respect for nature, but oneness with nature indicates more of an appreciation for nature as it is while mastery over nature indicates a belief that nature needs to be managed.
Cheng and Schweitzer (1996)
Tradition The experience of the past, customs, and conventions are respected. In advertising, the qualities of being historical, time- honored and legendary are venerated, e.g., "With eighty years of manufacturing experience"; "It is adapted from ancient Chinese prescriptions."
Mueller (1987, 1992)
Respect for the Elderly
The advertising displays a respect for older people by using a model of old age or asking for the opinions, recommendations, and advice of the elders.
Mueller (1987, 1992)
3.2 Population and Sample
The study collected data at one specific point in time and is thus considered a cross-sectional study. Cultural values cannot be changed easily or quickly and thus measuring them at one specific point in time can be rationalised. A sample of 6 hours of programming was videotaped for The Netherlands, Lebanon and Kuwait. As previously discussed, the subordinate rationale for selecting these countries is that their cultures represent the 'extremes' of their regions. The advertisements were recorded over a two-month period (September - October 2016) to correct for seasonal variations in content. The local times chosen for taping were 7:00 p.m to 10:00 p.m as these are the prime evening hours for TV watching. Following Kalliny and Gentr (2007) three guidelines were followed in selecting television channels to be taped:
The channel has to be broadcast nationwide;
The network is accessed for free and no subscription of any kind is required;
Needs to be directed towards the general public and include programming that can appeal to most people in the country.
21
3.3 Coding procedure
A Dutch postgraduate student coded the Dutch ads and a postgraduate bilingual Middle Eastern student coded the Arab sample. In addition, the author coded both the Arab and Dutch advertisement as well. The Dutch and Arab coders were trained prior to coding. To reduce the effects of fatigue, coding was restricted to two hours a day with a break after each hour. The coders were provided with a detailed guidance as to how the coding categories should be done. Coders were instructed to use a variable ranging from 1-3 to code the manifestation of cultural values. The scale ranges from 1 where it indicated a Strong Presence of the cultural value, 2 as Neutral to 3 indicating a Strong Absence of the cultural value. As the properties of the scale are small (1-3) the possible spread between values also becomes small, however this scale was chosen based on the Kalliny and Gentr (2007) study. Advertisements were also coded on physical properties such as product category, country of origin brand, the use of dubbed content or the use of Arab/Dutch actors. When it comes to the origin of the brand, the content was coded as Arab/Dutch or Foreign. Use of Arab/Dutch actors was coded as Yes, No or No actors (in the case no humanoid characters were shown) for the foreign brands. Use of dubbed content was coded as Yes (commercial was dubbed in Arabic/Dutch), No (commercial was in English) or Not applicable (the ad used Arab/Dutch actors) for foreign brands as well. Consistent with the procedures of Kalliny and Gentr (2007) disagreements among the coders was settled via discussion and consensus. Duplicate ads were eliminated to allow for the inclusion of more ads dealing with different product categories.
