Factors influencing teachers’ ICT use in secondary
vocational education
Master thesis, MscBA, specialization Change Management University of Groningen
Faculty of Economics and Business
April 2014
PIETER VAN DER HULST Begoniastraat 25 9713 NA Groningen tel.: +31 (6) 15195613
e-mail: p.van.der.hulst@student.rug.nl St.no.: 1715135
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Factors influencing teachers’ ICT use in secondary
vocational education
ABSTRACT
Information and Communication Technology (ICT) is assumed to offer opportunities for the efficiency and effectiveness of students’ learning. The aim of this study is to investigate the influence of school department-, system- and teacher level factors on teachers’ actual use of ICT applications in secondary vocational education. To test the hypotheses data were gathered through a questionnaire among teachers and multiple regression analyses were performed. The findings of this study indicate no direct relationships between school department factors and the actual use of ICT applications. System and teacher level factors were found to have a direct influence on the use of ICT applications by teachers. The actual use of ICT applications is relatively the most explained by teachers’ ICT skills.
3 TABLE OF CONTENTS
1. INTRODUCTION ... 4
2. LITERATURE REVIEW ... 7
2.1 School department level factors ... 9
2.2 System level factors ... 10
2.3 Teacher level factors ... 11
3. METHOD ... 13
3.1 Research design and study context ... 13
3.2 Data collection ... 14
3.3 Measurements ... 15
3.4 Data reduction and analysis ... 16
4. RESULTS ... 18 4.1 Descriptive statistics ... 18 4.2 Open questions ... 19 4.3 Hypotheses’ tests ... 20 5. DISCUSSION ... 23 5.1 Discussion ... 23
5.2 Theoretical and managerial implications ... 24
5.3 Limitations and future research ... 25
5.4 Conclusion ... 26
REFERENCES ... 27
APPENDIX A: Questionnaire ... 31
APPENDIX B: Purposes of ICT applications by teachers ... 36
4 1. INTRODUCTION
Information and Communication Technology (ICT) is now commonly used for online learning and education (Hu, Clark & Ma, 2003; Jimoyiannis & Komis, 2007; Rubens, 2013). Digital technology is used in education in forms such as e-learning, technology enhanced learning or blended learning (Rubens, 2013). These new forms of ICT applications for educational use change the ways of teaching, the roles of teachers and are claimed to create different student-centered learning approaches (Voogt, Almekinders, van den Akker & Moonen, 2005). Teachers have an important role in the adoption of ICT innovations related to their teaching and in enlarging student interest (Vekiri, 2010). Daily teaching practices of teachers change through the use of ICT (Bauer & Kenton, 2005). When teachers feel competent in the use of digital technologies and think that the use of computers will improve the learning of students, then teachers tend to apply ICT applications more often (Petko, 2012). This also applies to student teachers and their ICT skills (Sang, Valcke, van Braak & Tondeur, 2010).
The general promise of ICT applications in education such as e-learning is that it could improve both the efficiency and effectiveness of learning (Rubens, 2013). The use of ICT applications in education also tries to make education attractive for students and to achieve financial benefits for the educational institution. Yet, the use of ICT in education does not automatically lead to better results. ICT applications are frequently not consistently adopted or not completely operationalized in the instructional processes of teachers (Voogt et al., 2005). The adoption of digital technology often goes slow (Bauer & Kenton, 2005) and teachers have doubts about the correct use of ICT and consequently remain conservative (Petko, 2012). According to Ertmer and Ottenbreit-Leftwich (2010) the mindsets of teachers must change in order to integrate ICT applications in an appropriate way for educational use.
5 The focus of the first variant is on the distribution of responsibility for organizational tasks and the interaction with the division of labor. Through the implementation of a new management information system existing roles and responsibilities may change in an organization. In the second variant resistance is the product of the interaction between system design features and the intra-organizational distribution of power. Key actors are involved at the design features of information systems. Through a management information system the existing way of power distribution from the key actors may change. Divisions who previously had no access could get access and control through the change and benefit from it. Such situations will change the balance of power. The sociotechnical and political variant lead to different causes of resistance.
The extent to which teachers use ICT applications in their teaching practice differs (Bauer & Kenton, 2005). These differences in level of use can be due to the available resources for school departments and the school culture (Donnelly, McGarr & O’Reilly, 2011). According to Tondeur, van Keer, van Braak and Valcke (2008) research on ICT use in education focuses primarily on teachers as individuals and class level variables such as computer experience and gender differences that influence the integration of ICT. Besides a focus on teachers, local school policies and national policies play a role in the success of ICT integration (Tondeur et al., 2008). Integration of ICT applications requires a fit between technological and pedagogical issues (Yang & Huang, 2008). This fits with the interaction theory of Markus (1983) because there is an interaction between the issues that play a role for integration of ICT applications. In the sociotechnical variant of the interaction theory the interaction of characteristics may collide with the current organizational culture (Markus, 1983). The differences in use may be due to characteristics of teachers, the policy of school departments, the vision and policies of schools in general, and the interactions between these variables (Markus, 1983).
6 argue that combining different theories is needed to assess the intended use of e-learning systems. This creates a better understanding about the acceptance of e-learning systems. In the business world TAM is widely tested and validated, but the use and validation of the technology acceptance model is limited in education (Teo, 2009). For a broader view of technology adoption in other contexts additional variables which are related to both human and social change processes need to be considered (Legris, Ingham & Collerette, 2003). This will give a better view of the actual use of technology.
To focus on the use of digital technology for education and take into account the specific characteristics of teachers other models like the Will, Skill, Tool model (Christensen & Knezek, 2001) and Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge model (Mishra & Koehler, 2006) were developed. Both models include various components that contribute to effective technology integration in education. For the integration of ICT applications in teaching and learning situations, there are three types of knowledge domains in the TPACK model relevant, namely content knowledge, pedagogical knowledge and technology knowledge. These domains describe what knowledge teachers need in order to be able to integrate ICT effectively in their teaching (Mishra & Koehler, 2006). Besides the actual use of ICT applications, it is also important to look at the quality with which ICT is deployed as a means (Ginns & Ellis, 2007; Petko, 2012).
