Images and Words: Devils and Demons in
Anglo-Saxon Manuscripts
by
Tamara Bergsma (1254782)
Dr. C. Dekker and dr. K.E.E. Olsen
12 December 2008
List of Illustrations
Figures
1. Satan-Mors. Leofric Missal, Oxford, Bodleian Library, Bodley 579, folio 50r.
2. Reconstruction of Satan-Mors. Leofric Missal, Oxford, Bodleian Library, Bodley 579, folio 50r.
3. Satan bound. Cædmon Manuscript, Oxford, Bodleian Library, Junius 11, page 3. 4. White devil. Cædmon Manuscript, Oxford, Bodleian Library, Junius 11, page 16. 5. Black devil (detail of the illustration). Book of Kells, Dublin, Trinity College Library,
A. I. 6, fol. 202v.
6. Black devil (detail of the illustration). Book of Kells, Dublin, Trinity College Library, A. I. 6, fol. 202v.
7. White devil bound. Cædmon Manuscript, Oxford, Bodleian Library, Junius 11, page 20.
8. Fall of Adam and Eve. Cædmon Manuscript, Oxford, Bodleian Library, Junius 11, page 31.
9. Fall of Adam and Eve. Cædmon Manuscript, Oxford, Bodleian Library, Junius 11, page 36.
10. Saint Lawrence. Hereford Troper, London, British Library, Cotton Caligula A. xiv, folio 25r.
11. Saint Martin. Hereford Troper, London, British Library, Cotton Caligula A. xiv, folio 29r.
12. The devil. Liber Vitae, London, British Library, Stowe 944, folio 7r.
13. Temptations of Christ. Tiberius Psalter, London, British Library, Cotton Tiberius C. vi, folio 10v.
14. Harrowing of Hell. Tiberius Psalter, London, British Library, Cotton Tiberius C. vi, folio 14.
15. Fall of the devil. Illustrated Hexateuch, London, British Library, Cotton Claudius B. iv, folio 2r.
17. Half-visible demon. Illustrated Hexateuch, London, British Library, Cotton Claudius B. iv, folio 23v.
18. Demon with general looks. Harley Psalter, London, British Library, Harley 603, folio 4v.
19. Four demons. Harley Psalter, London, British Library, Harley 603, folio 3v. 20. Bearded demons. Harley Psalter, London, British Library, Harley 603, folio 59r. 21. Four demons. Eadwine Psalter, London, British Library, Cotton Galba E. iv, folio 11b. 22. Black demon. Eadwine Psalter, London, British Library, Cotton Galba E. iv, folio 5b. 23. Female demon. Eadwine Psalter, London, British Library, Cotton Galba E. iv, folio
12b.
24. Demons. Eadwine Psalter, London, British Library, Cotton Galba E. iv, folio 152. 25. Demons. Eadwine Psalter, London, British Library, Cotton Galba E. iv, folio 154b. 26. Demon. Eadwine Psalter, London, British Library, Cotton Galba E. iv, folio 163. 27. Naked demon with trident. Eadwine Psalter, London, British Library, Cotton Galba E.
iv, folio 201b.
28. Devil in a pit. Eadwine Psalter, London, British Library, Cotton Galba E. iv, folio 210b.
29. Eight demons. Eadwine Psalter, London, British Library, Cotton Galba E. iv, folio 251b.
30. Demons. Eadwine Psalter, London, British Library MS Cotton Galba E. iv, folio 263. 31. Demon pushing sinners. Eadwine Psalter, London, British Library, Cotton Galba E. iv,
folio 264b.
32. Demon. Eadwine Psalter, London, British Library, Cotton Galba E. iv, folio 268. 33. Temptations of Christ. Winchester Psalter, London, British Library, Cotton Nero C.
iv, folio 18.
34. Flagellation of Christ. Winchester Psalter, London, British Library, Cotton Nero C. iv, folio 21.
35. Harrowing of Hell. Winchester Psalter, London, British Library, Cotton Nero C. iv, folio 24.
36. Torment of the Damned. Winchester Psalter, London, British Library, Cotton Nero C. iv, folio 38.
38. The Last Judgment. Holkham Bible Picture Book, London, British Library, Add. 47682, folio 42v.
39. Punishment of the Wrathful. The Kalender of Sheepardes. Oxford, Bodleian Library, Malone 17, sig. E7v.
40. Demons with general looks. Utrecht Psalter, Utrecht, Universiteitsbibliotheek, MS Bibl. Rhenotraiectinae I Nr 32, folio 4v.
41. Four demons. Utrecht Psalter, Utrecht, Universiteitsbibliotheek, MS Bibl. Rhenotraiectinae I Nr 32, folio 3v.
42. Several demons. Utrecht Psalter, Utrecht, Universiteitsbibliotheek, MS Bibl. Rhenotraiectinae I Nr 32, folio 79v.
43. Demons. Utrecht Psalter, Utrecht, Universiteitsbibliotheek, MS Bibl. Rhenotraiectinae I Nr 32, folio 84r.
44. Two demons. Utrecht Psalter, Utrecht, Universiteitsbibliotheek, MS Bibl. Rhenotraiectinae I Nr 32, folio 1v.
45. Demons. Utrecht Psalter, Utrecht, Universiteitsbibliotheek, MS Bibl. Rhenotraiectinae I Nr 32, folio 50r.
46. Demon. Utrecht Psalter, Utrecht, Universiteitsbibliotheek, MS Bibl. Rhenotraiectinae I Nr 32, folio 53v.
Introduction
In the illustrations in Anglo-Saxon manuscripts, devils and demons are frequent characters. They appear in different shapes and colours; however, it is not clear where their looks come from. Did they originate in the Christian tradition, or were they formed long ago in people’s minds, stories, mythologies, inspired by pagan religions? Devils and demons are also mentioned often in Anglo-Saxon texts. When one searches for ‘deofol’ in the Dictionary of Old English Corpus (DOEC) 998 matches are given. This raises the question as to whether there was any influence from Anglo-Saxon texts on the way in which devils and demons were depicted in the manuscript illustrations. The idea of finding connections between art and literature is a relatively new area of research.1
So far, only a limited amount of research has been conducted on Anglo-Saxon demonology. An important article in this field is that of Louis Jordan, Demonic Elements in
Anglo-Saxon Iconography, in which he underlines the typical Anglo-Saxon elements in
demonological iconography. However, Jordan focuses solely on art and does not make a connection between literature and art, as I propose to do in this dissertation. Peter Dendle’s book about Anglo-Saxon demonology, Satan Unbound: The Devil in Old English Narrative
Literature, explores the importance of the character of the devil in narrative literature. However, his research is confined to Anglo-Saxon literature about the period between the Harrowing of Hell and the Second Coming. Moreover, he only discusses literature and does not cross the border to art. Lastly, in the article The Devil in Old English Poetry R.E. Woolf states that the Anglo-Saxon devil bears close resemblances to gods from northern mythology, especially to Loki (Woolf 1), but here too only literature is discussed and a link between art and literature is not made. When looking at these publications on Anglo-Saxon devils and demons, an investigation of Anglo-Saxon devils and demons in both manuscript illustrations and literature has not caught the attention of scholars working in this field of research.
In this dissertation I try to see if the image of devils and demons presented in the Anglo-Saxon manuscript illustrations corresponds to the pictures drawn by the manuscript artist. If they differ fundamentally, other possible influences on the images of devils and demons in the Anglo-Saxon illustrations will be considered and discussed. For example, the
1 For further reading material on this subject, see Robillard, Valerie, and Els Jongeneel, ed. Pictures into Words:
illustrations may have been influenced by ideas from the Continent, which may have entered Britain through the exchange of illustrated manuscripts. However, this dissertation does not try to find the ultimate source or sources of Anglo-Saxon demonology, since this is an almost impossible undertaking.
