Adolescent goal content and pursuit: A review of the literature from the past 16 years.

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Adolescent goal content and pursuit: A review of the literature from the past 16 years.

Massey, E.K.; Gebhardt, W.A.; Garnefski, N.

Citation

Massey, E. K., Gebhardt, W. A., & Garnefski, N. (2008). Adolescent goal content and pursuit: A review of the literature from the past 16 years.

Developmental Review, 28, 421-460. Retrieved from https://hdl.handle.net/1887/14236

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License: Leiden University Non-exclusive license Downloaded from: https://hdl.handle.net/1887/14236

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Review

Adolescent goal content and pursuit: A review of the literature from the past 16 years

Emma K. Massey

^*

, Winifred A. Gebhardt, Nadia Garnefski

Leiden University Institute for Psychological Research, Clinical, Health and Neuropsychology Unit, Leiden University, The Netherlands

a r t i c l e i n f o

Article history:

Received 31 July 2007 Revised 29 January 2008 Available online 20 May 2008

Keywords:

Adolescents Self-regulation Personal goals Personal projects Life tasks Aspirations Goal pursuit

a b s t r a c t

The aim of this article is to provide an overview and discussion of the literature from various areas of psychology on adolescent goal content and pursuit since the publication of Nurmi’s review in 1991. Ninety-four studies were identified which incorporated a measure of adolescent goal content/processes. We explore and discuss the theories employed in these studies, methods of goal mea- surement, and the findings presented in the studies. Adolescent goal content and pursuit appear to be influenced by various sociodemographic and psychological factors. In turn, goal content, goal pursuit and (un)successful goal attainment are related to adolescent behavior, health and well-being. Limitations and suggestions for further research are discussed.

According to motivation theory, human behavior is fundamentally goal directed (Carver & Scheier, 1990a; Ford, 1992). Goals are the reference point or standard of comparison against which we evalu- ate our current state or behavior (Carver & Scheier, 1990a). Although goal content is guided by social and cultural norms (Nurmi, 1993; Oyserman & Fryberg, 2006), the set of goals one endorses is highly idiosyncratic (Carver & Scheier, 1990a). In a process deﬁned by Nurmi as channeling (Nurmi, 2004), personal goals are shaped by, for example, previous learning experiences, individual characteristics, and the opportunities and constraints afforded by the environment. In the context of these environ- ments and opportunities, adolescents construct their goals and make plans to achieve them (deﬁned as selection, see Nurmi, 2004).

Adolescent goals are unique to this period, and distinct from those of adults (Nurmi, 1987; Ogilvie, Rose & Heppen, 2001). Typically they reﬂect the developmental tasks and age-graded developmental deadlines of adolescents (Cantor, Norem, Niedenthal, Langston & Brower, 1987; Havighurst, 1953;

doi:10.1016/j.dr.2008.03.002

* Corresponding author. Fax: +31 71527 4678.

E-mail address:emassey@fsw.leidenuniv.nl(E.K. Massey).

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j o u r n a l h o m e p a g e : w w w . e l s e v i e r . c o m / l o c a t e / d r

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Nurmi, 1987, 1991). Setting and successfully pursuing goals is particularly pertinent during adoles- cence when establishing identity is of fundamental importance (Erikson, 1963). Goal pursuit is sug- gested to serve as a self-directing and self-defining process (Nurmi, 1991, 1993, 2001). Adolescents direct their own development towards particular outcomes by selecting goals, determining strategies to achieve them and by evaluating the outcome of their efforts. This process defines the roles they take on, the narratives they construct and how they evaluate themselves (Nurmi, 1993). The developing self-identity, or so-called self-concept, in turn influences adolescents’ outcome expectations, choice of goals and means of goal pursuit in a continuous interactive process (see Cantor & Kihlstrom, 1987; Markus & Nurius, 1986; Nurmi, 2001; Stein, Roeser & Markus, 1998).

As individuals invest their time, energy and resources in pursuit of their goals, the goal pursuit pro- cess shapes emotional experience (Cantor et al., 1991; Emmons, 1991). Research on adults and under- graduate students has identiﬁed that successful goal pursuit is associated with positive affect and higher well-being (Afﬂeck et al., 1998; Brunstein, 1993; Harris, Daniels & Briner, 2003; King, Richards

& Stemmerich, 1998). Basic psychological needs, such as relatedness, competence and autonomy are regarded to be the motivational force behind goal setting and successful goal attainment is suggested to satisfy these needs (Deci & Ryan, 2000; Ryan, Deci & Grolnick, 1995; Skinner & Wellborn, 1994).

Conversely, impediment to goal pursuit is associated with greater negative affect and to a reduction in well-being (Emmons, 1986, 1996; Emmons & King, 1988; King et al., 1998). In order, therefore, to understand adolescent physical and emotional well-being, it is necessary to understand adolescent aspirations, and the factors that inﬂuence goal attainment.

Various theoretical perspectives have been used to understand and explain the mechanisms and processes involved in the development of goal setting and pursuit in adolescence. Theories such as Possible Selves (Markus & Nurius, 1986; Oyserman & Fryberg, 2006) and Future Orientation Theory (Nur- mi, 1991, 1993; Seginer, 1992; Trommsdorff, Lamm & Schmidt, 1979) incorporate conceptualizations of the selves we expect to, hope to, fear or want to avoid becoming. These abstract cognitive represen- tations incorporate both an approach and avoidance component. Another cognitive conceptualization of goals is that of Current Concerns (Klinger, 1975) in which to hold a concern is to be committed to a goal, forming incentives for behavior. Other theories conceptualize goals on a more behavioral level, such as Personal Projects (Little, 1983) which are defined as interrelated acts intended to achieve or maintain a desired state. In Carver and Scheier’s Control Theory (Carver & Scheier, 1990a, 1990b), Ban- dura’s Social Cognitive Theory (Bandura, 1986, 1997), and Higgins’ Self-Discrepancy Theory (Higgins, 1987) goals serve as the standard or cognitive, symbolic representation against which the current state or behavior is compared. Discrepancy between this ideal and the current state generates dissat- isfaction and motivates purposeful action. Goal-Setting Theory (Latham & Locke, 1991; Locke & Latham, 1990) proposes goal-directed action to be conscious and purposeful and that difficult but realistic goals lead to better performance. Life tasks (Cantor et al., 1987; Havighurst, 1953) incorporate a time-perspective into the definition of goals in which personally determined tasks are to be worked on and completed during a certain period of the life span. Self-Determination Theory (Deci & Ryan, 1985, 1990) focuses on the source of motivation for goals as either intrinsic or extrinsic. Despite dif- ferences in focus, abstraction and terminology, what these theories share is that goals are defined as motivational forces guiding behavior (Nurmi, 1997) and developmental pathways, and that goals are key to understanding (adolescent) behavior and well-being.