Digital technology is applied in education through forms such as e-learning, technology enhanced learning and blended learning. Blended learning is applying a mix of learning interventions where for example traditional classical face-to-face learning is combined with online learning (Garrison & Kanuka, 2004; Rubens, 2013). Different mixes are possible wherein the amount of online learning can differ (Allen & Seaman, 2008). The use of blended learning is said to enable a shift in the position from teacher-centered learning to student-centered learning (Ertmer & Ottenbreit-Leftwich, 2010; Rubens, 2013). This is because the focus is more on the interest of the student and the learning process changes through student-centered learning.
The purpose of this study is to provide insight into the motives why individual teachers use or don’t use ICT innovations in secondary vocational education. Furthermore, to discover what barriers and enablers at department level play a role. Such insights may then point to change management approaches for the use of innovative ICT and the possible added value that fits with effective student-centered education of the 21st century.
7 institutions to make informed choices about the use and diffusion of ICT in education. It is useful for teachers, policy makers and school administrators to be aware what department and teacher level factors affect the use of digital technology in education (Drent & Meelissen, 2008). It gives a better understanding of the challenges for adoption of ICT and the change towards more student-centered approaches.
The main research question is: “What factors influence the use of blended learning in
school departments by teachers in secondary vocational education?”
To answer this question the following sub questions will be addressed:
1. To what extent do school departments’ policies affect teachers’ use of ICT? 2. To what extent do system factors affect teachers’ use of ICT?
3. To what extent do teacher level factors affect teachers’ use of ICT?
The focus of this study is on ICT applications through blended learning in education and the paper consists of five parts in addition to the introduction. The following section provides a theoretical background and hypotheses. The method section shows the research design and explains how the data were gathered and analyzed. In the results section the findings are presented. The discussion section summarizes the findings and will elaborate on the theoretical and managerial implications, the limitations of this study and ideas for future research. Finally conclusions are drawn.
2. LITERATURE REVIEW
In this section the concept blended learning and earlier findings about the use of ICT in education to improve the learning process of the students will be discussed in more detail based on the existing literature. Further, I will elaborate on the factors that play a role in deploying ICT on a) the school organization and department level, b) the primary process level and c) the individual level. Thereafter, the concepts and the relations between the different levels are integrated into a model based on which hypotheses are specified.
8 are present at the same time but not at the same place. In the other case students learn both time and place independent. Through the deployment of ICT in education the emphasis could be placed on student-centered learning instead of teacher-centered instruction (Jimoyiannis & Komis, 2007). According to Garrison and Kanuka (2004), blended learning is not just about an appropriate and balanced mix between online learning and face-to-face learning, but also includes rethinking and redesigning the relationship of teaching and learning in order to enhance the efficiency and effectiveness of learning experiences. In practice the use of digital technology is limited and teaching approaches stay the same (Jimoyiannis & Komis, 2007). As a result technology is not used on a consistent basis in education as a teaching and learning tool (Bauer & Kenton, 2005). According to Ertmer and Ottenbreit-Leftwich (2010), practices that are student-centered can influence students’ learning in a positive manner and affect the learning outcomes of students. Blended learning could improve the effectiveness and efficiency of students’ learning experiences (Garrison & Kanuka, 2004). According to the empirical study of Zhang (2005), students performed better in an interactive e-learning environment with the emphasis on learner-content interaction than in traditional classroom. In the study of Pelgrum (2001) material and non-material conditions like not enough available computers and lack of knowledge and skills of teachers were identified as main obstacles for using ICT in practice.
When there is resistance by individuals or organizational subunits to use computer-based applications three divergent theories; people-determined-, system-determined- and interaction theory, can help to identify the reasons for that resistance (Markus, 1983). In the first theory internal factors to the person or group lead to resistance. In the second theory reasons for resistance arise through factors inherent to the application. In these two theories the emphasis is on behavior being determined internally respectively externally. In the interaction theory, however, people or groups have resistance through the interaction between characteristics related to the people and those to the system. The cause of resistance arises not from the system or the organizational setting, but from their interaction (Markus, 1983).
9 allowing other purposes like changing the balance of power within an organization (Markus, 1983). In the organizational contexts of use the focus from all organizational members is on having congruent goals and values for both the people and subunits that are affected by the technology of an organization. The assumptions about the nature of resistance include how people perceive resistance, what role it has in organizations and resistance is not necessarily bad or good (Markus, 1983). Resistance can be functional for an organization if it is regarded as a sign that an intended system is not working properly (Markus, 1983).
Causes for resistance can be detected on different levels in an organization. Identifying the factors on the different levels contributes to a broader view (Tondeur et al., 2008). Factors on the school level (organizational and department levels), the primary process level (resources and system factors) and the teacher level (the individual level) will now be explained in more detail.
2.1 School department level factors
10 methods of teaching (Mumtaz, 2000). In primary education a school policy for ICT integration is positively related to the use of ICT in class (Tondeur et al., 2008). For secondary vocational education the use of an ICT policy is perhaps the same.
2.2 System level factors
The underlying assumptions about causes of resistance in the system-determined theory are lack of user-friendliness, poor human factors and inadequate technical design or implementation (Markus, 1983). In educational institutions limited access to resources prevents teachers to integrate ICT in their teaching and classroom (Mumtaz, 2000; Pelgrum 2001). The available number of computers in the ICT infrastructure and the student/personal-computer ratio are important factors for student/personal-computer integration (Tondeur et al., 2008). Due to technological innovations and the availability of computers has increased in educational institutions (Drent & Meelissen, 2008) the importance of the factor available resources might be different now. Other common factors are the quality of software and hardware and the ease of use (Mumtaz, 2000). This is consistent with the system factors lack of user-friendliness and poor system design (Markus, 1983).
Perceived ease of use is a recurring topic for acceptance of technology in general and education (Hu et al., 2003; Legris et al., 2003; Teo, 2009; Turner et al., 2010). Through collaboration between designers and teachers this may be more closely aligned (Mumtaz, 2000). A system works in practice often different than intended (Markus, 1983) and therefore requires adjustments making the relationship between designers and users of great importance.
The use of ICT applications by teachers is influenced through technical faults with ICT resources (Jones, 2004). Unexpected failure of ICT resources is likely to reduce the confidence of the teacher leading to lower use of ICT applications during class.