In order to compare the devils and demons in the Anglo-Saxon manuscripts with those in the Anglo-Saxon texts, I will use illustrations from the following manuscripts, which are listed in chronological order: the Leofric Missal (Oxford, Bodleian Library, Bodley 579), the Cædmon Manuscript (Oxford, Bodleian Library, Junius 11), the Hereford Troper (London, British Library, Cotton Caligula A. xiv), the Liber Vitae (London, British Library, Stowe 944), the Tiberius Psalter (London, British Library, Cotton Tiberius C. vi), the Old English Illustrated Hexateuch (London, British Library, Cotton Claudius B. iv), the Harley Psalter (London, British Library, Harley 603), the Eadwine Psalter (or Canterbury Psalter) (London, British Library, Cotton Galba E. iv), and the Winchester Psalter (London, British Library, Cotton Nero C. iv).
Chapter 1 offers an analysis of the devils and demons as they appear in the above mentioned manuscripts. Some devils and demons share a lot of characteristics, so these will be described according to their typology. The devils and demons that deviate from these main types will be described individually. Chapter 2 will focus on the texts in which the devil is described in such a way that it will help the reader with a visual image of this character. The texts to be discussed are: The Bible, Bede’s Ecclesiastical History of the English People,
Christ and Satan, the Old English Martyrology, Genesis, Ælfric’s Old English Hexameron, Ælfric’s Lives of Saints, Guthlac A&B, Felix’s Life of Saint Guthlac, The Old English
Guthlac, and The Life of Saint Margaret. In the third chapter, an analysis will be given of the
Chapter 1: Illustrations in Anglo-Saxon Manuscripts
The first illustrations of devils and demons in Anglo-Saxon manuscripts appeared at the beginning of the 10th century. Before this period the production of manuscripts had decreased (Millar 2). King Alfred (c. 849-899) was the instigator of a new era of manuscript production. King Athelstan (c. 895-939) was probably responsible for two illustrated manuscripts (Millar 2). In the tenth century, the revival of monasticism had a major influence on the increasing production of manuscripts (Wormald 23), and in this period of reform, the Winchester school of illustration developed (Wormald 24). Moreover, in the middle of the 10th century a
Continental manuscript came to England, which had a major influence on Anglo-Saxon illustration: the Utrecht Psalter (Utrecht, Universiteitsbibliotheek, MS Bibl. Rhenotraiectinae I Nr 32). Three manuscripts in England are copies of the Utrecht Psalter, namely: the Harley Psalter (British Library, Harley 603), the Eadwine Psalter (British Library, Cotton Galba, E. iv) and the Paris Psalter (Paris, Bibliothèque Nationale, Lat. 8846). In this dissertation only the Harley and Eadwine Psalters will be discussed, since the Paris Psalter dates from the early 13th century and therefore does not belong within the scope of this research (James 4).
Through Continental influence and the rise of new schools of manuscript illustration, Anglo-Saxon manuscript art was able to bloom like never before from the tenth century onward. The earliest Anglo-Saxon illustrations of devils and demons originate from this period of revival.
This chapter will give a survey of the devils and demons in Anglo-Saxon illustrations. The manuscripts will be discussed in chronological order. In order to acquire an overview of the most common characteristics and those that are less frequent, the following features will be looked at: horns and ears, type of hair, claws, body hair, clothes, face, size, wings, spurs, colour, tail, exposed genitalia, and other attributes, such as weapons.
1.1 Leofric Missal
(Jordan 290). In this illustration (folio 50r; fig.12) the devil is represented as death (Satan-Mors). He holds a piece of paper or cloth that gives certain dates and functions as a type of prognostication. If through calculation your number turned out to be on the piece held by the devil, you would die; if it turned out to be on the piece held by Jesus in another illustration you would live. The head of the devil in the illustration is its most striking aspect: it looks like that of a goat, with goat’s ears, two horns, and a goat-like nozzle. His hair, however, is not like that of a goat, but it looks more like the manes of a lion; it is short and flame-like. His hands and feet are claws, his skin colour is white, he has spurs on his knees and heels, and he wears a ragged skirt. The devil in this illustration does have wings, even though they are not clearly visible in the illustration. The wings are reminiscent of the previous angelic state of devils (Jordan 295). Behind the devil are six figures. Since they are not clearly visible in the manuscript illustration I have added a reconstruction (fig. 2) of this illustration in which the figures are discernable. According to Ohlgren “these figures have been variously interpreted as vices, the sons of Death, or simply as demons” (79).
1.2 Cædmon Manuscript
The Cædmon Manuscript (Oxford, Bodleian Library, Junius 11) dates from ca 1000 and is entirely written in Old English. It contains the poems Genesis, Exodus, Daniel (incomplete), and Christ and Satan (Krapp xi) and was probably made at Christ Church, Canterbury (Gneuss 101). In this manuscript there are six illustrations with devils and demons in them.
The first illustration (page 3; fig. 33) depicts the fall of the devil and his demons. The devil appears only in the third register of this illustration, where he lies bound in the hell-mouth. He is large, skinny and has hair all over his body, with black flaming hair on his head, and his body is also darker than that of his companions. He has a pointy nose and a protruding lower lip; his eyes are dark, and his hands and feet are clawed. All around him demons are falling. These demons have wings, and they look more like humans than the devil, in that they are white and do not seem to have any body hair. Most of these demons have dark, flaming hair on their heads. It looks as if they are naked, but when one takes a closer look they do wear a little skirt-like cloth around their middle.
In the second illustration (page 16; fig. 4) the devil is also bound; however, he is not inside the mouth, as he is in the previous illustration, but next to or underneath the
2 The first number (folio) refers to the folio-number of the illustration in the manuscript; the second number (fig.)
refers to the number of the illustration in this dissertation.
3 In the Cædmon Manuscript the pages are not referred to as folios, but simply as pages. I will maintain this
mouth and surrounded by walls. Here, he is white and has no wings. His face looks like that of a human, but there is a small tail visible in this illustration, which together with the clawed feet remind the viewer of a lion. The other demons visible in this illustration differ from the devil. They are small, black creatures, with tails, and they look more like the devil as portrayed in the Book of Kells (folio 202v; fig. 5). The large demons falling into the hell-mouth are like those of figs. 7 and 9. They do not have tails. One demon on the right side has exposed genitalia and is visibly male.
The third illustration (page 17; fig. 6) also contains a devil that is bound. Here, he seems to be inside hell. This devil has a remarkably human face, with a beard, which gives him a royal look. He does not seem to have wings, and although he has flaming hair, his hands and feet look normal and do not have claws. He is larger than the demons surrounding him, who bear a striking resemblance to the large devil. Some of them also seem to have beards and they have wings.
In the fourth illustration (page 20; fig. 7) the devil is also bound. He is white, has white flaming hair, and is displaying large white wings on his back. This devil is very large compared to the other demons in the illustration, which are flying around him and look like small versions of this devil. On the whole, this devil does not look very frightening.
The fifth illustration (page 31; fig. 8) contains one devil, which has black, flaming hair. His body is white and looks like that of a human, but he has wings on his back and has a tail. This devil wears a kind of loincloth; otherwise he is naked.
In the sixth and last illustration (page 36; fig. 9) of the devil in this manuscript he is also bound. He is white, without wing, but with a beard. He is larger than the other demons, but his body does not have any animalistic qualities.
1.3 Hereford Troper
The first illustration (folio 25r; fig. 10) shows the story of Saint Lawrence. The illustration is divided into two registers. Only in the episode shown in the upper register can a devil or demon be discerned. It is sitting on the shoulder of a man situated on the left of this register. This man is called Decius or Valerian (Ohlgren 264), and he is trying to persuade Saint Lawrence to worship pagan gods. The devil or demon sitting on the shoulder of Decius or Valerian is whispering bad thoughts and ideas into his ear. This devil or demon looks very malevolent: he has a hunched back, pointed ears, and, on the whole, has a wicked look on his face. He has flaming hair and evil-looking eyes. On his back there are small wings and his body has a darker colour, which may point to body hair.