In 1991, Nurmi published an extensive review of the literature on adolescent goals incorporating

studies from areas such as developmental, social, clinical and motivational psychology. In the review,

Nurmi describes adolescent goal pursuit according to the processes of motivation, planning and eval-

uation. Later, Nurmi expanded this into a broader theory of adolescent socialization incorporating

channeling, selection, adjustment and evaluation (Nurmi, 2004). The majority of the ﬁndings dis-

cussed in this article fall under the mechanisms of channeling and selection. Since Nurmi’s 1991 re-

view a considerable amount of research has been published in this rapidly growing area of

psychology. The aim of the present review is to update the state of the art and to take stock of the ﬁnd-

ings from the past decade and a half in adolescent motivational research. Due to the variety in theo-

retical approaches and operationalizations of these concepts, the results of the studies reviewed were

very varied. This review is an attempt to bring order to the ﬁndings, to draw some general conclusions

and to make suggestions as to where we could go from here.

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Following earlier researchers (such as Ford, 1992, and Austin & Vancouver, 1996), we differentiate (a) goal content and (b) goal processes. Goal content is deﬁned as the content of the desired state, for example ‘complete all my schooling’ or ‘get my own place’ (Chang, Chen, Greenberger, Dooley & Heck- hausen, 2006) or the state which is to be avoided, for example ‘unemployment’ or ‘divorce’ (Malmberg

& Norrgård, 1999). In our deﬁnition of goal content we include goal importance (as this is often used as an indicator of the extent to which the goal is endorsed), the orientation of the goal (such as approach/

avoidance or intrinsic/extrinsic), and the structure of the goal taxonomy (such as balance of approach and avoidance goals). Goal processes include behaviors and cognitions associated with these goals such as goal commitment, perceived difﬁculty, perception of attainability, plans for realization, per- ceived progress, expected age for goal attainment (temporal extension) and attributions for goal success.

First, we review the research on the association between adolescents’ sociodemographic character- istics and (a) goal content and (b) goal processes. Second, we explore the relationships between goal content and processes on the one hand and behavioral and psychological outcomes on the other. Fi- nally, we discuss the ﬁndings and methodological issues raised by the review and make suggestions for future research.

Method Search strategy

Articles were retrieved via online databases (PsychInfo, ERIC, and PubMed) and cross-checking ref- erence lists. Taking conceptualizations from the relevant motivational theories (described above), our search terms incorporated a combination of adolescent(s)/ce with one of the following: personal goals, personal strivings, personal projects, (future) aspirations, possible selves, future orientation, life tasks, and current concerns.

Selection criteria

Empirical articles which satisﬁed the following criteria were included in the review: published be- tween 1991 and 2007, written in English, includes a sample of adolescents between the ages of 10 and 18 years, and includes a measure of goal content or processes as either an independent or dependent variable. Articles were excluded which investigated exclusively undergraduate students.

One hundred and two articles written on ninety-four studies were identiﬁed as satisfying these cri- teria. We focus on school-aged adolescents from the age of 10 (which is commonly viewed as the beginning of early adolescence, see Petersen, 1988) up to graduation from high-school (in the most cases at 18 years of age). We excluded studies which exclusively investigated undergraduate students as graduation from high-school is a major developmental task likely to have a great impact on adoles- cents’ goals. The majority of adolescents in the studies were between the ages of 10 and 18, although two studies included children under the age of 10, eleven studies included samples of (mainly) high- school children who were over the age of 18, and seven studies followed adolescents into adulthood up to the age of 33 (see Table 1). The majority of the studies reviewed here were cross-sectional.

Twenty-ﬁve studies were longitudinal and a further four reported on the ﬁrst wave or a single wave of longitudinal data. Forty-nine of the reviewed studies reported on goal content, fourteen reported on goal processes and thirty-one reported on both content and processes.

We restricted our review to articles which employ motivational theories in which the goal concept is a central tenet. It is beyond the scope of this review to include literature pertaining to the burgeon- ing area of achievement motivation (for further elaboration see for example Covington, 2000; Eccles, 2007). Similarly, we limit our discussion to only the goal-related ﬁndings of each study. Dispositional or trait-like constructs which may underpin goal pursuit mechanisms such as personality, optimism, hope, and future-time perspective fall outside the realms of this review (the interested reader is re- ferred to Motivation and Emotion, December 2001 for a discussion of these issues). Table 1 presents all reviewed studies in alphabetical order of author name, including details on the sample, measures, design, procedures and results.

E.K. Massey et al. / Developmental Review 28 (2008) 421–460

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Table 1

Articles reviewed: Adolescent goal content and pursuit

Author Sample Age (M) Goal construct Other constructs Method Main results

Ali et al. (2005) 114 American

adolescents. 77%

Caucasian

Grade 9 (14.7) Process: Vocational Outcome

Expectations scale. 6-items, rated on a 4-point scale, e.g., ‘‘My career planning will lead to a satisfying career for me”

SES, Vocational/Educational Self-Efﬁcacy Scale, Parent Support Scale, Sibling Support Scale, Friends Support Scale, perception of educational barriers

Questionnaires completed in school

High maternal support was related to high vocational outcome expectations and vocational/educational self-efficacy. Peer and sibling support were positively related to vocational/educational self-efficacy. Higher self-efficacy was related to higher outcome expectations

Aloise-Young et al. (2001)

1606 American adolescents. 48%

Caucasian, 32%

Hispanic, 24% Other

Grade 6 (11.9) Content: 3 hoped for, 3 expected and

3 feared selves. E.g., ‘‘MEs that you hope will describe you”, ‘‘MEs that probably will describe you” and

‘‘MEs that you are afraid will describe you”

Cigarette and alcohol consumption

T1 questionnaire on health behavior. T2 questionnaire on possible selves 6 weeks later

Balance between expected and feared selves was related to lower negative health behavior.

Number of positive expected selves was negatively related to health behavior for 8th and 9th graders, particularly for girls. Heavy use higher in those lacking positive selves, particularly in 9th graders

Grade 7 (12.7) Grade 8 (13.7) Grade 9 (14.7)

Anderman and Anderman (1999)

660 American adolescents. 55%

African American, 39%

Caucasian, 7% Hispanic

T1: grade 5 Content: Approach ability goal

orientation (Patterns of Adaptive Learning Survey). Social responsibility goals, social relationship goals and social status goals measured on a 5-point scale

Psychological Sense of School Membership Scale (belonging), GPA

Longitudinal study.

Questionnaires completed in schools

Girls reported lower ability goals, higher relationship and social responsibility goals.

Boys reported higher social status goals.

School belonging and social responsibility goals were related to higher mastery goals.

Relationship and social status goals were related to higher performance/ability goals T2: grade 6

Armstrong and Crombie (2000)

502 Canadian adolescents

Grades 8–10 Content: Occupational aspirations:

‘‘List three jobs or occupations that you think you would really like to have when you are 35 years old.”