3.4 Data analysis
One-way ANOVA tests were conducted to examine the differences in the cultural values
22
4. Findings
4.1 Sample characteristics
23 Table 4.1: Cultural Values Intercoder Reliability
Cultural Value Kuwait Lebanon The Netherlands
Beauty Enhancement 0.85 0.92 0.78
Competition 0.88 0.76 0.85
Thriftiness 0.79 0.81 0.90
Attitude toward Enjoyment 0.84 0.87 0.92 Harmony with Others 0.96 0.88 0.81
Independence 0.86 0.82 0.98
Interdependence 0.91 0.86 0.92
Oneness with Nature 0.98 0.96 0.96 Mastery over Nature 0.96 0.96 0.98
Tradition 0.93 0.97 0.92
Respect for Elderly 0.88 0.94 0.86 Table 4.2: Distribution of Advertisements on Product Category
Product Category Kuwait Lebanon The Netherlands
1. Alcohol 0.00 8 (11.4%) 2 (2.8%) 2. Automobiles 4 (6.6%) 2 (2.8%) 6 (8.5%) 3. Telecom 4 (6.6%) 1 (1.4%) 2 (2.8%) 4. Coffee/Tea 0.00 1 (1.4%) 0.00 5. Credit Card/Banking 5 (8.3%) 5 (7.1%) 1 (1.4%) 6. Cosmetics 0.00 8 (11.4%) 3 (4.3%) 7. Hair care 5 (8.3%) 4 (5.7%) 2 (2.8%) 8. Health Insurance 0.00 0.00 1 (1.4%) 9. Laundry/Soap 2 (3.3%) 6 (8.5%) 1 (1.4%) 10 .Medicines 2 (3.3%) 0.00 0.00 11.TV 1 (1.6%) 0.00 0.00 12.ToothPaste 3 (5%) 3 (4.3%) 2 (2.8%) 1 3. Watches 1 (1.6%) 0.00 0.00 1 4. Contraceptive 0.00 0.00 1 (1.4%) 15. Food/Drinks 17 (28.3%) 17 (24.3%) 15 (21.4%) 16.Household Cleaning 7 (11.6%) 3 (4.3%) 3 (4.3%) 17.Other 9 (15%) 12 (17.1%) 31 (44.3%) Total 60.00 70.00 70.00 Table 4.3: Descriptive Statistics Arab Advertisements
Kuwait Lebanon
Country of Origin Brand
Arab Foreign 20% 80% 32.9% 67.1% Dubbed Yes No Not applicable 50% 4.2% 45.8% 55.4% 19.1% 25.5%
Use of Arab actors
24 As can be seen in Table 4.3 commercials aired in Kuwait were predominantly from foreign brands (80%) and solely 20% were Arab brands. 45.8% of the foreign brands used Arabic actors whereas 43.8% used foreign actors and 10.4% used no actors in their commercials. Of the foreign commercials 50% used simple transplants of advertising content from Western production and used dubbed Arabic voice tracks whereas 4.2% of the foreign commercials aired in the English language. The rest of the foreign brand commercials used Arabic actors and were thus categorized under not applicable in the dubbed variable. In Lebanon also more foreign brands were aired than Arab brands, however the difference is slightly smaller than the Kuwaiti sample. The Lebanese sample also showed that more foreign brands aired their commercials in English (19.1%) rather than dub them into the Arabic language. Furthermore, the foreign brands used more Western actors (72.4%) rather than Arab actors in their advertisements for the Lebanese market whereas in the Kuwaiti sample the use of Arabic and non-Arabic actors is relatively the same.
Table 4.4: Descriptive Statistics Dutch Advertisements The Netherlands
Country of Origin Brand
Dutch Foreign 45.7% 54.3% Dubbed Yes No Not applicable 71% 13.2% 15.8%
Use of Dutch actors
Yes No No actors 15.8% 84.2% 0%
25 Table 4.5 presents a description of the mean averages of each cultural value per country. The data presented in bold represents the three values that had the highest manifestation per country, whereas the data presented in italics represents the three values that were least manifested in the sample. In Kuwait, the cultural values that had the highest manifestation were enjoyment (mean=1.35), tradition (mean=2.18) and competition (mean=2.3) The cultural values that were least manifested in the Kuwaiti sample are attitude toward nature (mean=3), respect for elderly (mean=2.92) and independence (mean=2.55). The Lebanese sample contained more of enjoyment (mean=1.12), beauty enhancement (mean =2.41) and competition (mean=2.42), and less of attitude toward nature (mean=3), respect for elderly (mean=2.78) and thriftiness (mean=2.62). The cultural values that had the highest manifestation in the Dutch sample were enjoyment (mean=1.31), independence (2.28) and thriftiness (mean=2.34). The cultural values that were least manifested in the Dutch sample were attitude toward nature (mean=3), tradition (mean=2.98) and respect for elderly (mean=2.98). Furthermore, table 4.5 shows both small and large standard deviations meaning that some of the values in the data set were on average close to the mean of the data set, whereas others were farther away from the mean.