In the second illustration (folio 29r; fig. 11) a scene is depicted which can be found in the Dialogues by Sulpicius Severus, which inspired Ælfric for his Lives of Saints (Ælfric 219). The story is that of Saint Martin. Here, a devil or demon is sitting on the shoulder of the sinner Avitianus. Saint Martin sees him and blows him away. The fact that nobody but Saint Martin can see the demon is stressed by the fact that the demon is not very clearly visible. Dendle notes that “the distinction between sinner and demon is compromised by the camouflage effect of the hunched demon, which blends in with the folds of the robes. At a quick glance or viewed from a short distance, one could imagine the sinner standing alone, with a hunched back and his own pair of demonic wings. The artist has thus skilfully
sustained both the external and internal nature of demonic instigation” (Dendle, note to fig.1, facing page 90). This devil or demon looks a lot like the one in the illustration of Saint Lawrence; however, his wings are larger and he has a visible tail. Also, he is white and does not have body hair.
1.4 Liber Vitae
The Liber Vitae (London, British Library, Stowe 944) dates from ca. 1031 AD. The text is in Latin and Old English, and the manuscript originates from New Minster, Winchester (Gneuss 85). The manuscript gives an overview of the history of New Minster and Hyde Abbey. Moreover, it contains a long list of names of the people who were active in the Abbey,
because “by the temporal record of this writing they may be written in the page of the Book of Life” (Birch xv), since the Bible says: “And whosoever was not found written in the book of life was cast into the lake of fire” (Rev. 20:15).
book of evil, while an angel holds a book of good. Behind St. Peter stands St. Michael the Archangel holding the Book of Life, which is likely to be an allusion to the Liber Vitae itself (Birch vii). The angel and devil are fighting over a human who goes either to heaven or to hell. The human looks towards the angels, to indicate which direction he prefers. The devil has large, pointed ears. His hairs are flame-like, which may be an allusion to the firy place he comes from: hell. His body is white and looks quite human; especially his face has human characteristics, although he looks angry. He is wearing the same kind of ragged skirt as the devil in the Leofric Missal, but he does not have spurs on his knees and heels. He has clawed hands and feet, which look like those of a lion; however, his ears are like those of a goat. This devil does not have horns, like the goat-like devil of the Leofric Missal.
In the third register of the illustration St. Peter is locking the gate to hell. In the right corner a hell-mouth is visible, which devours all the sinners. The devil in this image looks like the one in the second register, but the illustrator transformed him into a more brutal and evil character. He is wearing the same skirt as the devil in the second register, has clawed hands and feet, and a white body. The hair on his head is flaming, but it is curlier than that of the devil in the second register. However, the look on his face is more ugly and angry and he is larger than the devil portrayed in the second register. He has hair on his arms, which seems to point to an overall hairy body.
1.5 Tiberius Psalter
Next in the search for devils and demons in Anglo-Saxon illustrations is the Tiberius Psalter (London, British Library, Cotton Tiberius C. vi). This Psalter contains the Gallican version of the Psalter and dates from the mid 1060’s. The text is in Latin, but entirely glossed in Old English. The manuscript originated in Old Minster, Winchester (Gneuss 69). The Tiberius Psalter contains two illustrations that portray devils and demons.
The first illustration depicts the Temptations of Christ (folio 10v; fig. 13), to whom a huge devil has appeared, with flaming hair, clawed hands and feet, and large eyes and a big nose. He is very tall and he has a white body, which is girded with a ragged skirt. Behind him wings are visible, but it is difficult to discern if they are attached to the devil’s body or not.
looking like those of a lion, and with sharp pointed teeth. His body is white. This devil is small in comparison to Christ, but large in comparison to the human taken out of hell by Christ.
1.6 Old English Illustrated Hexateuch
The Old English Illustrated Hexateuch4 (London, British Library, Cotton Claudius B. iv) is next in this discussion. This manuscript was probably made at St. Augustine’s, Canterbury, in the 2nd quarter of the 11th century (Gneuss 62) and is entirely written in Old English (Ohlgren 212). In this manuscript there are four illustrations that contain devils and demons.
The first illustration (folio 2r; fig. 15) contains an image of the fall of the devil and his demons. The devil in this illustration is naked and has a tail, which looks like that of a lion. His hair is flaming.
The illustration on folio 7r (fig. 16) tells the story of the fall of Adam and Eve. Here, the devil appears in the shape of a serpent, in accordance with the story of Genesis from the Bible.
In the third illustration (folio 23v; fig. 17) the devil is only half visible. He seems to emerge from a gap. His head is not very human, but looks more like the head of a dog. However, he has wings and his hands look like those of a human. His body is white.
1.7 Harley Psalter
The seventh manuscript to be discussed here is the Harley Psalter (London, British Library, Harley 603). This is one of the three manuscripts that were copied from the Utrecht Psalter (Utrecht, Universiteitsbibliotheek, MS Bibl. Rhenotraiectinae I Nr 32). The Harley Psalter is written in Latin and dates from the 2nd quarter of the 11th century. It was probably made at Christ Church, Canterbury (Gneuss 75). There are 24 illustrations in this manuscript containing devils and demons, which can be divided into three different types.
Most of the devils and demons are small with human-like bodies and are not particularly frightening. They wear the same ragged skirts as seen by the devils from previously described manuscripts. They have wings, flaming hair, and white bodies. An example of these demons can be found in fig. 18 (folio 4v).
The demons in the illustration accompanying Psalm 6 (folio 3v; fig. 19) are a bit different. Besides the aforementioned characteristics, two of the four demons have exposed
male genitalia. These two demons also have very long noses, almost like the trunks of elephants, whereas the other two demons look quite human.
The demons in Psalm 114 (115) (folio 59r; fig. 20) are different from most other demons as well. Besides the flaming hair, the skirts and the white bodies, they have beards and their faces look less human. Moreover, they carry tridents, which are not always seen with Anglo-Saxon devils, even though it is thought of as a common attribute of devils nowadays. The tridents may have originated from the Old English charms, where elves are said to sting humans with arrows or spears, such as ‘For a Sudden Stitch’ (Rodrigues 143) and ‘Against Elf-Shot’ (Storms 249).
1.8 Eadwine Psalter
The next Anglo-Saxon manuscript is the Eadwine Psalter (or Canterbury Psalter, since it was produced at Christ Church, Canterbury and was written by a scribe called Eadwine (James 1) (from now on referred to as Eadwine Psalter) (London, British Library, Cotton Galba E. iv). This manuscript dates from the middle of the 12th century, and contains the Gallican version of the Psalms (in Latin), the Hebrew version (in French) and the Roman version (in Old English). The manuscript contains 26 illustrations with devils and demons in them.
In these illustrations there are many devils and demons in these illustrations that look quite the same. Like those in the Harley Psalter, the devils and demons in the Eadwine Psalter do not look uncommon, and resemble humans, but for their wings, flaming hair, and the fact that they are naked, except the occasional ragged skirt. Sometimes they have clawed feet. An example of one of these demons can be found in figure 21 (folio 11b), where four demons can be seen in the left lower corner. The devils and demons in this manuscript that deviate from this general image will be discussed in more detail below.
The first devil which deviates from the majority of devils and demons in the Eadwine Psalter (folio 5b; fig. 22) is sitting next to a man on a throne on the right side of the
illustration. This demon has horns, an angry look on his face, dark coloured skin, and feet like hooves. He also has serpents around his legs and holds branches in his hands. The lower part of this illustration shows two demons that also have black fur. One of them has small horns or funny shaped ears, and he has clawed feet. The other one’s head looks like that of a crocodile and he seems to have goat-like feet.
In another illustration (folio 152; fig. 24) demons are pushing men into a pit. The hand of the artist has changed since the last illustration containing a demon (folio 70). The figures made by the second artist are more grotesque and less realistic. Here, three demons are illustrated. The have clearly visible claws, flaming hair and tails. Otherwise they look like humans.
In the illustration on folio 154b (fig. 25) humans are thrown into the hell-mouth by demons. Two demons are next to the hell-mouth. The upper demon looks like a lion, with hair all around his head. He has clawed hands and feet, and exposed genitalia. The lower demon also has clawed feet and exposed genitalia, but his head looks more like that of a goat.
In the next illustration (folio 163; fig. 26) one can see “a shaggy head with nude demons flying about it” (James 33). The head seems to represent the devil, since it looks very evil. There is hair all around the head, which makes the head look like that of a lion.