Participants selected the most desired of the three. Occupational expectations measured in same way

Participants coded on aspiration/expectation discrepancies. Expectations relative to aspirations rated as more masculine, non- discrepant, or more feminine, and higher in SES, non-discrepant, or lower in SES

3-year longitudinal study.

Questionnaires completed in the spring of grade 8, 9 and 10

From grade 8 to 9, and from grade 9 to 10, aspirations were generally brought in line with (earlier discrepant) expectations.

Changes in expectations were found in the direction of closing the discrepancy-gap.

Adolescents with non-discrepant expectations and aspirations generally did not alter aspirations, although they did reduce the socio-economic level of their aspirations Bandura et al.

(2001)

272 Italian adolescents 11–15 (12) at

Time 1

Content: Importance placed on academic achievements (own, parents and friends), expected academic performance (own, parents) and expected level of education to be completed, rated on a 5-point scale

Self-efficacy beliefs, parental perceived academic efficacy (mothers), parental academic aspirations, academic achievement, perceived occupational self-efficacy, occupational choices (Time 2)

1-year prospective study.

Adolescents, their mothers and teachers participated.

SES had no direct effect on academic aspirations, but was mediated by parental perceived academic efﬁcacy and aspirations.

Parental aspirations were strongly related to adolescent aspirations. Adolescents’

aspirations mediate between social and academic efﬁcacy beliefs and occupational efﬁcacy

E.K.Masseyetal./DevelopmentalReview28(2008)421–460

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Barryand Wentzel (2006)

T1:287T2:265 Americanadolescents: 90%Caucasian,6% Asian,2%Hispanic,1% Other

Grade9&10Content:ProsocialGoalPursuitScale, academicandsocialprosocialgoals ratedona5-pointscale

Friendship,Friendship QualitiesScale,interaction frequency,friendship stability,prosocial behavior,friends’prosocial behavior

2year longitudinal study. Questionnaires completedduring schoolhours

Friend’sprosocialbehaviorwasrelatedto adolescent’sconcurrentprosocialgoalpursuit, particularlywhenaffectivequalityofthe friendshipwashighandfrequencyofcontact waslow.Changeinprosocialgoalpursuitwas moderatedbyhighinteractionfrequency. Prosocialgoalpursuitwaslinkedtoprosocial behavior Behnkeetal. (2004)

10Latinoadolescents andparents

11–16(14.6)Content:adolescents’andparents’ educationalandoccupational aspirations

Parents’ownaspirations. Parents’perceptionoftheir supportforchild’s aspirationsandchild’s perceptionofthis.Parents’ andadolescents’needsto attainaspirationsset

Interviews conductedin homes.Parents andyouths interviewed separately. Qualitativedata codedfor recurrentthemes

Parentsandadolescentshadsimilarlylowor higheducationalgoals.Parents’typicallyhad higheducationalaspirationsfortheirchildren. Adolescents’goalswerelower.Meansof achievinggoalswasoftenvagueorunknown. Barrierstogoalattainmentincludedlackof knowledgeaboutpathwaystosuccess,racism andlowEnglishproﬁciency.Perceivedneeds toattaingoalswereeducation,information andforyouths,direction Budhwaretal. (2000)100Indianmiddle- classfamiliesBoys(17.3)Content:CalifornianLifeGoals EvaluationSchedules:150goal statementsrated1–5onagreement (completedbyallfamilymembers)

InterviewSchedulefor ChildRearingPractices (completedbymothers)

Interviews conducted individuallyin homes

Lifegoalsofparentsandoffspringwerevery similar.Sonsofmotherswhoencouraged independencescoredhigheronfame, leadership,self-expressionandindependence goals.Girlswithsuchmothersalsoexpressed greaterleadershipandindependencegoals

Girls(17.1) Carroll(1995)5incarcerated Australianboys:3 Aboriginal,2Caucasian

14.5–16.5Content:InterviewsongoalsInterviewsexploredgang membershipand participation.Vignetteand cardsortoncartheft, perceptionofleadership andidentiﬁcationwith characters

Individual interviews conducted, vignettewas administeredat theendofthe interviewalong withacard sortingtask

Mainlyshort-termgoalreportedrevolving aroundacquisitionofresources,havingfun andplayingsport.Goalpursuitappears spontaneousasopposedtoplanned.Largely peer-grouplead

Process:plansforattainment Carroll(2002)216Australiangirls13–16Content:semi-structuredinterviews onimportanceofacademicand personalgoals(17goal-related questions).

Interviewsonreputation enhancingactivities(e.g., smoking),andsocial networks.Vignettes exploredreputation enhancingactivities, inﬂuenceofpeers,and perceivedimageofgirls andboys

Semi-structured groupinterviews werecarriedout at2single-sex and4 coeducational schools.At-risk categorization basedonteacher and/orschool psychologist assessment

Schoolsettingandat-riskstatusrelatedto goalcontent,diversityofgoals,goalplanning, commitmentandimportance.Forexample, not-atriskgirlsreportedmorediversecareer goalswhichoftenrequiredfurthereducation comparedtocareerchoicesofat-riskgirls. Attendanceofasingle-sexschoolwas associatedwithagreaterfocusoneducation andcareergoals

Process:commitmentandplanning (continuedonnextpage)

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Table1(continued) AuthorSampleAge(M)GoalconstructOtherconstructsMethodMainresults Carrolletal. (1997)260Australianboys. 80delinquent,90at- risk,90notat-risk 12–18Content:ImportanceofGoalsScale (43items,8subscales):goalsrated ona3-pointscaleofimportance

At-risk categorization basedon assessmentby teachersand/or psychologists. Questionnaires completedin schoolorthe detentioncenter

Goalcontentvariedaccordingtodelinquency status.Non-delinquencyrelatedtogreater educationalandinterpersonalgoals,and fewerdelinquencyandfreedom-autonomy goals.Delinquencyrelatedtogreaterfocuson socialimagegoals Carrolletal. (2001)260Australianboys. 80delinquent,90at- risk,90notat-risk

12–18Content:ImportanceofGoalsScale (seeabove)Familystructure, ReputationEnhancement Scale,AdaptedSelf-report DelinquencyScale, RosenbergSelf-esteem Scale

At-risk categorization basedon assessmentby teachersand/or psychologists. Questionnaires administeredin smallgroupsin schoolorthe detentioncenter

Notat-riskboysreportededucationalgoalsas moreimportant.Delinquentandat-riskboys scoredhigherondelinquentgoalsandnon- conformingidealpublicself.Importanceof goalsdidnotdifferasafunctionoffamily structure(two-parentornot) Changetal. (2006)932American adolescents: Caucasian,African, Mexican,OtherLatino, Filipino,andAsian American

16–20(17.8)Content:Medium-rangegoalsand plansforthenext10years.Long- termoccupationalgoals(open) rankedonprestige.Long-termideal andexpectededucationalgoals(1–4)

Generationalstatus,long- termoccupationaland educationalaspirationsand expectations