Hypothesis 1: The amount of educational resources will positively influence the use of ICT applications by teachers.
Hypothesis 2a: The higher the ease of use of ICT applications the higher the use of ICT applications by teachers.
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Hypothesis 3: The level of ICT infrastructure will positively influence the use of ICT applications by teachers.
Hypothesis 4: The relationship between the school department ICT policy level and use of ICT is mediated by ease of use.
2.3 Teacher level factors
In the literature there has been much focus on individual factors for the use and adoption of ICT in education (Mumtaz, 2000; Pelgrum, 2001; Tondeur et al., 2008). Investigated factors are computer experience, gender differences, age, commitment to professional learning, teacher’ skills, attitudes towards computers in education, intensity of computer use, educational experiences, teachers’ view towards the contribution of ICT to education, personal entrepreneurship (Mumtaz, 2000; Drent & Meelissen, 2008; Tondeur et al., 2008). According to Ertmer and Ottenbreit-Leftwich (2010), teachers’ self-efficacy is a key variable for teaching with technology. By focusing on these individual factors the non-use of ICT is associated with the teacher as individual instead of blaming the system (Tondeur et al., 2008). In the Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge (TPACK) model attention is paid to teachers’ competencies in technology knowledge. Through technology knowledge a teacher is able to use media during the class (Mishra & Koehler, 2006). Media is broadly defined as technology tools and resources and includes whether a teacher is able to apply information technology productively at school.
Hypothesis 5a: Higher levels of teachers’ ICT skills will positively influence the use of ICT applications.
Hypothesis 5b: Higher levels of perceived usefulness of ICT for students will positively influence the use of ICT applications by teachers.
Hypothesis 6: The relationship between the school department ICT policy level and use of ICT is mediated by teachers’ ICT skills.
12 For explaining the teachers’ use of computers, teacher factors outweigh school factors (Mumtaz, 2000). However, teacher factors and school factors are found to be interrelated and innovative use of ICT in education is a dynamic process of interrelated factors (Drent & Meelissen, 2008). It is the teachers’ decision when and how to incorporate technology (Ertmer, 2005). This decision is influenced by attitudes and knowledge teachers have about ICT applications for education. For explaining the use and integration of ICT in education, research should not only focus on the individual level but also pay attention to the impact of school level factors (Tondeur et al., 2008).
Figure 1: Conceptual model
Control factors -Gender
-Age -Experience
System level factors -ICT infrastructure -Ease of use -Usefulness
-Educational resources
School department level factors -ICT training & support
-ICT policy
-Participation teachers in deployment of ICT
Use of ICT applications -Actual use of ICT
Teacher level factors -Self-perceived ICT skills -Perceived usefulness of ICT
13 3. METHOD
This section first describes the research design and the study context followed by an overview how survey data were gathered. At the end, the way the data were dealt with is described and explained.
3.1 Research design and study context
For testing the conceptual model developed in the literature section this study took place at the Friesland College which provides secondary vocational education in the north of the Netherlands. The Friesland College promotes a certain way of teaching and a certain approach to learning which is called FC-Sprint². The FC-Sprint² approach aims to make education more efficient and tries to improve the learning process of students (Deutekom, 2007). One of the principles behind the approach is that the student will do the first thinking about a specific topic himself. A teacher gives an assignment and if the students understand the assignment they consult educational resources which are for example e-learning applications. Within the Friesland College educational resources are created internally through a sources company (in Dutch, “FC-Sprint² Bronnenbedrijf”). This internal company is part of the FC-Sprint² approach. The educational resources are built on demand of the teachers and students. In designing and creating the educational resources teachers and students work together. The Friesland College aims to make the approach of Sprint² more visible in the programs and courses it offers. Because it is secondary vocational education the emphasis is on practice-based learning.
The organizational model of the Friesland College is composed of six different schools. Within these schools, there are several educational teams. These educational teams are responsible for the curriculums of various school programs. The analysis level is at the teacher level as individuals and the school department level as educational teams. The school department level factors are followed by system level factors and teacher level factors. Within the educational teams the teachers contribute to the school department in which the teachers are employed. The educational teams will be compared to see whether and why there are differences in the actual use of ICT applications in education.
Sampling- After consultation with the director of marketing and communications of
14 There was no sample drawn and a total of 555 teachers received an email to fill out the questionnaire.
3.2 Data collection
For this study, a questionnaire consisting of various constructs was used.
Instrument development- The questions that were originated from existing
questionnaires were translated into Dutch. The possible answer options for the respondents ranged from completely disagree to totally agree. A 5 point Likert scale was used for the statement questions with the options (1) completely disagree, (2) disagree, (3) neutral, (4) agree and (5) totally agree. For the questions about the actual use of ICT applications a 5 point Likert scale was used with the options (1) not, (2) single time, (3) sometimes, (4) often and (5) almost always or always. Because it was possible that some questions in the questionnaire did not apply for every respondent there was an option not applicable / no opinion for every question (Converse & Presser, 1986). At the end of the questionnaire three open questions were posed which asked for the opinions of teachers. The first was about what kind of training is desirable for the teachers. The second was whether teachers had suggestions for the use of ICT within the school. The third question was whether the teachers had any comments in response to the questionnaire.
Beforehand, this pilot questionnaire was tested by 5 teachers for feedback whether the order of the statements was logical and whether the statements were clear. In the received feedback it was found that some questions needed adjustment because of usual terminology used at the school. The electronic learning environment was called Blackboard for example. This clarified the statements for the teachers. And the organizational model of the school, as described above, led to adjustment of the questions about the departments the teachers were in. The comments revealed that the questions were very appropriate and clear for the current situation of the school.
Procedures- The finale questionnaire (see appendix A: Questionnaire) was then sent
15 In an attempt to reduce the non-response, the chairpersons of the different schools received an email with information about the research and were asked to pay attention to the questionnaire in educational teams meetings. The teachers who tested the pilot questionnaire were asked to encourage other teachers in their school to fill out the questionnaire. During an open day of the school I approached as much as possible teachers of the school to ask whether the teachers had already completed the questionnaire. Whenever this was not the case, I asked for the email addresses of the teachers to send a personal reminder.