However, the ears and horns are more like those of a goat.
The next illustration (folio 201b; fig. 27) shows a naked demon with a trident. He has long dark hair, wings, clawed feet and a pointed nose.
Of the illustration on folio 210b (fig. 28) James says it is a hell-mouth (39), but I think it is a pit in which the devil is visible. The devil has extremely long hair flaming upwards and an evil look on his face.
In the next illustration (folio 251b; fig. 29) eight demons can be seen. They are all wearing skirts and have flaming hair, with long noses and ugly faces. They carry tridents.
In the illustration on folio 263 (fig. 30), there are demons that look different from the previous ones. These demons have hair on their bodies and do not seem to be wearing skirts. Also, they have extremely long noses, flaming hair, and spurs at their elbows and knees.
In the illustration on folio 264b (fig. 31) one demon pushes the sinners down with a spear. This demon looks frightening. He seems to have an upcurling tail. His feet are claws and his face is ugly and distorted.
1.9 Winchester Psalter
The ninth manuscript is the Winchester Psalter (or St. Swithun’s Psalter, but from now on referred to as Winchester Psalter) (London, British Library, Cotton Nero C. iv), which can be dated between 1121-1161 and was probably made at the Benedictine Priory of St. Swithun’s, Winchester (Haney 8). The text is written in Latin and French. There are five illustrations in this manuscript that contain devils and demons.
The first illustration (folio 18; fig. 33) tells of the temptations of Christ. The register above shows the first and second temptations and therefore the devil is visible twice. In the first temptation the devil wants Jesus to turn stones into bread. The upper register shows a terrible devil on the left side who is covered with hair all over. He wears a short skirt and a mantle, possibly to show he appeared in disguise. His hands and feet are clawed and he has a tail. On his head he has a beard, a moustache and two horns. In the second temptation the devil tempts Jesus to jump down from the top of the temple of Jerusalem. The devil in this temptation-scene looks like the first devil; only his hair is smoother and he is not wearing a mantle. Both devils look like lions, except they have horns. Also, both devils have a dark skin colour. The lower register shows the third temptation of Christ, where the devil asks Christ to worship him. Here, the devil is more dressed than the ones in the upper register. He is wearing a gown that looks very angelic or royal, and he has angel-like wings on his back. His body underneath the dress shows he that is not very different from the other devils. He is hairy, has a tail. His hands and feet are clawed, and he has a beard and a moustache and has two horns on his head.
The second illustration (folio 21; fig. 34) shows the Flagellation of Christ. This illustration contains one devil who sits next to Pilate’s ear, whispering bad thoughts. It is a small, dark-coloured devil. His hands and feet are clawed, his back is a bit hunched, and he has a curling tail.
The third illustration (folio 24; fig. 35) is of the Harrowing of Hell. Here, underneath Christ’s feet the devil lies bound with hands and feet. Beside him is a smaller demon. Both creatures are black and have hair all over their bodies. Their faces are smudged, as if someone tried to erase them from the manuscript. It seems that the devil has only two fingers on each hand and two toes on each foot. Their hands and feet are more animal-like than any of the previously described devils and demons. The devils and demons are small when compared to Christ, but large when compared to the humans coming from the hell-mouth.
and demons are visible. In the upper register three demons can be seen. All three of them have hairy bodies and tails. The demon on the left has hands and feet that look like those of a lizard. He has a beard and pointy teeth. Like the other two, he wears a short skirt. On his head he has the ears and horns of a goat. This is another one of the rare examples of goat-shaped devils and demons in Anglo-Saxon England5. The third demon in the upper register also has horns on his head and goat-shaped ears. His face is less like that of a goat than the face of the second demon. However, this demon also has hooves instead of feet. All three of them have spurs at the knees and/or ankles. In the lower register there are many demons, all of whom have hairy bodies. With one exception, they all have horns on their head. Of the two large demons at the front of the illustration the feet are visible. The demon on the left has hooves like a goat. The second demon has bird-like feet. The faces of the demons in the lower register are different from those in the upper register, in that the former have dark beards and angry grimaces. The faces of most of the demons look like those of humans, but very ugly. The third and fifth demons from the left have a dog-like face.
The fifth and last illustration (folio 39; fig. 37) is that of the Last Judgement, where an angel is seen locking the gates of hell. Inside the gigantic hell-mouth visible in this illustration humans, the devil and demons are present. The devil can be found on the right side inside hell-mouth. He is larger than all other creatures and looks terrifying. He has brown hair all over his body and has two horns on his head. His face is very ugly and animal-like, and his hands are clawed. When one looks closely at the other characters inside hell-mouth more and more demons can be discerned. They have all kinds of animal-like faces and bodies.
1.10 Conclusion
After this survey of devils and demons in Anglo-Saxon manuscript illustrations it has become apparent that some characteristics are common in the illustrations of devils and demons. These characteristics are the flaming hair, the ragged skirt, white skin colour, and wings. Some characteristics that occur less frequently, but still are not rare, are the horns and ears, the clawed hands and feet, the large size, tails, fully haired bodies, and beards. Conversely, the characteristics that do not occur often are the typically goat-shaped ears and horns, which appear only in the Leofric Missal, and the Eadwine Psalter. In the Winchester Psalter some goat-shaped feet can be found. More uncommon characteristics are the lion-like manes around the head, the spurs at the knees, elbows and heels, large noses or noses shaped like the trunk
Chapter 2: Descriptions in Anglo-Saxon Texts
The illustrations in Anglo-Saxon manuscripts have shown a great variety in the portrayal of devils and demons. This second chapter will investigate the correspondences and differences between devils and demons in the texts of Anglo-Saxon manuscripts.
When one looks for the word ‘deofol’ in the Dictionary of Old English Corpus (DOEC) there are 998 matches; nonetheless, it is not easy to find physical descriptions of devils and demons in these texts, since Anglo-Saxon authors did not often provide extensive physical descriptions (Dendle 11). According to Palmer, “the root of medieval English diabolic iconography would seem to be the expression of chaos, a disorientation from that which is recognized as divine or human order” (27). However, I propose to dig deep into the extensive corpus of Anglo-Saxon literature and search for the few descriptions of devils and demons that are given to see if they can be matched with the devils and demons in the illustrations.
This chapter will follow the texts mentioned in the introduction. First, the discussion will focus on passages from the Bible which contain physical description of devils or demons. Then, the discussion will move towards original Anglo-Saxon texts. In this dissertation the term ‘Anglo-Saxon texts’ refers to texts that were produced in Anglo-Saxon England. However, they need not have been written in Old English, such as Felix’s Life of Saint
Guthlac and Bede’s Ecclesiastical History of the English People, which were written in Latin,
but will be discussed here. The Anglo-Saxon texts are discussed in chronological order.
2.1 The Bible
Before investigating the imagery of devils and demons in Anglo-Saxon literature, it is of vital importance to look at the Bible first. As in all Christian countries, the Bible was widely read in Anglo-Saxon monastic centres and, among other things, influenced Anglo-Saxon thought and art. Although there are many occurrences of the devil in the Bible, not all of them will be listed here; only those entries that provide a physical description of the devil will be
discussed.
In the Old Testament the devil materialises as Leviathan, a biblical water monster. He is mentioned in the book of Job 41:1-34, where he is described as a terrible looking monster. In this passage there are references to his large teeth, the scales on his body, and light that emerges from his eyes and mouth: “By his neesings a light doth shine, and his eyes are like the eyelids of the morning. Out of his mouth go burning lamps, and sparks of fire leap out” (Job 41: 18-19). Another reference to the devil as Leviathan can be found in Psalms 74:14, where it says: “Thou brakest the heads of Leviathan in pieces”. Here, Leviathan is said to have more than one head.
There are several places in the Bible where the devil is called a dragon or a serpent (Isaiah 27:1, 51:9; Ezekiel 29:3, etc.), with the serpent in the garden of Eden (Genesis 3) as the most famous example.