Firstwaveofa longitudinalstudy in4schools. Questionnaires completedin schooltime

Educationalandoccupationalgoalshighest priority.Temporalorder:autonomyand education,occupation,material,familyand self-actualizationgoals.Noethnicdifferences foundforgoalcontent(exceptmaterialgoals), priority,control,timeframeorlongterm occupationalgoals.Mexicansreportedfewer longtermeducationalaspirationsand expectations.Girlsreportedmorefamily, educationalandautonomygoals

Process:priorityrank,perceived control,temporalextension, likelihoodofattainingoccupational goals CohenandCohen (1996,2001)776American adolescents&mothers. 1983:91%Caucasian

1983:(13.7)Content:1983:Whatkidsadmire questionnaire,22itemsratedon approval(4-pointscale)

Community,schoolfamily andpeerenvironment, Mentalhealth:adaptation oftheDiagnosticInterview ScheduleforChildren (DISC-1)

Alongitudinal studywith measurementsin 1975,1983and 1986.Data presentedhere 1983(what childrenadmire) and1986(life priorities)

Goalendorsementrelatedtogender,age, personalityandtemperament,urbanicity,SES, peers,school,parentingandfamily relationships,socialrelationshipsparental aspirations,andparentaleducation. Endorsementofsomegoalswasrelatedto variouspsychologicaldisorders

1986:(16.4)1986:ChildsLifePrioritySort(21life prioritystatementssortedintolevel ofimportance) Cooketal.(1996)220boys.101inner- cityAfrican-American, 119afﬂuentEuropean American

7–17(grade2–8)Content:idealandexpectedjob aspirationselicited(open).Plus choiceof1outof9occupationsas idealandexpected.Occupational goalsconvertedintoprestigescores

Ownandperceived parentaleducational expectations,expected obstacles,education beneﬁts,neighborhood safetybeliefs,living situation,rolemodels

Participants interviewed individuallyat school,randomly assignedto interviewer (AfricanAmerican orEuropean American)

Ethnicityandgradedifferencesfoundon occupationalidealandexpectedaspirations. Mediatingfactors:livingwithbiological parents,havingmorerolemodels,and perceptionofobstaclestosuccess

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Creedetal.(2007)176Australian adolescentsand parents Year7(12.2)Content:Careeraspirationsand expectations:‘‘Whatkindofjob wouldyouliketohave/reallyexpect tohavewhenyouﬁnishyour education”?Responseoptions rangedfromunskilledto professionaloccupations(1–5)

Careerstatusdiscrepancies (expected/aspired discrepancies),career barriers,school engagement,academic controlbeliefs,general ability,readingability, parents’careeraspirations andexpectationsforchild

Firstwaveofa longitudinal study.Youths completed questionnairesin school,parents completed surveystaken homebytheir children

Aspirationsgenerallyhigh;adolescents’career aspirationswerelowerthantheirparents’. Lowdiscrepancybetweenadolescents’desired andexpectedjobgoals.Greaterreadingability wasrelatedtohigheroccupationalgoals. Othervariableswereunrelated.Reading abilityandcareerbarrierswererelatedto careerexpectations Crumetal.(2005)1183American adolescents.80% AfricanAmerican

11–14Process:Educationalaspirations: ‘‘Howlikelyareyoutodothe following:graduatefromhigh- school,gotocollege,gototechnical school,serveinthearmedforces,or getajob?”Probabilityratedona4- pointscale

Peersalcoholuse,alcohol use(reprimanded,social difﬁculties,orhealth/ physicalproblems),self- reportedschool performance,neighborhood disadvantage

Datafrom longitudinal preventiontrial. Baseline interviewsin 1992,follow-upin 1993

Whencontrollingforbaselinealcoholuseand sociodemographicconfounders,therewasno relationshipbetweeneducationalaspirations andalcoholuseorproblems Curryetal.(1994)520NorthernIrish adolescents16–17Content:Possiblecareerselves: ‘‘Whatdoyouthinkwillbethelikely patternofyourworkinglife?” categorizedinto:careerist(full-time work),adaptive,(occasionalfullor part-timework),home-centered (part-timeornowork)

Schoolperformance, subjectchoice,attitudes towardscareers,career self-efﬁcacy,attitudes towardsfamily/marriage

Questionnaires completedand groupdiscussions carriedoutat school

86%ofboysandto54%ofgirlsreported careeristgoals.Forgirls,careergoalswere relatedtoschoolsubjectchoice,expectations ofsuccess,conﬁdenceinabilities, expectationsforfuturefamily,masculinity, mathematicalcompetence,independence,and self-efﬁcacy.Nodifferencesinactualschool achievement,femininityorself-worth Dicksonand MacLeod (2004a)

112Australian adolescents16–18(16.4)Content:GoalsTask:sentence completiontask,‘‘Inthefutureitwill beimportantformeto(avoid)...”

BeckAnxietyInventory (BAI),BeckDepression Inventory(BDI)

Cross-sectional questionnaires completedin school. Participants assignedtothe categories: control,high anxiety,high depression, mixed.Goalsand planscodedas approachor avoidanceandfor speciﬁcity

Highdepressionandmixedgroupsscored loweronapproachgoals,formulatedless speciﬁcgoalsandplans(avoidanceand approach),reportedfewerapproachplansand moreavoidanceplansthancontrols.High anxietygroupscoredhigheronavoidance goals,formulatedlessspeciﬁcapproachgoals andapproachplans,reportedfewerapproach plansandmoreavoidanceplansthancontrols

Process:PlanTask,plansfor2most importantapproachandavoidance goals.Timelimitedto75sper questionforalltasks Dicksonand MacLeod (2004b)

144Australian adolescents

16–18(16.4)Content:AchievementGoal Questionnaire:29approachand22 avoidancegoals(1–9).GoalsTask (seeDickson&MacLeod,2004a) HospitalAnxietyand DepressionScale(HADS)

Cross-sectional questionnaires completedin school

Anxietywascorrelatedwithavoidancegoals andconsequenceswhiledepressionwas correlatednegativelywithapproachgoalsand consequences.Resultsconsistentforboth openandclosedgoalsmeasuresProcess:Consequencestask:most importantconsequencepergoal (continuedonnextpage) E.K. Massey et al. / Developmental Review 28 (2008) 421–460

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Table1(continued) AuthorSampleAge(M)GoalconstructOtherconstructsMethodMainresults Dicksonand MacLeod (2006)

111Australian adolescents16–18(16.7)Content:GoalsTask(seeDickson& MacLeod,2004a)BDIParticipants assignedto dysphoricornon- dysphoricgroups. Cross-sectional questionnaires completedin school

Dysphoricadolescentreportedfewer approachgoalsandmoreavoidancegoalsthan controls,morereasonsforgoalnon- attainment,fewerreasonsforgoalattainment, ratedapproachoutcomesaslesslikelyto happen,aversiveoutcomesasmorelikelyto happen,andexpectedlowerpersonalcontrol overgoalsthancontrols