3.3 Measurements
System factors were measured through six constructs. The first two constructs are questions about the ease of use and usefulness of ICT applications and were measured through questions from Kiraz and Ozdemir (2006) and Tella, Tella, Toyobo, Adika and Adeyinka (2007). The questions asked whether ICT applications enhance the respondents’ educational effectiveness and improve the quality of teachers’ work in education. Teachers were asked through 4 questions from Tella et al. (2007) whether the use of ICT makes the lessons more fun, less activating (reverse question), more diverse and more motivating for the students. The ICT infrastructure construct was measured through questions from Vanderlinde and van Braak (2010) about the availability of enough hardware during class, whether enough computer labs are available, whether the hardware-infrastructure is sufficient and whether the respondent is satisfied about the available ICT peripherals during class. Furthermore, there were a number of questions about the educational materials from the internal company of the school, FC-Sprint² sources company. The respondents were asked whether they know the educational resources from the internal company and whether educational resources are available for their field of study. The respondents were also asked to indicate whether they used the educational resources and whether they were satisfied with the quality of digital learning materials. At the end 3 open questions were posed about the proportion in which teachers use online learning activities versus face-to-face learning and in which proportion digital learning materials are used versus paper learning materials.
16 respondent has sufficient confidence in the use of ICT and if the respondent feels uncertain while working with ICT. At the end of teacher level factors one question was added to ask if the Friesland College offers sufficient ICT courses and/or training.
For the school department level factors the personal opinions from the respondents were measured through statements about the educational team a respondent is working in. The educational team questions consisted of questions whether there is a clear vision about ICT in education, whether there are measurable goals, agreements about the use of the electronic learning environment Blackboard and the use of digital learning materials. Further there were questions if the respondent has sufficient amount of say about the use of ICT in education, whether the participation from the respondent is taken seriously and whether the wishes and needs as a teacher are taken into account when ICT is used. Training and support were measured through three questions from Vanderlinde and van Braak (2010). Respondents were asked if technical support while working with ICT applications is available, if pedagogical support is available while working with ICT applications and whether there is a clear point of contact or contact person for everything that has to do with ICT integration.
For the actual use of ICT applications the respondent were asked to indicate the extent to which several ICT applications like Microsoft Office or the electronic learning environment Blackboard are used during class. Furthermore the respondents were asked for what purposes (such as demonstration or exercising with the teaching material) ICT is used during class.
In this study three control variables were used. In the questionnaire, a total of seven control variables were used. Information about gender, age, years of employment as a teacher, years of employment as a teacher within the Friesland College, employment in full-time equivalent, in which school department the respondent is employed and in which educational team the respondent is working. For the Friesland College all the control variables provide a complete overview because different school departments and educational teams can be compared with each other. The control variables could have influence on the actual use of ICT applications by teachers.
3.4 Data reduction and analysis
17 These were the questions about ease of use, whether the use of ICT makes lessons for students less activating and whether the respondent feels uncertain while using ICT. The 5 point Likert scale data, although formally ordinal data, were treated as interval data for analysis (Cooper & Schindler, 2006).
Factor analysis was used to determine whether there were underlying factors between the variables. The dependent variable was kept separate from the independent variables in the factor analyses. An exploratory factor analysis was used to reduce the data to factors with underlying patterns and an eigenvalue above 1. Besides an eigenvalue above 1, a scree plot was also used for the number of factors. The Bartlett’s test of sphericity and Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin (KMO) were used to assess the appropriateness of the factor analysis.
The Cronbach’s alpha coefficient was used to assess the reliability of the constructs. The Cronbach’s alpha indicates whether items that load on one factor form a reliable scale when used together and whether the same underlying construct is measured by each item (Cooper & Schindler, 2006). Outcomes of Cronbach’s alpha below .7 were not accepted and excluded for further analysis. In the factor analysis no underlying factor was found for training and support and the reliability analysis scored poor (α = .565). Therefore ICT training and support were excluded from the school department level factors and thereby from further analysis.
The data of the questions about the percentage of online learning, use and desired use of digital learning materials proved unusable because the questions were incorrect understood. Therefore, the percentage questions were left out.
For testing the mediation in the model a multiple regression was performed. To determine whether relationships between the school department level and actual use of ICT applications are mediated by the system level or teacher level the method of Baron and Kenny (1986) was used. Further a Sobel test was used in the analysis to assess whether the effect of the mediation is significant. For other possible direct relationships of system level and teacher level factors with the actual use of ICT applications multiple regressions were performed. In these multiple regressions the control variables were first added followed by independent variables.
18 4. RESULTS
In this section the findings are presented of the different analyses in order to answer the sub questions and research question. Further, results about the open questions from the questionnaire and the tested hypotheses are presented.
From the 555 teachers who were approached to fill out the questionnaire 159 teachers responded, leading to a response rate of 28.65 per cent. Demographical information about the teachers is displayed in table 1. In the questionnaire teachers were asked for what purposes ICT applications are used in education (see appendix B: Purposes of ICT applications by teachers).
Table 1: Demographical information
Sample % Population % Gender Male 85 53.5 272 49.0 Female 71 44.7 283 51.0 Unknown 3 1.9 . . Age 20-29 9 5.7 24 4.3 30-39 19 11.9 64 11.5 40-49 36 22.6 109 19.6 50-59 61 38.4 240 43.2 60-69 32 20.1 118 21.3 Unknown 2 1.3 . .
Years in teaching ≤ 5 years 15 9.4 . .
6 – 15 years 55 34.6 . . 16 – 25 years 30 18.9 . . 26 – 35 years 40 25.2 . . ≥ 36 years 17 10.7 . . Unknown 2 1.3 555 100 Years in this school ≤ 5 years 19 11.9 44 7.9 6 – 15 years 66 41.5 242 43.6 16 – 25 years 41 25.8 125 22.5 26 – 35 years 28 17.6 128 23.1 ≥ 36 years 4 2.5 16 2.9 Unknown 1 0.6 . .
The percentages of the control variables of the final sample correspond reasonably well with the population percentages of the school. Despite the low response on the questionnaire, the degree of representativeness of the final sample for the whole school is alright.