Table 4.5: Means of Cultural Values
Cultural Values Kuwait
N=60 SD KU Lebanon N=70 SD LB The Netherlands N=70 SD NL Beauty Enhancement 2.53 .835 2.41 .909 2.65 .740 Competition 2.3 .926 2.42 .878 2.55 .792
Respect for Elderly 2.92 .381 2.78 .562 2.98 .120
Thriftiness 2.8 .605 2.62 .745 2.34 .899
Attitude t. Enjoyment 1.35 .633 1.12 .414 1.31 .603
Harmony with Others 2.47 .747 2.57 .772 2.9 .386
Independence 2.55 .723 2.5 .812 2.28 .919
Interdependence 2.52 .748 2.51 .830 2.92 .310
Oneness with Nature 3.00 .000 3.00 .000 3.00 .000
Mastery over Nature 3.00 .000 3.00 .000 3.00 .000
26
4.2 Hypotheses testing
As previously mentioned, a one-way ANOVA was performed to test the hypotheses. Because the test for homogeneity of variances was significant for all cultural values, the assumption of homogeneity of variances was violated and a Brown-Forsythe test was performed. When applicable, the Games-Howell post hoc test was ran to confirm where the differences occurred between the countries. The mean scores ranged from 1 where it indicated a Strong Presence of the cultural value, 2 as Neutral to 3 indicating a Strong Absence of the cultural value.
H-BE postulated that the cultural value Beauty Enhancement will on average appear more
frequently in the Lebanese sample than in the Kuwaiti and Dutch sample. Although the mean score was lower for the Lebanese sample which indicated a stronger presence of the cultural value (mean=2.41), compared to the Kuwaiti and Dutch ads (mean= 2.53, mean=2.65 respectively), the mean differences were not significant as determined by one-way ANOVA (F(2,197) = 1.47, p = .23), rejecting H-BE.
H-Trad suggest that the cultural value Tradition appears more frequently in Arab ads than in Dutch
ads. The result of the Brown-Forsythe test were significant (F(2,197)= 10.66, p = .000) meaning there was a significant mean differences between the countries. The mean difference between Kuwait and Lebanon was not significant ( p= .120), whereas the mean differences between Kuwait and The Netherlands (p =.000) and Lebanon and the Netherlands (p = .020) were significant. This shows that the cultural value Tradition appeared more frequently in the Arab sample than in the Dutch sample, supporting H-Trad.
H-Ind indicated that the cultural value Independence would appear more frequently in the Dutch
sample than in the Arab samples. Although the mean score was higher for the Dutch sample (mean=2.28) than for the Kuwaiti and Lebanese ads (mean= 2.55, mean=2.5 respectively), the mean differences were not significant as determined by one-way ANOVA (F(2,197) = 1.93, p = .143), rejecting H-Ind.
H-Int stated that the cultural value Interdependence appears more frequently in the Arab countries
27 The mean difference between Kuwait and Lebanon was not significant ( p= 1), whereas the mean differences between Kuwait and The Netherlands (p =.000) and Lebanon and the Netherlands (p = .001) were significant. This shows that the cultural value Interdependence appeared more frequently in the Arab sample than in the Dutch sample, supporting H-Int.
H-Nat could not be tested as this cultural value was not observed in any of the samples, therefore
the hypotheses for this cultural value cannot be supported nor rejected.
H-Enj postulated that the cultural value Attitude toward Enjoyment will on average appear in the
same proportion in all three countries. The result of the Brown-Forsythe test were not significant (F(2,197)= 3.09, p = .051) which supports H-Enj.
H-Comp suggested that the cultural value Competitiveness will on average appear more frequently
in the Lebanese television ads than in the Kuwaiti and Dutch ads. Although the mean score was the highest for the Kuwaiti sample (mean=2.3), the mean differences were not significant as determined by one-way ANOVA (F(2,197) = 1.43, p = .24), rejecting H-Comp.