In the New Testament a description of the devil can be found in the book of Revelation 12:3, 7-9:
And behold a great red dragon, having seven heads and ten horns, and seven crowns upon his heads. (...) Michael and his angels fought against the dragon. (...) And the great dragon was cast out, that old serpent, called the Devil, and Satan, which deceiveth the whole world.
Again, the devil is associated with a dragon and a serpent. In this passage, there is an actual identification that tells the reader that it is in fact the devil that appeared here in the shape of a dragon.
In the next passage in the Bible (Revelation 13), there are two monsters, which are said to worship the dragon-like devil from the previous passage. The first monster has seven heads, ten horns on which ten crowns can be discerned; his body is that of a leopard, his feet are like those of a bear and his mouth like that of a lion. The second beast has two horns and is said to speak like a dragon. At the end of the passage, it is mentioned that these monsters have the sign of the devil on them.
Another passage in the Book of Revelation (20:2) also mentions that the devil is in the shape of a dragon: “And he laid hold on the dragon, that old serpent, which is the Devil, and Satan, and bound him a thousand years”. This passage also states that the devil was bound in hell.
In conclusion, when looking at the physical descriptions of the devil in the Bible, a very diverse image of the devil is presented. He is said to be like a serpent, a dragon, and a lion. Also, there is no consistency in the number of heads and horns the devil is supposed to have.
2.2 Anglo-Saxon Texts
2.2.1 Bede’s Ecclesiastical History of the English People
In 731 AD Bede finished his Ecclesiastical History of the English People (Farmer 19), in which he gave an overview of the history of England. More than one hundred copies have survived in Bede’s original Latin version (Laistner 93). Of the Old English translation of the
Ecclesiastical History, five manuscripts have survived, of which some are quite damaged
(Laistner 111). The text Thomas Miller used in his edition of the Old English version of Bede’s work is from the manuscript Oxford, Bodleian Library, Tanner 10 (Miller vi). This manuscript dates from the end of the 10th century (Miller xv). In the Old English
Ecclesiastical History, two descriptions of devils and demons are given.
In the first passage, which can be found in part V, chapter 12, Bede describes how a man called Dryhthelm encounters devils and demons. Dryhthelm is very ill and dies;
however, he returns from the dead and tells of how he had a vision of hell and heaven. In hell he saw devils and demons:
Betwioh ðas þing ða upp comon sume ðara þiostra gasta of ðere niolnesse, of ðære witestowe, mec utan ymbsaldon. Hæfdon heo fyrene eagan full fyr of heora muðe of heora nasum wæron ut blawende; ond fyrene tangan him on handa hæfdon, mæc nerwdon, me tobeotedon, þæt heo mid þam gegripan woldon, in ða forwyrd sendan6 (Miller 428).
Here, the devils and demons are said to have fiery eyes, and flames come from their mouth and noses. Moreover, they carry tongs with them, which have been heated in the fire.
The second passage from the Ecclesiastical History in which devils and demons appear, occurs in part V, chapter 13. This passage tells the story of a man who committed
6 “Meantime there rose up some of the dark spirits out of the abyss and place of torment, and encompassed me.
many sins. When he falls ill, he is visited in a vision by devils and demons, who show him all the bad deeds he has done:
Þa com her sæmninga micel weorud werigra gasta, wæron swiðe ongrislicum heowe ondwliotan. Ðis hus utan ymbsætan; innan of mæstan dæle sittende gefyldon. Þa wæs heora sum þeostran onseone þæm oðrum egeslicran, se wæs setles eldest; me ðuhte gesegen wæs, þæt he heora aldor beon scolde. Þa teah he forð boc ongryslicre gesihðe unmættre micelnisse lytesne unabeorendlic byrdenne; sealde ða anum his geferena heht me beran to rædanne. (...)Ðy cwæde heo instæpe from minre gesihðe geweoton. Ond þa wæron arisende twegen ðara atolra gasta; hæfdon hondseax on heora hondum; slogon mec ða, oðer in heafod, oðer in fet7 (Miller 438-40).
In this text, the leader of the group of devils and demons is a dark, terrible creature.
Unfortunately, Bede does not provide extensive descriptions of the devil. Therefore, beside his dark looks, we do not know what makes him so terrible. In this text the devils and demons are associated with flames in their eyes, mouths and noses and they carry heated tongs. The second passage from Bede’s Ecclesiastical History describes the devil simply as dark and terrible.
2.2.2 The Cædmon Manuscript8: Christ and Satan
This manuscript, which has been dated around the year 1000, contains the following poems:
Genesis, Exodus, Daniel, and Christ and Satan (Krapp x)9.
Christ and Satan is the last poem in Junius 11 (Krapp x), and the poem is said to date
from between 790 and 830 AD (Finnegan 63). The modern English translation given in this dissertation is, by Charles W. Kennedy, from his book Christ and Satan. According to Krapp, this poem can best be described as “a set of lyric and dramatic amplifications of a number of Biblical and legendary themes of a familiar character” (xxxiv-xxxv). The poem has its own
7 “Then came here suddenly a great host of accursed spirits, and were of very dreadful shape and appearance.
And they encompassed this house without; and the greater part sat down within and filled it. One of them there was of dark appearance and more terrible than the rest, who was chief of those that sat; and it seemed and appeared to me, that he was their head. Then he drew forth a book of dreadful appearance and monstrous size, and almost intolerable burden; this he gave to one of his companions and bid him bring it to me to read. (...) With these words they at once vanished from my sight. Then rose two of the dreadful spirits, having daggers in their hands; and they smote me, one in the head and the other in the feet” (Miller 439-41).
8 Francis Junius, a Dutch scholar who possessed the manuscript in the 17th century (Krapp ix), unjustly thought
this manuscript (Oxford, Bodleian Library, Junius 11 ) was written by the scribe Cædmon. Therefore it is always referred to as the Cædmon Manuscript (Treharne 213).
interpretation of the falling of the angels, the Harrowing of Hell, the Resurrection and Ascension, and the Judgment Day.
In Christ and Satan there are several references to the colours of the devils and demons. In lines 51-2 the following can be found: “Ða him andsweradan swarte and synfulle, susle begrorenne10”. And in lines 103-4 it says: “feond seondon reðe, dimme and deorce”11. Here, devils and demons are associated with blackness. However, in Christ and Satan there is one reference to white devils and demons: “Blace hworfon scinnan forscepene12” (l. 71-2).
Moreover, Christ and Satan mentions that the devil is bound in hell: “Nu earttu sceaðana sum in fyrlocan feste gebunden13” (l. 57-8); “þonne wæs heora aldor, þe ðær ærest com forð on feþan, fæste gebunden fyre and lige14” (l. 322-4). This image does not originate in this text, but it appeared elsewhere in the Bible, for example in Revelation 20:2.
In the illustrations it was sometimes obvious that the devils and demons were larger or smaller in size than the other characters. In Christ and Satan there is also an allusion to the size of the devil: “Ic eom limwæstmum þæt ic gelutian ne mæg on þyssum sidan sele, synnum forwundod15” (l. 129-30). Also in this quote, wounds on the body of the devil are mentioned, which are said to have been caused by the sins the devil had committed. There is another reference to the wounds in this text: “Nu ic eom dædum fah, gewundod mid wommum; sceal nu þysne wites clom beoran beornende in bæce minum16” (l. 155-7).
In Christ and Satan, there are references to the colour of devils and demons, the size and the fact that the devil was bound in hell. Also, the text mentions wounds which can be found on the bodies of devils and demons.
2.2.3 Old English Martyrology
The Old English Martyrology was preserved in four manuscripts (Herzfeld xi). Herzfeld stresses the difficulty of determining the date of composition of the texts and after a historical and grammatical investigation he determines that it was probably written around 850 AD in a
10 “Then answered the foul fiends, black and sinful, chained in torment” (Kennedy Christ and Satan 3). 11 “fierce are the fiends, swarthy and black” (Kennedy Christ and Satan 4).
12 “pale, their beauty marred” (Kennedy Christ and Satan 3).
13 “Now thou art bound, thou wretched fiend, with bonds of flame” (Kennedy Christ and Satan 3).
14 “their prince, who came there first of all the host, was fettered fast in fire and flame” (Kennedy Christ and
Satan 7).