Process:GoalsExplanationTask. GoallikelihoodTask(1–7).Personal ControlTask(1–7).75stimelimit perquestion Dubowetal. (2001)

95American adolescents:59%non- Caucasian

Grade6–8Process:Expectationsforpositive outcomeson8goalitems,rated1–5

GlobalSelf-Worthscale, problemsolvingefﬁcacy, peerandfamilysupport, peersubstanceuse, perceivedpeersexual behavior,peerpressureto engageinsubstanceuse, HealthandDailyLiving- YouthForm

T1:SeptemberNosignificantrelationshipsbetween demographicvariablesandfutureoutcome expectations.HigherT1problemsolving efficacyandfamilysupportreportedhigher positivefutureexpectationsatT2.HigherT1 negativepeerinfluenceswasrelatedtolower futureexpectationsatT2.Anincreasein futureexpectationsbetweenT1andT2was negativelyrelatedtoproblembehaviorbutno othervariables

T2:June Questionnaires completedin schools GordonRouse (2001)

64CaucasianAmerican adolescents.17 resilient,19non- resilient,19 advantagedhigh achievers,9 advantagedlow achievers

Grade10Content:AssessmentofPersonal AgencyBeliefs(APAB):72goalitems (1–7).AssessmentofAcademicSelf- ConceptandMotivation(AASCM): 80schoolandself-itemsratedon importance(1–7)

Hollingsheadindex(SES), stress,GPA,Assessmentof AcademicSelf-Conceptand Motivation

Student categorization: resilient:lowSES highGPA;non- resilient:lowSES lowGPA; advantaged achievers:high SEShighGPA; advantagedlow achievers:high SESlowGPA

Nodifferencesingoals.Advantagedachievers scoredhigherthanresilientstudentson cognitive-ability/environmental responsiveness/controlbeliefs,social-ability/ control,andpersonaltrust-abilitysubscales. Advantagedstudentsscoredhigherthanlow SESstudentsoncognitive-importance,and social-environmentalresponsiveness/ importancesubscales

Process:APAB&AASCMitemsrated onabilityandenvironmental support,andAASCMratedoncontrol GrantandDweck (2001)KoreanandAmerican adolescentsGrade5Content:AcademicgoalsAttributionsforacademic setbacksKoreanstudentsendorsedtoagreaterextent performancegoalswhileAmericanstudents endorsedamorelearningorientation.Korean studentsmadegreatereffortattributions comparedtoAmericanstudents

Process:effortattributionsand responsestosetbacks:agreement withstatementsrated Hilletal.(2004)463American adolescents,83% EuropeanAmerican, 16%AfricanAmerican, 1%Other

Grade7–11Content:Expectations/Aspirations measure(grade11).Educational goals(chanceofgraduatinghigh- schoolandgoingtocollege,4-point scale).Occupationalgoals (occupationtheywishedtohave whentheygrowup,assigned prestigescore)

Grade6:academic achievementAnnual longitudinalstudy fromkindergarten uptograde11. Adolescents interviewedin grade7and11, mothers interviewedin grade7.Teacher completed questionnairesin grade7and8

Higherparentaleducationwasrelatedto highereducationalaspirationsbutnotto higheroccupationalaspirations.Forparents withloweducation,academicinvolvement wasrelatedtohigheradolescentaspirations. Forparentswithhigheducation,involvement wasrelatedtoschoolbehavior,whichinturn wasrelatedtoachievementandaspirations

Grade7:SES,parent– teacherinvolvement (teacher,adolescentand mother) Grade8:Schoolbehavior problems(teacher). Grade9:academic achievement

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Henryetal. (2005)

106American adolescents:79.5% Caucasian,9%African- American

T1:Grade6&7 (12.35)

Process:beliefsregardingeffectof substanceuseongoals:9statements ratedonagreement(1–4)

Schoolbonding,substance use

Longitudinal studywith4time- point measurements over2years

Greaterschoolbondingwasrelatedtothe perceptionthatsubstanceuseisdetrimental tofuturegoals,whichinturnwasnegatively relatedtoactualuse.Evidenceformediation. Perceptionofrisktogoalsdecreaseswithage. Asschoolbondingdecreasesovertime,so doestheirperceptionofrisktogoals Hoferand Chasiotis (2003)

120GwembeTonga Zambianboys12–21Content:GOALSquestionnaire:24 intimacy,afﬁliation,altruism,power, achievementandvariationgoals ratedonimportance(1–5)

SatisfactionwithLifeScale (SWLS),Implicitmotives: ThematicApperception Test(TAT)assessedthemes ofpower,achievementand afﬁliation

GoalsandSWLS reportedusing self-report questionnaires. TATconductedin groups

Greaterimportanceoflifegoalswasrelatedto greaterlifesatisfaction.Congruencebetween implicitneedsandexplicitgoalsisassociated withhigherlifesatisfaction(exceptforpower motives) Honora(2002)16AfricanAmerican adolescents14–16Process:FutureEventsListing: hopedforeventsreportedandrated onextensionandaffect.Interview exploredgoals,plans,inﬂuenceof others,goalsothershaveforthem, andtemporalextension

Parentalquestionnaire: ethnicity,education, income,family composition,occupation, GPA

Parental information collectedby telephone interviews. Youthscompleted goals questionnaire, Interviewerthen explored inﬂuenceofsocial factors

Girlsreportedagreaternumberofeducation, employmentandfamilygoals.Boysreported moresport/leisuregoals.Differencesingoals foundaccordingtoachievementstatus(high/ low).Higherachieversreportgreater discussionofgoalsandsupportfromfamily Jodletal.(2001)444African-and European-American adolescentsand parents

Grade7Content:Occupationalaspirations (open-endedquestionsduring interviews,codedfortypeof occupation,professionalorathletic). Educationalaspirations:2items, ‘‘Howfarwillyouactuallygoin school”?,and‘‘Howfarwouldyou liketogoinschool”?Occupational goalscodedfororganization, coherenceandconsistency

Parents:education, occupationandincome, chancesforyouthpositive outcomes,educational expectations/goalsfor child,child’sacademicand sportingability, involvementinand instrumentalsupportfor studyandsport,fathers’ involvementincoaching

Questionnaires andinterviews conductedin participants’ homes.Cross- sectionaldata fromanongoing longitudinalstudy

Highparentaleducationalgoalsandgreater identificationwithmotherswererelatedto higheradolescenteducationalgoals. Identificationwithparentsdidnotmoderate betweenparents’andadolescentsbeliefs. Influenceofparentalvaluesandoccupational goalsonadolescents’professional occupationalgoalsweremediatedby adolescents’educationalgoals.Parents’beliefs regardingsportingabilityandtalentwere relatedtogreatersportingprofessiongoals, alongwithadolescents’ownbeliefsofability andvalue.Influenceofparents’beliefsand behaviorsonadolescents’goalswasdomain specific