4.1 Descriptive statistics
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Table 2: Summary of descriptive statistics and correlations
Mean SD 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 1. Actual Use 2.93 .81 (.714) 2. Ease of Use 3.89 .72 .349** (.772) 3. Usefulness 3.72 1.05 .218** .123 (.935) 4. Perceived Usefulness of ICT for Students 3.84 .63 .320** .318** .323** (.785) 5. Infrastructure 2.54 .91 .131 -.079 .104 .000 (.853) 6. Educational Resources 3.13 .79 .207* .060 .133 .178* .184* (.836) 7.Technological Knowledge 3.40 .97 .510** .224** .320** .133 .128 .216* (.939) 8.Technological Pedagogical Knowledge 3.71 .80 .497** .243** .365** .162* .193* .187* .813** (.917) 9. ICT Policy 2.88 .82 .128 -.094 .101 -.036 .314** .070 .109 .167* (.826) 10.Participation 2.83 .87 .098 .068 .185* .206* -.101 .061 .134 .172* .102 (.863)
Note. Cronbach’s alpha is on the diagonal in parentheses. *. Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed). **. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).
The factor analysis for the independent variables (see appendix C: Factor analysis) revealed a total of 8 constructs in the 36 items. Both KMO (.755) and Bartlett’s test of sphericity (p = .000) support the use of a factor analysis.
4.2 Open questions
In the open question about ICT training it was found that there is a need for training. Three things mainly came forward. First, teachers would like to improve their understanding about Blackboard which is the electronic learning environment and EduArte which is the digital student tracking system the school is using. Second, teachers would like to receive training how to use iPads and social media during class in a practical way. Third, teachers would like to know more about which ICT applications are possible within secondary vocational education. Furthermore, some teachers mentioned to have no or barely time for (ICT) training. As a possible solution, some teachers prefer video courses.
20 resources. Furthermore, the resources need to be better available. Classrooms often do not have interactive whiteboards for example. Other suggestions are about a long-term vision on the use of ICT applications within the school. A clear policy on the deployment and the use of ICT is missing in some school departments. A quote from a reaction: “…there is so much knowledge in house, share it with each other!”. Other teachers want to have the possibility to get direct assistance for ICT questions and problems. Now it is often the case that ICT problems will be repaired later on.
4.3 Hypotheses’ tests
For testing the model and hypotheses multiple regressions were performed. For testing multicollinearity, variance inflation factor (VIF) values below 10 were found (Cooper & Schindler, 2006). The value of adjusted R² indicates the explained variance. The slope of the regression line is indicated by the regression coefficient β which could be positive or negative and the relation is tested for significance.
First, the four system level factors are investigated. The results of the multiple regression analysis are depicted in table 3.
Table 3: Multiple regression analysis
β (Step 1) β (Step 2) Gender -.339* -.404** Age -.022 -.017 Experience .007 .009 Ease of Use .347** Usefulness .040 ICT infrastructure .096 Educational resources .266** Adjusted R² .047* .225**
Note. Step 1= control variables and independent variable. Step 2= control variables, dependent variables and independent variable.
* p < .05, ** p < .01
The result of the multiple regression between the four system level factors and the actual use of ICT applications is significant for the factors ease of use (p = .001) and educational resources (p = .007). Therefore, the first hypothesis, the amount of educational resources will
21 hypotheses 2a, the higher the ease of use of ICT applications the higher the use of ICT
applications by teachers, is also supported. The factors usefulness (p = .569) and ICT
infrastructure (p = .239) are not significant in the multiple regression analysis. Therefore, hypothesis 2b, the higher the usefulness of ICT applications the higher the use of ICT
applications by teachers, and hypothesis 3, the level of ICT infrastructure will positively influence the use of ICT applications by teachers, are rejected.
The tested mediation effect of ease of use between ICT policy and actual use of ICT is displayed in table 4.
Table 4: Mediation effect
Variable β p Adjusted R²
Model <.01 .14
Ease of use .40 <.01
ICT policy (total effect) .13 .15
The linear regression of the independent variable ICT policy to the mediator variable ease of use is not significant (β = -.097, p = .229). Because the relation is not significant the first condition of Baron and Kenny (1986) is not met and thus no mediation is possible. Hypothesis 4, the relationship between the school department ICT policy level and use of ICT
is mediated by ease of use, is not confirmed.
Secondly, the teacher level factors are investigated. The results of the multiple regression analysis are depicted in table 5.
Table 5: Multiple regression analysis
β (Step 1) β (Step 2)
Gender -.295* -.179
Age -.014 -.005
Experience .007 .014
Technical and Pedagogical Knowledge
.481**
Perceived Usefulness of ICT for Students
.287**
Adjusted R² .018 .338**
Note. Step 1= control variables and independent variable. Step 2= control variables, dependent variables and independent variable.
22 The result of the multiple regression between the two teacher level factors and the actual use of ICT applications is significant for both technical and pedagogical knowledge (p = .000) and perceived usefulness of ICT for students (p = .002). Therefore, hypothesis 5a, higher
levels of teachers’ ICT skills will positively influence the use of ICT applications, and
hypothesis 5b, higher levels of perceived usefulness of ICT for students will positively
influence the use of ICT applications by teachers, are supported.
For hypothesis 6, a mediation analysis was done to investigate whether the school department level factor ICT policy and actual use of ICT applications is mediated by the skills of teachers. The results are displayed in table 6.
Table 6: Mediation effect
Variable β p Adjusted R²
Model <.01 .30
Self-perceived ICT skills .51 <.01
ICT policy (total effect) .13 .59
The relation of the independent variable ICT policy to the mediator self-perceived ICT skills is not significant (β = .168, p = .084). The independent variable has no significant effect on the mediator variable. Therefore, there is no mediation possible. The first condition of Baron and Kenny (1986) is not met. Hypothesis 6, the relationship between the school department
ICT policy level and use of ICT is mediated by teachers’ ICT skills, is not supported. The
significant results from above are depicted in figure 2.
Figure 2: Refined research model
System level factors -Ease of use
-Educational resources
Use of ICT applications -Actual use of ICT Teacher level factors
-Self-perceived ICT skills -Perceived usefulness ICT
23 5. DISCUSSION
In this section the results and their theoretical and managerial implications are discussed. The factors that influence the use of ICT applications by teachers are summarized. Thereafter, the limitations of this study and ideas for future research are discussed. Finally conclusions are drawn.
