Cover Page The handle http://hdl.handle.net/1887/41455 holds various files of this Leiden University dissertation

Cover Page

The handle http://hdl.handle.net/1887/41455 holds various files of this Leiden University dissertation

Author: Marf, D.A.

Title: Cultural interaction between Assyria and the Northern Zagros Issue Date: 2016-07-04

Cultural Interaction

between Assyria and the Northern Zagros

Dlshad A. Marf

Cultural Interaction

between Assyria and the Northern Zagros

Proefschrift ter verkrijging van

de graad van Doctor aan de Universiteit Leiden,

op gezag van Rector Magnificus prof.mr. C.J.J.M. Stolker, volgens besluit van het College voor Promoties

te verdedigen op maandag 04 juli 2016 klokke 10.00 uur

door

Dlshad A. Marf

geboren te Al-Sulaimaniyah

in 1982

Promotor: Prof. dr. Wilfred H. van Soldt Co-promotor: Dr. Diederik J.W. Meijer

Leden van de promotiecommissie:

Prof. dr. H.W. van den Doel Prof. dr. A. van der Kooij Prof. dr. J. Eidem

Prof. dr. J. Zangenberg Mw. Dr. E. Kaptijn Dr. O. Nieuwenhuijse Dr. L. Petit

Table of Contents………..

I

Table of Contents

Acknowledgments……..………...……….………...…...……

Introduction …………..………...…….………..………….…

Chapter I: The landscape and the Peoples of Assyria and the Northern Zagros

Introduction ………...………..……….……..……… 6

1.1. The Assyrian Landscape, the topography and its Peoples ……… 6

1.2. The Northern Zagros‘s Landscape, the topography and its Peoples …..……… 14

1.3. Immigrants and Migrants ………...……….…… 38

1.4. Deported Peoples from and into the Zagros ………...………….…….…… 39

1.5. Runaways ………...………..….…… 47

Conclusions………..………..….……...49

Chapter II: Immaterial Culture

Introduction ……… 50

2.1. Languages and Writing Systems ……… 50

2.1.1. Introduction ………. 50

2.1.2. Bilingual and trilingual records in the Zagros ……….………… 55

2.1.3. Writing systems ………..………. 57

2.1.4. Interpreters ………..……… 60

2.2. Personal Names ……… 62

2.2.1. People in the Zagros with Assyrian (Akkadian) names ………..……… 62

2.2.2. People in the Assyrian heartland with Zagrosian and Iranian names ……….. 64

2.2.3. Some aspects of local names in the Zagros ……..……….. 64

2.2.4. Personal names with a divine element (theoforic names) ……… 68

2.2.5. Personal names in the Assyrian heartland with of the element Haldi ………… 68

2.2.6. Toponyms as personal names ………. 69

2.2.7. The proper names of the Zagrosian deportees ……….…… 70

2.2.8. Personal names and ethnicity ……….………. 70

2.2.9. Assyrian Eponyms in the Northern Zagros ……….……… 70

2.3. Toponyms and Geographical Names ………. 74

2.3.1. Toponyms and Geographical names in the light of the Assyrian records….… 74 2.3.2. Toponyms marked with the determinative URU ……… 74

2.3.3. Zagrosian cities prefixed with Bīt/É ……….……… 74

2.3.4. Rivers, seas and waters of the Northern Zagros in the Assyrian records…….. 75

2.3.5. Renamed cities ……… 76

2.3.6. Two cities, one name ……… 76

2.3.7. Local linguistic elements in toponyms ………..……… 77

2.3.8. Zagrosian city-names prefixed with Akkadian /Dur-/ BÀD ……… 79

2.3.9. The Assyrian policy of re-naming Zagrosian cities ……… 80

2.4. Literature and Mythology ……… 84

2.4.1. The Mount Niṣir/Nimuš of the Gilgamesh Epic where the Ark landed ………. 84

2.4.2. Gilgamesh and Enkidu killing Humbaba ……… 85

2.4.3. The story/epic of Etana ……….……… 87

2.4.4. Capturing Anzu in the ‗Zagros‘ mountains ……… 88

Table of Contents………..