15 “I am so large of limb there is no place in this wide hall to hide me, sore wounded with my sins” (Kennedy
Christ and Satan 4).
16 : “But now am I stained with evil, and wounded with my sins. In hell-fire burning bonds of pain shall sear my
Mercian monastery (xxxii/xxix). The martyrology contains a list of names of martyrs and information of the lives and deaths of these saints (Herzfeld vii).
The passages in this text that give a description of devils and demons stress the fact that they can appear in different shapes and that they can change these shapes. The first passage is from the life of Saint Anthony the Hermit (January 27):
Ond hine þær deofla costodon mid ofermæte unclæne luste, efne swa þæt hi eodon on niht to him on geglengedra wife hiwe. Þær he geseah eac þone fulan gast þe men lærð unalyfede lustas: þæt wæs sweart cniht ond lytel ond egeslic17 (Herzfeld 22).
In this passage the saint is tempted by the devil who disguised himself as a woman. After the saint recognised the devil, it is said that the devil turned out to be small, dark, and horrible.
Another passage that stresses the fact that devils and demons can change shapes occurs in the life of Saint Hilarion (October 21):
...ond þær hyne dioflu costodon in mislicum hywum. Hwilum hy him raredon on swa hryðro, hwilum hy him lægon big swilce nacode wifmen, hwilum hy æteowdon him swa swa þeotende wulf, hwilum swa beorcende foxas,...18 (Herzfeld 193).
Again, in this passage the devils and demons appear as women, but they also take the shapes of wolves and foxes.
The last passage of the Old English Martyrology that contains a descriptive passage is from the life of Saint Bartholomew (August 25):
He him ætywde micelne Sigelhearwan, þæm wæs seo onsyn sweartre þonne hrúm, ond se beard ond þæt feax him wæron oð þa fet side, ond þa eagan wæron swylce fyren iren, ond him sprungon spearcan of þam muðe, ond fúl réc him eode of þæm næsþyrlum, ond he hæfde fiðru swylce þyrnen besma, ond þa handa wæron gebunden tosomme mid fyrenum racentum, ond he hrymde mid grimlicre stefne ond ladlicre ond fleah aweg ond nahwær siððan ætywde. Þæt wæs þæt deofol þæt seo þeod hyre ær for
17 “Devils tempted him there beyond measure with impure desires, even so that at night they came to him in the
form of adorned women. There he also saw the foul spirit that teaches men unallowed lust: it was a small, dark, horrible youth...” (Herzfeld 23).
18 “...and there devils tempted him in manifold shapes. Sometimes they lowed at him like oxen, sometimes they
god beeodon, ond hi nemdon þone Astaróð19 (Herzfeld 152).
Here, the devil is described in much detail. He is an Ethiopian with a black face; his beard and hair hang all the way down to his feet; apparently his body is covered with feathers and he seems to have wings, since it says he flies away. There are many references to fire in his description: eyes like glowing iron, sparks come out of his mouth, smoke from his nostrils and his hands are bound with fiery chains.
The Old English Martyrology provides us with different images of devils and demons. They appear as females, wolves, foxes, and as a terrible Ethiopian.
2.2.4 The Cædmon Manuscript: Genesis
The Old English poem Genesis consists of two parts: Genesis A and Genesis B. Genesis A is an original Saxon composition, whereas Genesis B has been shown to be an Anglo-Saxon translation of an Old Anglo-Saxon poem (Krapp xxv). Genesis A was probably composed at the end of the 7th or the beginning of the 8th century (Krapp xxvi). Genesis A&B deals with the fall of the angels, the story of the creation, the fall of Adam and Eve, the story of Noah and his ark, and the story of Abraham and Lot.
In this text the devil plays a prominent role, especially in the first few episodes. In the illustrations accompanying this text in the manuscript, as discussed in chapter 1.2, the devil appears often. However, the text does not provide many physical descriptions of the devil.
There is one reference to the fact that the devil was bound in hell: “Ac licgað me ymbe irenbenda, rideð racentan sal. Ic eom rices leas; habbað me swa hearde helle clommas fæste befangen20” (l. 371-4). However, this passage does not provide any other description of devils and demons.
Another description of the devil appears in lines 442-5: “Angan hine þa gyrwan godes andsaca, fus on frætwum, (hæfde fæcne hyge), hæleðhelm on heafod asette and þone full hearde geband, spenn mid spangum21”. The image of the devil putting on his helmet before charging his enemy was an image that would have appealed greatly to the Anglo-Saxons.
19 “He showed them a big Ethiopean, whose face was blacker than soot, his beard and hair were broad down to
his feet, the eyes were like glowing iron, sparks sprang forth from the mouth, an evil-smelling smoke came out of his nostrils, he had feathers like a broom of thorns, and the hands were bound together with fiery chains: he cried out with a fierce and horrible voice and flew away and did not appear anywhere since. That was the devil whom people formerly had honoured as a god, and they called him Astaroth” (Herzfeld 153).
20 “But bands of iron crush me down, the bondage of my chains is heavy. I am stripped of my dominion. Firmly
are hell’s fetters forged upon me” (Kennedy The Cædmon Poems 19).
21 “Then God’s enemy began to make him ready, equipped in war-gear, with a wily heart. He set his helm of
The only physical description given in Genesis A&B is that of a devil bound in hell and of the devil preparing for battle, by putting on his helmet.
2.2.5 Ælfric’s Exameron Anglice or Old English Hexameron
The Old English Hexameron can be found in seven manuscripts. Crawford, in his edition of the Hexameron, says of these manuscripts that they all “belong to either the 11th or 12th century, so that we are justified in placing the date of the original manuscript about the end of the 10th or the first quarter of the 11th century (1000-1025?)” (15). Ælfric lived from ca. 955 until ca. 1010 (Ousby 9). The text from manuscript Oxford, Bodleian Library, Hatton 115 is most often seen as the standard text and was used by Crawford in his edition of the work (Crawford 6).
In this manuscript there are hardly any descriptions of devils to be found. There is a reference to the fact that devils and demons were first created as beautiful creatures, but after the fall God changed them. However, no details are given as to how they changed, or what they looked like after the change: “God hine geworhte wundorlicne and fægerne22” (Crawford 56) (...) “and hi wurdon awende to awyrigedum deoflum23” (Crawford 57).
2.2.6 Ælfric’s Lives of Saints
Ælfric’s Lives of Saints was handed down to us in eighteen manuscripts. The manuscript which was best preserved and used by Skeat for his edition is London, British Museum, Cotton Julius E. vii. The manuscript dates from the 11th century, but Ælfric wrote the text probably in 996 or 997 (Skeat Vol. II xxvii). The text is often seen as the ‘third series’ of Ælfric’s homilies (Skeat Vol. I v). Ælfric’s Lives of Saints is inspired by a calendar of saint’s lives, and it describes the lives and deaths of the saints. Devils and demons appear in some of the lives.
The first descriptions of devils and demons can be found in the Passion of St. Julian
and his wife Basilissa (January 9):
me coman to sil-hearwan atelices hiwes swa heage swa entes mid byrnendum eagum and egeslicum toðum. Heora earmes wæron swylce ormæte beames heora clawa
scearpe and hi sylfa un-mild-heorta24 (Skeat Vol. I 106).
Here, the devils and demons are again described as Ethiopians, as in the Old English
Martyrology. They are very large, have fiery eyes, horrible teeth, huge arms, and claws. Another reference to the blackness of devils and demons can be found in the passage of Saint
Agnes, Virgin (January 21): “mid sweartum deofle afylled25” (Skeat Vol. I 194).
The following passage from On Auguries refers to the fact that devils and demons are sometimes linked with serpents, as in the Biblical tradition. In the text it says: “...betwux ðam wyrrestan wurm-cynne þe næfre ne bið adyd ac ceowað symle þæra arleasra lichama on ðam hellican lige26” (Skeat Vol. I 366). Furthermore, the text of On Auguries also refers to the fact that the devils and demons were angels before they fell: “...þæt se ungesewenlica deofol þe flyhð geond þas woruld...27” (Skeat Vol. I 372). This passage accounts for the wings and references to flying in other passages.