H-Thrift suggests that the cultural value Thriftiness will on average appear in the same proportion
in all three countries. The result of the test were significant (F(2,197)= 5.96, p = .003) meaning there was a significant mean differences between the countries, rejecting H-Thrift. The results of the post hoc test show that the mean differences were significant between Kuwait and The Netherlands (p = .002), meaning the cultural value Thriftiness significantly appeared more frequently in Dutch ads than in Kuwaiti ads. The mean differences between Kuwait and Lebanon (p = .320) and Lebanon and The Netherlands (p = .105) turned out not to be significant.
H-Har indicated that the cultural value Harmony with Others will on average appear in the same
28
H-Eld suggest that the cultural value Respect for Elderly will appear more frequently in Arab ads
compared to Dutch ads. The result of the Brown-Forsythe test were significant (F(2,197)= 4.52, p = .012) meaning there was a significant mean differences between the countries. The mean differences between Kuwait and Lebanon( p= .261) and Kuwait and The Netherlands (p =.375) were not significant, whereas the difference between Lebanon and the Netherlands (p = .013) were significant. Therefore, H-Eld was partially supported. Table 4.6 below gives an overview of the hypotheses that were supported or rejected by the results of the study.
Table 4.6: Results hypotheses
Hypotheses Results H-BE Rejected H-Trad Supported H-Ind Rejected H-Int Supported H-Nat x
To make sure that the cultural differences found were not due to differences in product categories, an ANCOVA with product categories as covariates was run to test for the product category confounding effect. None of the results were significant except for thriftiness (p= .022). Within the Dutch sample, the bulk of the ads that included thriftiness were in the 'other' category, which for example included commercials for supermarkets. These supermarket advertisements emphasized their inexpensive, affordable and cost-saving nature.
Arab and Foreign advertisements
Considering the fact that both traditional and modern values were found in the Arab sample. An interesting factor that could be related to the manifestation of cultural values is the origin of the brand being advertised. Therefore, an independent-samples t-test was conducted to compare the manifestation of cultural values between Arab (Kuwaiti and Lebanese) and Foreign advertisements. The data from both Arab countries was put together and tested against the Foreign ads aired in both countries. The results are presented in Table 4.7 below. The results show that the traditional cultural values Harmony with Others and Respect for Elderly appeared more frequently in Arab than Foreign ads in Kuwait and Lebanon, whereas the modern cultural values Beauty Enhancement and
Hypotheses Results
H-Enj Supported H-Comp Rejected H-Thrift Rejected H-Har Rejected
29 Attitude towards Enjoyment appeared more frequently in the Foreign advertisements. No differences were found in the other cultural values.
Table 4.7: Results independent samples t-test
Cultural Value Arab Foreign t-test
30
5. Discussion
The results showed clear differences and similarities in the manifestation of cultural values for all three countries, confirming the function of advertisements as a sufficient tool to convey cultural values. Advertisements in the Arab sample portrayed significantly more traditional values (harmony, tradition, interdependence and respect for elderly) than in the Dutch sample, a finding that is consistent with the traditional notion that Arab countries tend to be collectivistic and more traditional. However, Arab and Dutch commercials shared all four modern values (beauty enhancement, independence, enjoyment and competitiveness). The results showed that both modern and traditional values were pervasive in Arab television commercials, which shows a kind of hybridity at the level of advertising content which can be considered as a reflection of the culturally mixed and modern Arab social reality (Kraidy, 2005). An example of cultural hybridity is an advertisements in the Arab sample which used traditional Arabian clothing for both men and women (a thobe and hijab) but emphasized enjoyment, independence and the achievement of personal success by using a certain product.