II

2.4.5. The monstrous bird Imdugud ……… 93

2.4.6. The demon Pazuzu ………..… 94

2.4.7. Three headed dragon on the golden bowl of Hasanlu……….. 96

2.4.8. Deities dwelling in the Zagros mountains ………...……….... 96

2.4.9. The Netherworld and the Zagros mountain ………..…… 97

2.5. Religion and Festivals in War and Peace ………..…...……….. 99

2.5.1. Assur, the deity, the city, the kingdom, and the people …….………...……. 99

2.5.2. The Assyrian holy war ……..………..……… 102

2.5.3. Peaks, cities and rivers called with deity names……....………….……...….. 104

2.5.4. Nabû, god of the scribes in Babylonia, Assyria, and the Zagros ………...… 104

2.5.5. The main deities in the Northern Zagros ………...… 106

2.5.6. Palil (Nergal), the protecting tribal god in Media ……….. 109

2.5.7. Tiglath-pileser III sacrifices to Marduk in the land Tīl-Aššuri in Media…….. 109

2.5.8. Adad-narari II made sacrifices before Teššub of Kumme ………..…… 109

2.5.9. Vassal treaties with the rulers of the Northern Zagros and swearing oaths by the Assyrian deities ……… 109

2.5.10. Divine names in personal names ……….……….. 110

2.5.11. Deporting deities from and into the Northern Zagros ……….…….. 111

2.5.12. Zagrosian priests in Assyria; Assyrian priests in the Zagros ……….……… 116

2.5.13. Assyrian rituals in the Zagros ……… 117

2.5.14. Assyrian and Zagrosian festivals, Akītu festivals ………..…….……. 117

2.5.15. Sacrificing on the Assyrian-Mannean border ………..……… 119

2.5.16. Building a dam in Urartu and sacrificing to Assur …………..……… 120

2.5.17. Omens and curses ………..……... 120

2.6. Social Structure ………..……..….. 123

2.7. Political and Administrative Relations ……….…. 126

2.7.1. Occupation and the military campaigns ………..……. 126

2.7.2. The Assyrian titles for the occupied cities in the Zagros ……… 126

2.7.3. Annexation policy ……….….………… 127

2.7.4. Taking the princes as hostage ……….…………. 130

2.7.5. Deportation/the forced migration ……….……… 132

2.7.6. Diplomacy, Assyria and the Northern Zagros ………...………… 132

2.7.7. Assyrian Vassal Treaties with Media, and Mazamua ………….……… 135

2.7.8. Postal services in Arzuhina and Mazamua ………...………. 137

2.7.9. Royal/dynastic marriage cases between the Zagros and Assyria …………... 137

2.8. Economy and Trade ……… 140

2.8.1. Economy ……….. 140

A. The main economical resources from the Northern Zagros ……… 140

B. Human labour ………...………….. 142

C. Agriculture and animal sources ……… 142

2.8.2. Trade and commercial activities between Assyria and the Northern Zagros and beyond ……… 147

A. The Assyrian kārums in the Zagros ……….……….… 149

B. The Karavanserai of Ancient Arzizi (Rabat Tepe) …..……..……… 151

C. Traded goods and slaves ………..……… 151

Table of Contents………..

III

D. Transportation and the roads ……… 158

E. Measures and currency in Assyria and the Northern Zagros …………...… 161

Conclusions………..………..…..…...162

Chapter III: Arts and Pottery

Introduction ……… 167

3.1. The Assyrian and local rock reliefs and steles in the Northern Zagros ….… 167 3.2. The Assyrian reliefs and the Northern Zagros ……….. 185