The next life to be discussed is that of St. Martin, Bishop and Confessor (November 11). In the first passage the devil appears in a human form: “þa þa he com to mediolana þa ge-mette he ænne deofol on menniscum hiwe28” (Skeat Vol. II 230). In the next passage from
The Life of Saint Martin the devil appears not in a human form, but in the forms of many
heathen gods.
Eac swilce þa deofla mid heora searo-cræftum him comon gelome to and he on-cneow hi æfre for-þan-þe him nan deofol ne mihte bediglian hine sylfne ne on agenre edwiste ne on oþrum hiwe. Mid þusend searo-cræftum wolde se swicola deoful þone halgan æteowde on þæra hæþenra goda hiwe hwilon on iouwes hiwe þe is gehaten þór hwilon on mercuries þe men hatað oþon hwilon on ueneris þære fulan gyden þe men hatað fricg and on manegum oþrum hiwum hine bræd se deofol on þæs bisceopes gesihþe29 (Skeat Vol. II 264).
24 “There come to me Ethiopeans of terrible appearance, as tall as giants with burning eyes and horrible teeth.
Their arms were like immense beams, their claws sharp, and themselves merciless” (Skeat Vol. I 107).
25 “...filled with a black devil...” (Skeat Vol. I 195).
26 “...amidst the worst serpent-kind which shall never be destroyed, but shall ever chew the bodies of the wicked
in the fire of hell” (Skeat Vol. I 367).
27 “...that the invisible devil who flieth through these worlds...” (Skeat Vol. I 373).
28 “As he [St. Martin] was coming to Milan he met a devil in a human form” (Skeat Vol. II 231).
29 “So likewise the devils with their treacherous arts came to him frequently; and he always knew them; because
Even though it says that the devil transformed himself into heathen gods, there are no descriptions of what these heathen gods would look like. It remains obscure from this text how the Anglo-Saxon people would describe the exterior features of the heathen gods.
The next passage from The Life of Saint Martin gives a description of the devil that is very unlike all the other descriptions. Here, the devil is disguised as a king:
On sumne sæl eft siþþan com se swicola deofol into þam halgan were þær he on his gebedum wæs mid gyldenum cyne-helme and mid goldfellenum sceon and mid blyþre ansyne on micelre beorhtnysse30 (Skeat Vol. II 266).
The devil wears a purple garment and golden shoes and diadem. In the Anglo-Saxon texts, there is no other reference to the devil as a king.
The last passage from The Life of Saint Martin with a description of devils and demons describes the scene of Saint Martin blowing away the devil, who sits on the shoulder of Avitianus. This scene is depicted in the Hereford Troper (fig. 10).
Se halga martinus com to him hwilon and þa þa he eode into his spræc-huse þa geseah he sittan ænne sweartne deofol ormætne on his hrycge and he him on ableow. Ða wende auitianus þæt he him on ableowe and cwæð to þam halgan were hwi behylst þu me swa halga. Se bisceop him andwyrde, Ne behealde ic na þe ac þone sweartan deofol þe sit on þinum hneccan ic þe of ableow and se deofol swa aweg gewat and his hicwuðe setl sona ða forlét31 (Skeat Vol. II 292).
Here, the devil does not get an extensive description; we are told that the devil is large in size and black in colour.
men call Fricg; and into many other shapes the devil transformed himself in the bishop’s sight” (Skeat Vol. II 265).
30 “Again on one occasion after this came the wily devil to the holy man where he was in his prayers, clothed in
purple and with kingly raiment, with golden diadem and with shoes of cloth of gold, and with a blithe countenance in great brightness” (Skeat Vol. II 267).
31 “The holy Martin once came to him [Avitianus], and, as he was going into his parlour, he saw then a huge
The text of Ælfric’s Lives of Saints provides some clear descriptions of devils and demons. First, they are described as Ethiopians. In the other passages they are said to be black and they are also linked with serpents and angels. And in The Life of Saint Martin they appear as humans, heathen gods, and kings.
2.2.6 Guthlac A&B
The poems Guthlac A&B are preserved in the Exeter Book (Exeter, Cathedral Library, 3501). The manuscript dates from the second half of the 10th century (Krapp and Dobbie xiii). Some other texts that can be found in this manuscript are Christ, Juliana, The Seafarer, Widsith,
Deor, The Wife’s Lament.
Guthlac A & B contains one descriptive passage on devils and demons, to be found in
Guthlac B:
Hwilum wedende swa wilde deor cirmdon on corðre, hwilum cyrdon eft minne mansceaþanon mennisc hiw breahtma mæste, hwilum brugdon eft awyrgde wærlogan on wyrmes bleo, earme adloman, attre spiowdon32 (l. 907-12).
Here, it is stated that the devils and demons can change form, sometimes they are human, and sometimes they take the shape of an animal. In this passage, the devils become serpents, which is a reference to the Fall of Adam and Eve in the Bible.
2.2.7 Felix’s Life of Saint Guthlac
Felix’s Life of Saint Guthlac is not written in Old English, but in Latin. Even though the text
is in Latin, it will be discussed in this dissertation, since its author was an East-Anglian monk. Felix wrote in Latin, but the substance of the text was determined by his Anglo-Saxon mental legacy. There is also an Anglo-Saxon translation of this text from the 11th century, which will be discussed below.
Guthlac was an Anglo-Saxon monk, born in 674 (Colgrave 2), who lived a very pious life as a hermit. The Latin text written by Felix describes the religious life of Guthlac in detail. Unlike the scant descriptive passages in the poems Guthlac A&B, Felix provides extensive descriptive passages of the devils and demons Guthlac encounters.
32 “Raging at times like wild beasts they shouted together; at times the foul evil foes turned again to human form
The first experience of Guthlac with the fiends occurs when they suddenly appear: “subito coram illo, velut ex aere lapsi, efferis vultibus duo zabuli humano habitu se
obtulerunt, ac veluti cum familiari fiducia loqui cum illo exorsi sunt33” (Colgrave 98). This passage tells us that they were known to take the shape of humans.
The next passage gives a very extensive description of how Guthlac is attacked by horrible creatures:
Erant enim aspectu truces, forma terribiles, capitibus magnis, collis longis, macilenta facie, lurido vultu, squalida barba, auribus hispidis, fronte torva, trucibus oculis, ore foetido, dentibus equineis, gutture flammivomo, faucibus tortis, labro lato, vocibus horrisonis, comis obustis, buccula crassa, pectore arduo, femoribus scabris, genibus notadis, cruribus uncis, talo tumido, plantis aversis, ore patulo, clamoribus
raucisonis34” (Colgrave 102).
This is one of the few passages that give a very detailed description of the devils and demons in Anglo-Saxon literature. According to this description, the devils and demons Guthlac encountered had very distorted bodies and faces. Felix’s Life of Saint Guthlac also alludes to the wings of the devils and demons: “...horridis alarum stridoribus...35” (Colgrave 104).
Guthlac has another encounter with the devils and demons. However, this time they appear to him in the shapes of several fierce beasts:
Nec mora, domum ab undique inrumpentes variorum monstrorum diversas figuras introire prospicit. Nam leo rugiens dentibus sanguineis morsus rabidos inminebat; taurus vero mugitans, unguibus terram defodiens, cornu cruentum solo defigebat; ursus denique infrendens, validis ictibus brachia commutans, verbera promittebat; coluber quoque, squamea colla porrigens, indicia atri veneni monstrabat, et ut brevi sermone concludam, aper grunitum, lupus ululatum, equus hinnitum, cervus axatum,
33 “...two devils, in human form and with wild countenances, presented themselves before him suddenly as
though they has fallen from the sky” (Colgrave 99).
34 “For they were ferocious in appearance, terrible in shape with great heads, long necks, thin faces, yellow
complexions, filthy beards, shaggy ears, wild foreheads, fierce eyes, foul mouths, horses’ teeth, throats vomiting flames, twisted jaws, thick lips, strident voices, singed hair, fat cheeks, pigeon breasts, scabby thighs, knotty knees, crooked legs, swollen ankles, splay feet, spreading mouths, raucous cries” (Colgrave 103).
serpens sibilum, bos balatum, corvus crocitum ad turbandum veri Dei verum militem horrisonis vocibus stridebant36 (Colgrave 114).