5.1 Discussion
An important finding of this study is that the system level factors usefulness and ICT infrastructure have no significant relationship with the actual use of ICT applications. Nevertheless, in the open questions teachers often suggested to improve the infrastructure. A possible reason for the diverse opinions of teachers is that the school has several locations where the quality of the ICT infrastructure could be different. Further, some school departments might require better and more advanced technology than other school departments. The finding that the system level factor usefulness has no influence on the actual use of ICT applications by teachers is not in line with the Technology Acceptance Model (Davis, 1989). The other two system level factors ease of use and educational resources have a positive relationship with the actual use of ICT by teachers. These findings are in line with the Technology Acceptance Model (Davis, 1989) and with Markus (1983) that lack of user-friendliness and poor system design play a role for the resistance of technology applications. In this study the focus of educational resources is on the digital resources which are mainly developed by the school itself. The digital resources enable students to gain information and to practice with the teaching materials. Whether the quantity of hardware and ICT peripherals are sufficient to integrate ICT during class was measured through questions about the ICT infrastructure of the school.
24 The role of the teacher as an individual in the adoption and use of ICT has been much discussed in the literature (Mumtaz, 2000; Pelgrum, 2001; Tondeur et al., 2008). In this study it was confirmed that the skills of teachers are of great influence on the actual use of ICT applications. The more ICT skills teachers have the higher the use of ICT applications during teaching. In the factor analysis for the independent variables one factor was found for technological knowledge and technological pedagogical knowledge. A possible explanation for this is because technological knowledge and technological pedagogical knowledge are closely related to each other and the correlation between the two was very high (see table 2).
The perceived usefulness of ICT applications for students has a positive influence on the actual use of ICT applications by teachers during class. This finding is in line with the Technology Acceptance Model (Davis, 1989).
5.2 Theoretical and managerial implications
In the findings of this study it was found that the relationship between the school department level factor ICT policy and the actual use of ICT applications is not explained by ease of use or the skills of teachers. Teachers’ ICT use is relatively most explained by their ICT skills. When teachers are more skilled in ICT they also use more ICT applications during class. This confirms the importance of teacher level factors in the literature (Drent & Meelissen, 2008). Another finding of this study is that educational resources and ease of use affect the actual use of ICT applications by teachers. The system level factor ease of use confirms existing knowledge (Davis, 1983). System factors often gain little attention in the deployment of ICT (Ertmer & Ottenbreit-Leftwich, 2010). In this study the system level factor usefulness does not affect the actual use of ICT by teachers which is contradictory to the Technology Acceptance Model (Davis, 1983). This finding can be further investigated in future research about ICT applications in education.
25 together in small educational teams where a long-term vision and agreements about ICT applications can be made more easily.
In this study, only technological knowledge and technological content knowledge were taken into account from the TPACK model (Mishra & Koehler, 2006). The whole model consists of three knowledge domains which are related to each other for the integration of ICT in education. The other two knowledge domains are content knowledge and pedagogical knowledge. Therefore, it is recommended to also investigate the other knowledge domains of the model.
At this moment teachers are often not well informed of the ICT possibilities in their field of study. A finding of this study is that the educational resources factor affects the actual use of ICT applications by teachers. For the internal company of the school which creates educational resources it is important to inform the teachers what kind of possibilities there are with the educational resources.
5.3 Limitations and future research
Teachers have evaluated themselves in the questions about personal ICT skills. This self-assessment is the only used method in this study besides three open questions. The objective assessment of the teachers’ skills level might, therefore, be different, which is a limitation of the current results. To reduce socially desirable responding it was clearly stated in the brief introduction of the questionnaire that the data were treated anonymously and confidentially (Podsakoff, MacKenzie & Podsakoff, 2012). Because a self-reported questionnaire is the only method used for the data collection, common method bias is possible. This can influence the reliability and validity of constructs and also affect the relationship between two constructs (Podsakoff et al., 2012). Observations or in depth interviews would have contributed to triangulation and the reliability of results. Another limitation is that in this study resistance to ICT applications was not directly measured. The emphasis was on the actual use of ICT applications by teachers. Reasons for little to no use of ICT applications among teachers were not further investigated.
At the educational resources questions it was found that one question was about the actual use of educational resources that are developed by the school itself. The question has overlap with the dependent variable which was not the intention and therefore a limitation.
26 support. The measurement of the variable training and support in the questionnaire was found to be not reliable and generated no underlying factor in the factor analysis. That is why training and support were excluded for further analysis. This might be due to the way in which the school department level factors were measured, because within the departments of the school there are several educational teams. Further, this study took place in one secondary vocational education school therefore the generalizability of the results is limited. To increase the generalizability future research is needed at several secondary vocational education schools.
ICT applications for education are developing rapidly (Rubens, 2013). The possibilities to learn online and getting online education are becoming more common. In this study the focus was on the perceptions of teachers. Future research could investigate other groups like the school board and the students of a school. In student-centered education the role of students changes (Garrison & Kanuka, 2004), and therefore, it is interesting to investigate the influence of ICT applications among students in blended learning environments. Another future research direction is to investigate other factors such as financial resources that influence the deployment and use of ICT applications in education. Because this can contribute to a better understanding about student-centered learning approaches and blended learning environments.
5.4 Conclusion
The main research question of this study was: “What factors influence the use of blended
learning in school departments by teachers in secondary vocational education?”. In order to
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31 APPENDIX A: Questionnaire
Heeft u 10 minuten over voor mijn master thesis?
Beste heer/mevrouw,
De afgelopen decennia zijn de visies op leren en onderwijzen volop in ontwikkeling. Voorbeelden in het Friesland College zijn FC-Sprint² en FC X-Stream. Een van de huidige ontwikkelingen binnen het onderwijs in het algemeen, is het toegenomen gebruik van ICT-toepassingen die de efficiëntie van het leerproces en de effectiviteit van de onderwijsdoelen van de cursisten kunnen vergroten. Voor u als docent brengen deze veranderingen in de onderwijspraktijk vast veel teweeg. Als student Bedrijfskunde aan de Rijksuniversiteit Groningen met als afstudeerrichting verandermanagment doe ik, Pieter van der Hulst, voor mijn master thesis onderzoek naar het gebruik van ICT-toepassingen in het onderwijs en de mogelijke toegevoegde waarde hiervan.