The coexistence of modern and traditional values in the Arab sample seems to be a contradiction. A few explanations are possible for this inconsistent finding. First, this could be a reflection of modernization in Arab countries which has led to a cultural value shift over the past few decades (Pappé , 2014). The increase in economic development in the Arab countries (Trading Economics, 2016) could have triggered cultural changes that increased the importance of individual autonomy as explained by the modernization theory of Inglehart and Welzel (2005) which has led to changes in cultural values. Cultural individualisation indicates growing ideals of individual liberty and freedom. However, as Mueller (1987) explains, this shift of values refers to changes in degree rather than changes of a kind. Therefore, two seemingly contradicting values could coexist as distinct concepts rather than existing at the end points of a continuum.
31 Hofstede measured individual behavioural preference, which is the desired aspect of a value. Therefore, the statements about the desired values do not necessarily correspond with the actual practices in a society (Saleem & Larimo, 2016). This study showed that not all Hofstede related values (independence, restraints, masculinity and for the Kuwaiti sample respect for elderly) corresponded with the actual advertising content in the Arab region. This can be understood by reviewing the findings of studies in management and social psychology that reveal that there is an inconsistency between values and practices and that they can sometimes be in opposition to each other (Sun et al., 2014; Fischer, 2006; House et al., 2004).
Therefore, one could argue that the use of cultural values alone is not enough to investigate the effect of culture on advertising. Studies could combine the results from the Hofstede's and Schwarz' dimensions with evidence from ethnography and regional affiliation. This could explain why in collectivistic cultures advertisers may feel little need to depict groups or families because the group and family are already part of one’s identity and is thus not the desirable. Collectivistic societies might not only become accustomed to valuing individualistic values, but their desire to hold such values also increases. Therefore, advertising appeals or claims may represent two opposing statements about values (De Mooij, 2013).
33
6. Conclusion
This study wished to further extend the international advertising literature to the Arab world and help rectify misinformation between the Arab world and the West, which has led to misconceptions and misperceptions in the past. The television commercials analyzed in the Arab sample conflicted with some of the Hofstede classifications. The findings showed that the Arab culture is still upholding some traditional values but is also increasingly focusing more on individuality. Thereby showing that the culture gap between the Arab world and the West is not as big as initially thought. These findings provide some interesting insights within the debate over the standardization or adaption of international advertising messages for global brands within the Arab world. Furthermore, this study helped reveal market characteristics that could be utilized by advertising managers who are considering developing advertising programs in the Kuwaiti, Lebanese or Dutch markets. The results of the study could provide suggestions for advertisers that could help global brands propose and improve strategies that foster to their specific market and avoid cultural strategic errors. The results have shown that there is a significant difference in the manifestation of traditional cultural values in Dutch and Arab advertisements and thereby amplifies the validity of previous studies examining cultural differences in advertising content between both worlds. However, interestingly the study also found no difference in the manifestation of modern values between both worlds. This shows that an understanding of the different motivations and needs within different cultures is necessary for global advertisers and that these can be satisfied by messages consistent with their cultures.
34 Therefore, future research should be done in order to be able to draw conclusions about the manifestation of the value in Arab or Western countries.
35
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40
8. Appendices
8.1 Hypotheses results Hypotheses Results H-BE Rejected (F(2,197) = 1.47, p = .23) H-Trad Supported (F(2,197)= 10.66, p = .000 H-Ind Rejected (F(2,197) = 1.93, p = .143), H-Int Supported (F(2,197)= 8.78, p = .000) H-Nat x Hypotheses Results H-Enj Supported (F(2,197)= 3.09, p = .051) H-Comp Rejected (F(2,197) = 1.43, p = .24) H-Thrift Rejected (F(2,197)= 5.96, p = .003) H-Har Rejected (F(2,197)= 7.96, p = .001) H-Eld Partially supported41
8.2 Meeting Minutes
IIII Topic Supervisor(s) Duration Date
1. Research Proposal Dr.Rian Drogendijk Dr. Saurabh
Bhattachary
1:26 h Skype
21/6/2016
2. Introduction, Theory and Methodology
Dr.Rian Drogendijk 1:30 h Groningen
26/10/2016
3. Draft Dr. Rian Drogendijk 1:06 h