In this text the devils and demons appear as humans, and as a lion, serpent, bear, boar, wolf, horse, stag, ox or raven. Moreover, they also have wings, and, on page 102 of the edition by Colgrave, Felix gives an extensive description of the devils and demons attacking Guthlac.
2.2.8 The Old English Guthlac
An Old English version of Guthlac’s life was made after the Latin one by Felix. The text survived in its entirety in manuscript London, British Museum, Cotton Vespasian, D. xxi. The manuscript dates from the middle of the 11th century (Gonser 96).
The first encounter of Guthlac with the devils and demons in the Old English version bears some resemblances to the Latin passage, but there are some differences:
Swylce eac gelamp on sumne sæl ymb unmanige dagas, þæt he wæccende þa on þære nihte stilnysse gelamp semninga, þæt þær comon mycele meniu þara awyrigedra gasta, and hi eall þæt hus mid heora cyme fyldon; and hi on ealce healfe inguton, ufan and neoðan and eghwonen. Hi wæron on ansyne egslice, and hig hæfdon mycele heafda, and langne sweoran, and mægere ansyne; hi wæron fulice and orfyrme on heora beardum; and hi hæfdon ruge earan, and woh nebb, and reðelice eagan, and fule muðas; and heora toðas wæron gelice horses twuxan; and him wæron þa þrotan mid lege gefylde, and hi wæron ongristlice on stefne; hi hæfdon woge sceancan, and mycele cneowu and hindan greate, and misscrence tan, and has hrymedon on stefnum; and hi þa swa ungemetlicum gestundum foron and swa unmetlice ege, þæt him wuhte, þæt hit eall heofone and eorðan hleoþrode þam egeslicum stefnum37 (Gonser 127-9).
36 “Straightway he saw manifold shapes of various monsters bursting into his house from all sides. Thus a
roaring lion fiercely threatened to tear him with his bloody teeth: then a bellowing bull dug up the earth with its hoofs and drove its gory horn into the ground; or a bear, gnasing its teeth and striking violently with either paw alternately, threatened him with blows: a serpent, too, rearing its scaly neck, disclosed the threat of its black poison: to conclude briefly - the grunting of the boar, the howling of the wolf, the whinnying of the horse, the belling of the stag, the hissing of the serpent, the lowing of the ox, the croaking of the raven, made harsh and horrible noises to trouble the true soldier of the true God” (Colgrave 115).
37 “Likewise it so happened on one occasion around a few days, that while he was awake in the quietness of the
The similarities between the Latin and the Old English text are the long necks, skinny faces, filthy beards, terrible eyes, foul mouths, horse’s teeth, throats filled with fire and the big knees. However, there are some striking differences. The Old English text mentions that the devils and demons have many heads, hairy ears, crooked beaks, crooked shanks, distorted toes and that they are huge from behind.
A second encounter of Guthlac with the devils and demons provides us with the following description:
Ðæt gelamp sumere nihte, þa se halga wer Guðlac his gebedum befeal,
þa gehyrde he grymetunga hryþera and mislicra wildeora. Næs þa nan hwil to þam, þæt he geseah ealra wihta and wildeora and wurma hiw incuman to him. Ærest he geseah leon ansyne, and he mid his blodigum tuxum to him beotode; swylce eac fearres gelicnysse, and beran ansyne, þonne hi gebolgene beoð; swylce eac næddrena hiw, and swynes grymetunge, and mislice fugela hwistlunge, þæt hi woldon mid heora hiwunge þæs halgan weres mod awendan38 (Gonser 139).
There are fewer animals presented here when compared to the Latin text.
As in Felix’s Life, in the Old English translation Guthlac encounters many devils and demons in different shapes. Felix gives a detailed description of the devils and demons in the first encounter, in which they have strange, grotesque faces, and distorted bodies. In the passage of the second encounter the devils and demons appeared in the shapes of animals, such as a lion, ox, and bear.
like a horse’s molars; and their throats were filled with fire, and they were terrible of voice; they had crooked shanks, and big knees, huge from behind, and distorted toes, and cried with hoarse voices, and they then proceeded with such immeasurable noises and immeasurable fear that it seemed to him that all heaven and earth resounded with those horrible voices” (my translation).
38 “It happened some night, that the holy man Guthlac devoted himself to his prayers; then he heard roaring of
2.2.9 The Life of Saint Margaret
The Life of Saint Margaret from manuscript Cambridge, Corpus Christi College 303 dates
from the middle of the 12th century (Treharne 260). In this text the life and death of Saint Margaret (or Marina) is described. Saint Margaret encountered a devil in the shape of a dragon:
And hit þa færunge gewearð sona æfter þan, þæt þær inneode an grislic deofol; his nama wæs Rufus. And he wæs swiðe mycel on dracan heowe: and eall he wæs nædderfah, and of his toþan leome ofstod eal swa of hwiten swurde; and of his eagan swilces fyres lyg; and of his nasþyrlum smec and fyr ormæte mycel; and his tunge þrecowe his sweore belygde39 (Treharne 267).
Here, the devil is a terrible looking dragon. The emphasis in this passage is on the light that comes from his eyes, nose and mouth.
Another short passage also gives a description of a devil. Here, she sees a devil, apparently as a devil is supposed to be: black and ugly.
And þa hi hire gebedu gefyld hæfde, þa beseah hio hio on þære wynstre hælfe þæs carcernes, and hi oþerne deofol sittan geseah, sweart and unfæger swa him gecyne wæs40 (Treharne 266).
However, beside the fact that this devil is black and ugly, no other details are given of this devil’s looks.
In The Life of Saint Margaret two descriptions of devils and demons are given. In the first passage the devil appears as a dragon. In the second passage it simply says that the devil is black.
39 “And then it suddenly happened immediately after that that a grisly devil came in there; his name was Ruffus.
And he was very like a dragon; and underneath he was entirely stained like an adder, and from his teeth a light came out just like a white sword; and his eyes were just like the light of a fire; and from his nostrils came smoke and a great and intense fire; and his tongue’s pressure lay around his neck” (Treharne 266).
40 “And when she had completed her prayers, then she looked in the left half of the prison and saw another devil
2.3 Conclusion
After having looked at a number of Old English and Latin texts that were produced in Anglo-Saxon England, it can be said that the image of devils and demons presented in these texts is not a single image. Each text adds more details to the image of devils and demons.
The most common characteristics of devils and demons mentioned in the texts are the flames which can come from their eyes, mouths and noses. Also, there are many references to darkness and the colour black. Another common characteristic is the ability of devils and demons to change shape and appear in different kinds of forms. Sometimes they appear in an undetermined human form, at other times as women, and at yet other times as various kinds of animals, such as wolves, foxes, lions, and snakes. Moreover, references to wings can also be found in the texts, such as in the Old English Martyrology. Lastly, several texts refer to devils and demons being bound in hell.
Other less common aspects are the references in the Bible about seven heads, ten horns and seven crowns. These characteristics cannot be found in the Anglo-Saxon texts. Also, attributes such as tongs heated in the fire, wounds on the bodies, and helmets are rare. Moreover, in Ælfric’s Lives of Saints devils and demons appear as heathen gods and kings, which is not common either. One of the most striking aspects mentioned in the texts is the comparison with an Ethiopian. This comparison is made in the Old English Martyrology and in Ælfric’s Lives of Saints. In the Old English Martyrology the Ethiopian-like devil or demon has a black face, and his hair and beard reach down to his feet. In Ælfric’s Lives of Saints, the Ethiopian-like devils and demons are different. They have huge arms and claws, fiery eyes and horrible teeth. Nothing is mentioned about their colour.
However, the most outstanding, detailed, and unusual descriptions of devils and demons are those found in Felix’s Life of Saint Guthlac and the Old English Guthlac. In both texts devils and demons are described in detail from head to toe. According to these texts, they have very grotesque shapes.