Ik ben in het bijzonder geïnteresseerd naar factoren die een rol spelen bij het wel of niet gebruiken van ICT-toepassingen door u als docent. U zou me een grote dienst bewijzen als u via onderstaande link een vragenlijst wilt invullen, die ongeveer 10 minuten van uw tijd in beslag zal nemen. De vragenlijst bestaat uit een aantal stellingen omtrent het gebruik van ICT-toepassingen in uw onderwijspraktijk, factoren die hier een rol in spelen en vragen over uw eigen ICT vaardigheden. De gegevens zullen anoniem en vertrouwelijk verwerkt worden.
U vindt de vragenlijst hier: https://docs.google.com/forms/d/1_RS-m1doEMotN6c1BmWzuqIikRkzNyVUkqnhhIO_WTs/viewform
Met het invullen van de vragenlijst draagt u bij aan het in kaart brengen van het gebruik van ICT-toepassingen binnen het Friesland College, alvast hartelijk dank voor uw medewerking!
Mocht u vragen hebben over het invullen van de vragenlijst of het onderzoek in het algemeen, dan kunt u per e-mail contact met mij opnemen: p.van.der.hulst@student.rug.nl
Met vriendelijke groet,
Pieter van der Hulst
Vragenlijst:
1. Wat is uw geslacht? Man of vrouw
2. Wat is uw leeftijd? - (open)
32 4. Hoeveel jaar bent u als docent werkzaam op het Friesland College? (0 is minder dan 1
jaar) – (open)
5. Wat is uw aanstellingsomvang in fte? - (open)
6. Op welke school/scholen binnen het Friesland College bent u werkzaam? Wilt u deze vragenlijst invullen voor de school waar u het grootste deel van uw werktijd werkzaam bent? Dit is school ... – (aanvink optie)
7. In welk onderwijsteam bent u werkzaam? Wilt u deze vragenlijst invullen voor het onderwijsteam waar u het grootste deel van uw werktijd werkzaam bent? Dit is onderwijsteam ... – (aanklik optie)
Er volgen een aantal vragen over uw gebruik van ICT-toepassingen in het onderwijs. Wilt u aangeven in welke mate u gebruik maakt van ICT-toepassingen tijdens de les? De
schaalverdeling is als volgt: 1 = niet
2 = enkele keer 3 = soms 4 = vaak
5 = bijna altijd of altijd
99 = niet van toepassing/geen mening
Daadwerkelijk gebruik ICT-toepassingen tijdens de les
Smartboard (digitaal schoolbord) 99 1 2 3 4 5
PC/laptop met beamer 99 1 2 3 4 5
Video-apparatuur 99 1 2 3 4 5
Tablet (zoals iPad) 99 1 2 3 4 5
Microsoft Office (zoals Word, Excel, PowerPoint) 99 1 2 3 4 5 Grafische software (zoals Adobe Photoshop, AutoCAD) 99 1 2 3 4 5
Social Media (zoals Facebook en Twitter) 99 1 2 3 4 5
Smartphone 99 1 2 3 4 5
Digitaal lesmateriaal (zoals digitale opdrachten, video’s, toetsen) 99 1 2 3 4 5
Elektronische leeromgeving (Blackboard) 99 1 2 3 4 5
Kunt u aangeven waarvoor u ICT-toepassingen gebruikt tijdens de les? (meerdere antwoorden mogelijk)
o Simulatie of demonstratie o Presenteren
o Tekstverwerking
o Oefenen: uit het hoofd leren bijv. van begrippen
o Oefenen: toepassen stof
o Toetsing o Samenwerking o Anders: namelijk ...
Er volgen een aantal vragen over uw mening ten aanzien van ICT in het onderwijs. Wilt u aangeven in hoeverre u het eens dan wel oneens bent met de hierna volgende stellingen. De schaalverdeling is als volgt:
1 = volledig mee oneens 2 = mee oneens
3 = neutraal 4 = mee eens
33 99 = niet van toepassing/geen mening
Stellingen over ICT-toepassingen
Het gebruik van ICT-toepassingen maakt het moeilijker om controle te houden over de klas
99 1 2 3 4 5
ICT-toepassingen maken het lesgeven in de klas moeilijker voor mij als docent
99 1 2 3 4 5
ICT-toepassingen maken het voorbereiden van de les moeilijker 99 1 2 3 4 5
Hardware problemen verstoren de les vaak 99 1 2 3 4 5
Software problemen verstoren de les vaak 99 1 2 3 4 5
ICT-toepassingen verbeteren de kwaliteit van mijn werkzaamheden binnen het onderwijs
99 1 2 3 4 5
ICT-toepassingen verbeteren mijn didactische effectiviteit 99 1 2 3 4 5 ICT-toepassingen vergemakkelijken mijn onderwijstaken 99 1 2 3 4 5 In het algemeen vind ik ICT-toepassingen in het onderwijs
toegevoegde waarde hebben
99 1 2 3 4 5
Aan deze stellingen gaat het volgende tekstdeel vooraf: “Voor de cursist maakt het gebruik van ICT…”
...lessen interessanter 99 1 2 3 4 5
...lessen minder activerend 99 1 2 3 4 5
...lessen meer divers 99 1 2 3 4 5
...lessen meer motiverend 99 1 2 3 4 5
Nu komen er stellingen over de ICT-infrastructuur tijdens de les
Er is voldoende hardware (bijv. computer of laptop/netbook) beschikbaar tijdens mijn lessen voor de cursisten
99 1 2 3 4 5
Er zijn voldoende computerlokalen beschikbaar tijdens mijn lessen 99 1 2 3 4 5 De hardware-infrastructuur (computers, laptops, computerlokalen) is
voldoende om ICT te integreren in mijn lessen
99 1 2 3 4 5
Ik ben tevreden over de ICT-randapparatuur van de school (beamer, digitale camera, smartboards, etc.) die ik kan gebruiken tijdens mijn lessen
99 1 2 3 4 5
Nu komen er stellingen die gaan over het onderwijsmateriaal van het FC-Sprint² bronnenbedrijf
Ik ben bekend met het onderwijsmateriaal van het FC-Sprint² bronnenbedrijf
99 1 2 3 4 5