Adolescents:perceived academicability,valueof educationforfuture, identiﬁcationwithparents Kao(2000)63American adolescents:33 Hispanic,15African- American,16 Caucasian,8Asian,2 Other

Grade9–12Content:possibleselvesEthnicidentity development,ethniclabels andassociatedmeanings, ethnicrelationsinschool, conceptionsofsuccess

Groupdiscussion of6to8 participants. Individual interviewsseveral monthslater

Ethnicgroupmembershipandrespective stereotypessuggestedtoimpactupon formationandacceptabilityofpossibleselves/ goals(e.g.,byinﬂuencingcompetencybeliefs andexpectedstandardsofachievement)and subsequentacademicachievement (continuedonnextpage) E.K. Massey et al. / Developmental Review 28 (2008) 421–460

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Table1(continued) AuthorSampleAge(M)GoalconstructOtherconstructsMethodMainresults KasserandRyan (1993, Study3)

157American adolescents:67% White,31%African American,1%Hispanic, 1%Other

18Content:AspirationsIndex:14self- acceptance,afﬁliation,community feelingandﬁnancialsuccess aspirationsratedonimportance

Socialfunctioning: Children’sGlobal AssessmentScale, Oppositionalandconduct disorders:Diagnostic InterviewforChildrenand Adolescents,Social productivity:Community MentalHealthInterview

Adolescentand parentswere interviewedand completed questionnaires separatelyon university premises

Agreateremphasisonafﬁliation,community feelingandself-acceptancegoalswasrelated tobetterpsychologicalandsocialfunctioning. Agreateremphasisonﬁnancialgoalswas relatedtopoorerpsychologicalandsocial functioningProcess:itemsratedonchancesof attainment(1–4) Kasseretal. (1995)140American adolescentsand mothers.67%White, 31%AfricanAmerican, 2%Other

18Content:Aspirationsindex(see Kasser&Ryan,1993)completedby adolescent&mother

Mother:SES,Camberwell FamilyInterview,Parental StyleSurvey(warmth, controlanddemocracy), KohnParentValues(self- directionversus conformity)

Motherand adolescents interviewed separately

Girlsreportedhigherimportanceofself- acceptance,communityfeelingandaffiliation goals.Maternalvalueoffinancialsuccesswas relatedtolowernurturanceandlowerSES. LowerSESwasrelatedtomorefinancialgoals. GreatermaternalnurturanceandhigherSES wasrelatedtovaluingself-acceptanceabove financialsuccess Kerpelmanetal. (2002)

22AfricanAmerican daughter–motherpairs 14–17Content:Mother&daughter separately:Expectedpossibleselves forthenext5years:3mostexpected possibleselvesreported.Mother& daughtertogether:41itemQsort (leasttomostexpectedselves) Mother:age,maritalstatus, employmentstatus,levelof education,familyincome, numberofdependents

Individual interviews conducted,and togethertheQ sortwas completed.Study conductedon schoolpremises

Possibleselvesthemes:gettingacollege education,employment,beingresponsible andindependentyetsociallyconnectedand morallyupstanding.Motherswerepractically andemotionallysupportiveofdaughters’goal pursuit.Highermaternaleducationrelatedto greaterdetailandbroaderrangingstrategies toassisttheirdaughterpursuetheirgoalsProcess:plansforgoalattainment Khallad(2000)156USCaucasianand 193Palestinian adolescents

Grade10Content:educationaland occupationalaspirationsFamilysupport,SESQuestionnaires administeredto high-school studentsin Californiaand Jordan

EducationalaspirationsofUSandPalestinian adolescentsweresimilar.MorePalestinian youthsthanUSyouthsheldhighoccupational goals.SESwaspositivelyrelatedto educationalgoals(particularlyingirls)butnot occupationalgoals Klaczynskiand Reese(1991)

83CaucasianAmerican adolescents

15–17(15.8), 17–19(17.6)

Content:ShortformofMotivational InductionMethod:‘‘Ihope(for/ to)...”,‘‘Iamafraidthat...”.Ratedon importance(1–4).Goalcategories: social,adultanticipationandcareer anticipation Values,controlbeliefs, decisionmaking

Cross-sectional questionnaires completedin school

Goalscategorizedintosocial,adult anticipationandcareeranticipationgoals. Evidencefoundforinﬂuenceofeducational trackandgradeongoalcontent Process:temporalextension(age), probabilityofattainment(1–3) Knoxetal.(2000)212American adolescents:203 Caucasian,3African American,3Hispanic, 1Asian,2Other

14–19(16.4)Content:Hoped-forandFeared PossibleSelvesQuestionnaire:hopes andfearslisted

Parentsoccupation, mother’seducation,Self- perceptionProﬁlefor AdolescentsGlobalSelf- worth

Studentsin randomlyselected classesfrom5 high-schoolsﬁlled outcross- sectional questionnaires duringschool hours

Nogenderdifferenceswerefoundinhopedfor selves.Girlsreportedmorerelationshipfears whileboysmentionedmoreoccupationaland failurefears.Girlsscoredhigheronlikelihood ofrealizingfearedselvesadesireforhopedfor selves

Process:likelihoodofrealization (1–7)andhopedfor/fearedrating (1–4)

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LanzandRosnati (2002)

125Italianlate adolescents,126 Italianyoungadults

17–19 20–25

Content:HopesandFears Questionnaire.Densityscores calculated

Parent–AdolescentSupport Scale,Self-esteemScale, SenseofCoherenceScale

Questionnaires administeredin high-schooland universitiesin NorthernItaly

Girlsreportedahigherdensityoffamilygoals. Olderadolescentsreportedhigherdensityof workgoalsandlowerdensityofschoolgoals. Hopesexpectedtobefulﬁlledby3rddecade, fearsbythe4thdecade.Senseofcoherence waspositivelyrelatedtooptimismforhopes. Forgirls,parentalsupportwaspositively relatedtooptimismforhopesandnegatively relatedtooptimismforfears

Process:temporalextension(age), external/internalcontrol(1–4),level ofrealization(1–5)usedtoconstruct indexofoptimism Lanzetal.(2001)482Italian adolescents,361 fathersand394 mothers

12–20(14.9)Content:Hopesandfears(total score,numberoflifedomains, salience,relativescore,numberof domainssharedwithparents)

Parent–adolescent communicationscale, parents’hopesandfearsfor theirchildren

Questionnaires completedin schoolsin1997. Adolescentstook parents’ questionnaires home,tobe returnedin10–14 days

Parents‘andadolescents’temporalextension forgoalswasaround30yearsofage. Adolescentshadgreaterinternalcontrol beliefsforworkandschoolthantheirparents didforthem.Adolescentsweremore pessimisticaboutprobabilityofrealization thantheirparents.Betterfather–daughter communicationwasrelatedtogreatergirls’ optimism.Bettermother–adolescent communicationwasrelatedtomoreinternal control