3.3. Wall paintings in the Northern Zagros ……….. 190

3.4. Assyrian and local glazed bricks in the Northern Zagros ……… 192

3.5. Seals and Sealing ……….. 220

3.6. Ivories in Assyria and the Northern Zagros ……….. 235

3.7. Mosaic glass ……….. 243

3.8. Metalwork ………. 244

3.9. Textiles and Costumes ……….. 258

3.10. Pottery in Assyria and the Northern Zagros ……… 270

Conclusions ………...… 280

Chapter IV: Architecture

Introduction ……… 283

4.1. Assyrian and Zagrosian palaces in the Northern Zagros ……… 283

4.2. Temples and religious places in the Zagros ……….… 295

4.3. Cities and towns ……… 322

4.4. Assyrian and local fortifications in the Northern Zagros ……….… 331

4.5. Temporary and permanent Assyrian camps in the Zagros ……… 345

4.6. The Iron Age villages of the Northern Zagros ……….…. 347

4.7. Private houses of the Northern Zagros ……….… 348

4.8. Some architectural features ………... 357

4.9. Assyrian and Zagrosian tombes, graves and burials ……….… 364

4.10. Hydraulic projects ……… 377

4.11. Roads and passes from Assyria to the Zagros ……….… 397

Conclusions………..………...399

General Conclusions

Appendix

Abbreviations

Bibliography

Samenvatting

Curriculum Vitae

Acknowledgements………..…….

IV

Acknowledgments

This dissertation could not have been completed without support from many people, institutes and museums over the last four years.

First I gratefully acknowledge my supervisor Prof. Dr. Wilfred H. van Soldt for agreeing to supervise this dissertation. I thank him for much helpful advice, and many criticisms, corrections and suggestions. Also, I have to thank him for letting me attend his classes about the Hurrian and Urartian languages in 2012 and 2014.

I am grateful to my co-supervisor Dr. Diederik J. W. Meijer, for his support and his comments, especially concerning the material culture (art and architecture). His suggestions, criticisms, corrections, and advice enriched this dissertation considerably. Both supervisors were always ready to read the drafts of the chapters in the shortest possible time.

I would like to express my gratitude to the KRG-HCDP scholarship program from the Ministry of Higher Education & Scientific Research of Kurdistan-Iraq, for awarding me a fund for most of the duration of my study.

I am grateful to my friend Mervyn E. J. Richardon who has always been ready to help me to solve problems where my English was inadequate. I thank Renate Dekker for her help in translating the thesis‘s summary into the Dutch language.

Special thanks are due to Abdulwahab Solieman, the Director of Antiquities in Soran, and Abdulrzaq Mamendy who helped me during the fieldwork in the area of Topzawa and Mdjeser. Also, I thank Saber Ahmed, the head of the Survey Department, and Kamal Rasheed, the director of the Directorate of Antiquities of Sulaimania, who gave me permission to do some fieldwork in the Sulaimania territories. Special thanks are also due to the museums of Erbil and Slemani (Sulaimania) who allowed me to study the seals, ceramic and statues I have used in this dissertation.

I thank the librarians in the NINO library and in the Special Collection in the University Library in Leiden for their kind support. I would also like to thank PhD admissions and the LIAS institute for their support, with special thanks to Prof. dr. Maghiel van Crevel.

I would like to express my gratitude to Prof. Jesper Eidem for his kind support. I also thank Mr. Theo J. H. Krispijn for letting me attend his Neo-Elamite class. I also thank Dr. Jan G.

Dercksen, who allowed me to attend his Old Assyrian class. I also thank Dr. Bert Kouwen- berg for letting me attend his Neo-Assyrian class.

I also would like to thank my friends and colleagues Dr. Kozad Ahmed, Mahdi Barzinji, Dr. Ahmed Mirza, and Dr. Zidan Bradosty, Bekas, Ziyad, Hussain, Zainab, Beri, Akiko, Tero, Saeeda, Onur, Tariq, Sam, Mahmood, Mohsen, and Maulood for their friendly support.

My heartfelt gratitude to my wife Rezan, for her love and endless support. I thank her family profoundly for their support. I wish to express my gratitude to my father, my sisters and my brother, for their endless spiritual and financial support. My most profound thanks go to my late mother, the great person in my life, the first one who taught me how to love culture, heritage and archaeology.

I hope I have not forgotten anyone, but if I have I humbly apologize.