Er is onderwijsmateriaal van het FC-Sprint² bronnenbedrijf beschikbaar welke relevant is voor mijn vakgebied
99 1 2 3 4 5
Tijdens mijn lessen maak ik vaak gebruik van het onderwijsmateriaal van het FC-Sprint² bronnenbedrijf
99 1 2 3 4 5
Ik ben tevreden over de kwaliteit van digitaal leermateriaal
(bijvoorbeeld onderwijsmateriaal van het FC-Sprint² bronnenbedrijf)
99 1 2 3 4 5
Geef het percentage aan tussen de 0 en 100% dat het huidige gebruik van online leeractiviteiten aangeeft ten opzichte van face-to-face leren
..% is online gebruik Geef het percentage aan tussen de 0 en 100% dat het gewenste gebruik
van online leeractiviteiten aangeeft ten opzichte van face-to-face leren
34 van digitale leermaterialen aangeeft ten opzichte van papieren
leermaterialen
leermateriaal
Nu komen er stellingen die gaan over uw eigen ICT-vaardigheden
Ik beschik over de technische vaardigheden die ik nodig heb om ICT te gebruiken
99 1 2 3 4 5
Ik kan mijn ICT-problemen zelf oplossen 99 1 2 3 4 5
Ik zorg dat ik op de hoogte blijf van belangrijke ICT-ontwikkelingen 99 1 2 3 4 5 Ik probeer regelmatig nieuwe dingen uit met ICT-toepassingen 99 1 2 3 4 5 Ik ken veel verschillende ICT-toepassingen 99 1 2 3 4 5 Ik leer gemakkelijk nieuwe dingen over ICT 99 1 2 3 4 5 Ik heb voldoende mogelijkheden om verschillende ICT-toepassingen te
gebruiken
99 1 2 3 4 5
Ik ben in staat ICT-toepassingen te kiezen die de didactiek van het onderwijs versterken/ondersteunen
99 1 2 3 4 5
Ik ben in staat ICT-toepassingen te kiezen die het leerproces van de leerlingen versterken/ondersteunen
99 1 2 3 4 5
Ik denk kritisch na over de manier waarop ik ICT-toepassingen in mijn eigen onderwijs in de klas kan gebruiken
99 1 2 3 4 5
Ik denk kritisch na over de manier waarop ik ICT-toepassingen in mijn eigen onderwijs buiten de klas kan gebruiken
99 1 2 3 4 5
Ik beschik over voldoende zelfvertrouwen in het gebruik van ICT 99 1 2 3 4 5
Ik voel me onzeker als ik met ICT werk 99 1 2 3 4 5
Het Friesland College biedt voldoende ICT cursussen en/of trainingen aan
99 1 2 3 4 5
Wat is uw persoonlijke mening op de ICT-visie van uw eigen onderwijsteam? Aan deze stellingen gaat het volgende tekstdeel vooraf:
“Mijn onderwijsteam heeft...”
...een duidelijke visie op de rol en plaats van ICT in het onderwijs 99 1 2 3 4 5 ...toetsbare doelen gesteld voor de inzet van ICT 99 1 2 3 4 5 ...afspraken gemaakt over het gebruik van een elektronische
leeromgeving (Blackboard)
99 1 2 3 4 5
...afspraken gemaakt over het gebruik van digitale leermaterialen 99 1 2 3 4 5
Aan deze stellingen gaat het volgende tekstdeel vooraf: “Binnen mijn onderwijsteam...”
...heb ik voldoende inspraak op de inzet van ICT in het onderwijs 99 1 2 3 4 5 ...wordt mijn inbreng over de inzet van ICT in het onderwijs serieus
genomen
99 1 2 3 4 5
...wordt bij de inzet van ICT rekening gehouden met mijn wensen en behoeften als docent
99 1 2 3 4 5
Stellingen over training en support
Tijdens het werken met ICT-toepassingen kan ik technische ondersteuning krijgen
99 1 2 3 4 5
Ik kan pedagogische ondersteuning krijgen bij het werken met ICT 99 1 2 3 4 5 Er is een duidelijk aanspreekpunt of contactpersoon voor alles wat te
maken heeft met ICT-integratie
35 Heeft u behoefte aan ICT-training, zo ja: wat moet volgens u hierin aan bod komen?
-open box-
Heeft u verder nog suggesties voor het ICT-gebruik binnen het Friesland College? -open box-
Heeft u verder nog op- of aanmerkingen naar aanleiding van deze vragenlijst? -open box-
Bedankt voor het invullen van de vragenlijst!
36 APPENDIX B: Purposes of ICT applications by teachers
Frequency %
Presenting 138 24
Exercise (subject material) 87 15 Simulation or demonstration 86 15
Word processing 77 13
Examination 66 11
Cooperation 58 10
Exercise (to memorize) 38 7
Other 26 5
37 APPENDIX C: Factor analysis
Rotated Component Matrixª
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Ease of Use_1 .729 Ease of Use_2 .773 Ease of Use_3 .776 Usefulness_1 .893 Usefulness_2 .876 Usefulness_3 .840 Usefulness_4 .883
Perceived Usefulness of ICT for Students_1
.739 Perceived Usefulness of ICT
for Students_2
.577 Perceived Usefulness of ICT
for Students_3
.862 Perceived Usefulness of ICT
for Students_4 .795 Infrastructure_1 .854 Infrastructure_2 .771 Infrastructure_3 .851 Infrastructure_4 .696 Educational Resources_1 .731 Educational Resources_2 .823 Educational Resources_3 .821 Educational Resources_4 .825 Technological Knowledge_1 .850 Technological Knowledge_2 .833 Technological Knowledge_3 .830 Technological Knowledge_4 .844 Technological Knowledge_5 .900 Technological Knowledge_6 .859 Technological Pedagogical Knowledge_1 .850 Technological Pedagogical Knowledge_2 .796 Technological Pedagogical Knowledge_3 .761 Technological Pedagogical Knowledge_4 .674 ICT Policy_1 .875 ICT Policy_2 .842 ICT Policy_3 .625 ICT Policy_4 .829 Participation_1 .840 Participation_2 .879 Participation_3 .807
Note. Exploratory factor analysis