Process:temporalextension(age), internal/externalattribution(1–4), probabilityofactualization(1–5) Liberska(2002)180Polishadolescents13–18Content:‘‘Couldyoupleasetellme aboutyourplansforthefuture,what areyourgoalsandexpectations”? Ratedonimportance(1–4)

Longitudinal study(during changefrom socialismto democracy).60 youths interviewedin 1987,1991,and 1999

Family,professionandmaterialgoalsreported bythemajorityatalltimepoints.Goalssuch aspermanentemployment,health preservation,andhighincomeincreasedover time.Temporalextensionincreasedbetween timepoints.‘Culturalprototype’oforderingof goalswassupported

Process:temporalextension(age) Lips(2004, Study2)713undergrads,447 adolescents.83% CaucasianAmerican

Freshmen–seniors (19.8),Grade9–12 (16.7)

Content:LipsAcademicSelf-View Survey:30current&16future academicpossibleselvesratedthe extenttowhichtheitemrepresents theperson(1–5)

Cross-sectional questionnaires werecompleted inschool/ university

Currentandpossibleselvesfollowgendered stereotypes(e.g.,girlsscorehigheronarts/ communication/culturewhileboysscore higheronmath/business/science) Malmberg(2002)145Finnish adolescents12–18(15.5)Process:Outcomeexpectations measuredbyprobabilityestimations (1–5)of12goalsoccurring (education,occupation,familylife)

Self-esteem,effortlessness (goalattainmentwithout effort),non-effectiveness (probablenon-attainment despiteeffort)

Questionnaires completedin schoolsin1996

Probabilityestimationsforoccupationand educationdippedingrade9.Attainmentof familygoalsreportedasmostprobable, followedbyeducationthenoccupation.Self- esteempositivelypredictededucationaland familybutnotoccupationalgoalexpectations. Forgirlslowself-esteemwasrelatedtohigh non-effectivenessandhigheffortlessness. Highnon-effectivenesspredictedlow occupationalgoalexpectations (continuedonnextpage) E.K. Massey et al. / Developmental Review 28 (2008) 421–460

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Table1(continued) AuthorSampleAge(M)GoalconstructOtherconstructsMethodMainresults Malmbergetal. (2005)

239Finland–Swedish adolescents,197 parents

11–13, 14–16

Content:16career,family,andsocial goalsratedonimportance(1–4)

Familyinteraction: choicefulnessandparental engagement

Cross-sectional questionnaires completedin schools.Parental questionnaires takenhomeand returnedone weeklater

Norelationshipfoundbetweenparents’and adolescentsgoals.Girlsreportedgoalsasless importantandlesslikelytooccur.Noage differencesfound.Adolescentperceptionof familyinteractionmediatedbetweenparental probabilityestimationsandadolescent probabilityestimationsandgoals

Process:ratedonlikelihoodof occurrencebyadolescentsand parents(1–4) Malmbergand Norrgård (1999)

57Finland–Swedish adolescents12–15(13.7)Content:‘lifepaths’fromthepast, presentandintothefuture completedfor‘currentself’and ‘averageperson’

Rosenberg’sSelf-Esteem Scale(5items).Optimism: probabilityestimationsof lifetasks

Session1: participants completedlife pathsandother questionnaires. Session2: participants interviewedon theirlifepaths reportinsession1

Developmentaltasksandpersonalgoalsshow substantialthematicoverlap.Girlsreported morenormativetasksandpersonalgoalsthan boys.Girlsreportedagreaternumberof familygoalsthanboys.Positiveeducational andfamilygoalsincreasedwithage. Likelihoodofrealizationwascorrelatedwith self-esteemandoptimism

Process:Eventsratedfor commonness,likelihoodof realization,successcomparedto others,likelihoodofnegativeevents happening,similarityofevents Malmbergand Trempała (1997)

194Finnish,158Polish adolescents17Process:probabilityofsuccessful achievementoffamily,occupation andeducationgoals(0–6).Control overgoalrealization(0–4).Temporal extension

Rosenberg’sself-esteem scale,generational comparisonbetween expectationsforownand parentslifepaths

Cross-sectional questionnaires completedin schoolbetween November1994 andJanuary1995

Gender,educationaltrack,andcultural inﬂuencesfoundonadolescents’expectations ofsuccess,extensionofgoals,perceptionof realizationabilities,perceptionofcontrolover thefutureandtemporalextension.Self- esteemwaspositivelycorrelatedwith probabilityofsuccessfulgoalattainment Marjoribanks (1991)400Australian adolescents.211 Anglo-Australian,97 Greekand92Italian

16Content:Educationaland occupationalaspirations:levelof educationexpectedto/wouldliketo attain(7-pointscale)andwhatjob theyexpectedtohave/wouldliketo havewhen25yearsold(occupations rankedonprestige)

Familybackground characteristics,mothers’ andfathers’supportfor learning,school environment

Interviews conductedin homes

Correlationsbetweenfamilyandschool environmentvariablesandeducationaland occupationalaspirationsshowvariations accordingtosocialgroup(deﬁnedby ethnicity,genderandSES).Ingeneralparents’ supportwasmoderatelyrelatedto educationalaspirations,andtooccupational aspirationsforallbut2groups Marjoribanks (1993)632Australian adolescents16Content:Educationaland occupationalaspirations:expected toattain(7-pointscale)andwhatjob theyexpectedtohavewhen25years old(rank)

Perceptionsoffamily learningenvironment (parentalaspirationsfor them,encouragement, generalinterest)

Maternalsupportpositivelyrelatedto educationalandoccupationalaspirationsin Anglo-AustralianandGreekAustralianyouths (notinItalianAustralianyouths).Fathers supportwasnotrelatedtoadolescents’ aspirations

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Marjoribanks (1994a)330Australian adolescentsT1:11T2:educationallevelandoccupation liked(open)andexpected(1–7)to haveatage25

T1:Cognitiveabilityand attitudesLongitudinal studyAdolescenteducationalandoccupational goalswerepositivelyrelatedtosocialstatus attainment.Thisrelationshipwasmediatedby ability-attitudecharacteristicsT2:16T2:perceptionsofparents’ andteachers’supportfor learning T3:21T3:social-status attainment Marjoribanks (1994b,1994c, 1997,1998, 1999,2003b, 2003d)

500–520Australian adolescents,Anglo-, English-,Greek-,and Italian-Australians

T1:11T2:Content:educationalgoals: educationalleveltheyrealistically expectedtoattain(1–7). Occupationalgoals:whatjobthey realisticallyexpectedtohaveat25 (1–8,orcodedaccordingto AustralianNationalUniversity3 Scale)

T1:Childattributes: intellectualability, academicachievement, cognitiveattitudestowards school.Birthorderand numberofchildren.Human capital:parents’education andoccupationSocial capital:involvementin activitiesandpraiseof children.Family educationalcapital: parents’aspirationsfor theirchildren,pressfor achievement,independent- dependentorientation (encouragementofself- relianceandindependence) individualism-collectivism, reading

Follow-upto Marjoribanks (1992).Firstand secondwavedata ofalongitudinal studystarting whenadolescents were11yearsold. Parental- interviews conductedatT1, adolescents completed surveysatT2

1994b:parents’andteachers’supportfor learningwasrelatedtoadolescentgoals. Relationshipbetweensiblingvariablesand goalsdependedonhumanandsocialcapital

T2:16 T2:Immediatesetting (parents’andteachers’ supportforlearning, encouragement,general interest,adolescents perceptionofparents’ involvementinlearning andaspirations),Teachers’ educationalcapitaland supportforlearning

1994c:Parents’involvementwasrelatedto highereducationalandoccupationalgoals, especiallyinboys.Relationshipsdependedon environmentalcontext 1997:Highparentalaspirationswererelated tohighadolescentgoals.Inﬂuenceoffamily contextongoalswas(partially)mediatedby perceptionofparentalandteachersupport 1998:humanandfamilyeducationcapital wasrelatedtoadolescentgoals.Relationships betweenfamilycontext,individualattributes andgoalswere(partially)mediatedby perceptionofparentalsupport 1999:parents’socialstatusandaspirations moderatedeffectofadolescents’individual characteristicsongoals.Perceptionsof parents’andteachers’educationalcapital mediatedbetweenfamilycontextsand adolescentgoals.Relationshipsvaryaccording togenderandfamilycontext 2003b:Parents’aspirationsandadolescents’ perceptionsoflearningenvironmentwere positivelyrelatedtoadolescents’goals. Relationshipsbetweenenvironmentandgoals differedaccordingtointellectualability- familysocialstatus 2003d:Familysocialstatuswaspositively relatedtoadolescentgoals.Goalsvaried accordingtoethnicgroup.Parental individualisticorientationwasnot signiﬁcantlyrelatedtogoals (continuedonnextpage) E.K. Massey et al. / Developmental Review 28 (2008) 421–460

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Table1(continued) AuthorSampleAge(M)GoalconstructOtherconstructsMethodMainresults Marjoribanks (2002a,2002b, 2003a,2003c)

2002a:7780 2002b:3512 2003b:7248 2003d:8322 Australianadolescents

1995:Year91995,1996,1997&2000:expected educationalattainment(educational goals)measuredona6-pointscale. 1=leaveschoolassoonaspossible; 6=attenduniversity

1995:Familysocialstatus (parents’educationaland occupationalattainments), perceptionofparents’ aspirations,family ethnicity,individual characteristics(mathand readingachievement, academicself-concept), proximalsettings (perceivedschoollearning environment)

Longitudinal Studyof AustralianYouth. Measurements takeneveryyear from1995to2000

2002a:Educationgoalspositivelyrelatedto familysocialstatus,academicperformance, self-concept(dependingonethnicity),family andschoolenvironment,variedaccordingto ethnicityandweregenerallyhigheringirls. Occupationalgoalswerepositivelyrelatedto highersocialstatusandbeingmale,and variedaccordingtoethnicity.Academic performanceandself-conceptwerepositively relatedtooccupationalgoalsandmediated relationbetweensocialstatusandgoals. Proximalsettingswereunrelatedto occupationalgoals1996:Academicself- concept,proximalsettings (perceivedschooland familylearning environment

2002b:Socialstatusandparents’aspirations weresigniﬁcantlyrelatedtoadolescent educationalandoccupationalgoals(stronger foreducation).Academicperformanceand self-conceptweregenerallypositivelyrelated togoals.Proximalsettingswerepositively relatedtoeducationalgoals.Individual characteristicsandproximalsettings (partially)mediatedbetweenfamilycontext andaspirations

2000:(20.2) 1996:occupationalgoals: occupationsplannedtoachieverated ona10-pointscale 2000:Educational attainment 2003a:Educationgoalsatﬁrstthree measurementswerepositivelyrelatedto educationalattainmentin2000.Relationships betweenaspirationsandattainmentdiffer accordingtoethnicity 2003c:Highparentalaspirationswere positivelyrelatedtoadolescents’aspirations (regardlessofsocialstatus).Adolescentgoals (1996/1997)werepositivelyrelated educationalattainment.Inlowaspiration familiesthisrelationshipwasweaker.Social statusandparents’aspirationsmoderated relationshipbetweenadolescentgoalsand educationalattainment MauandBikos (2000)

14,915Asian, Hispanic,Africanand CaucasianAmerican adolescents

T0grade8, T1grade10, T2grade12, T32yearslater

Content:Collegeaspirationscoded ascollege/non-college.Occupational aspirationsexpectedorplannedto havebyage30.Codedasunskilled– semiskilled/technical- semiprofessional/professional

Self-esteem,locusof control,academicself- efﬁcacy,perceivedparental expectations,parental schoolinvolvement, numberofsiblings, academicproﬁciency, academicprogram,school setting,sizeandtype

Athree-wave longitudinalstudy startingin1988

Schoolprogram,schooltype,raceandgender werethestrongestpredictorsofoccupational andeducationalaspirationsatT3.Aspirations signiﬁcantlyincreasedwithtime.Overallthe highestaspirationswereobservedintheAsian Americangroup,andlowestintheHispanic Americangroup.Girlshadhigheraspirations thanboys

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McCabeand Barnett(2000)72AfricanAmerican adolescentsGrade6(12.4)Content:FutureOrientation Interviewoncareer,family,and romanticrelationshipgoals

FutureEvents QuestionnaireCross-sectional design.Interviews conducted individuallyand questionnaires completedin smallgroups

Adolescentsreportcareergoalsingreater detail,andmoreoptimism,realism,control beliefsforcareergoalsthanfamilyand romanticrelationshipgoals.Nogender differencesfoundforcareer,romanticand familyrelationshipgoals(details,optimism, pessimismandcontrolbeliefs)

Process:self-attributedoptimism andpessimism,controlbeliefs, detail,implicitoptimism,implicit pessimismandrealism MirzaandSomers (2004)476American adolescents:82% Caucasian,18% Middle-Eastern American

14–20(16.2)Process:2itemsoneducationgoals2 itemsontheimpacthavingachild wouldhaveonattainingthesegoals Agreementwithstatementrated(1– 5)

Realismregardingchild- rearingresponsibility, parentandpeerapprovalof teenagedpregnancy, academicperformance (grades)

Realismandothers’acceptanceofteen pregnancycontributedtoagreater understandingoftheimpedimenthavinga childwouldbeoneducationalgoals.Gender, ethnicityandachievementcontributedto futureorientation Newberryand Duncan(2001)418adolescents:96.5% Caucasian,1.5%African American,2%Other

14–18(15.6)Content:PossibleSelvesBoredomPronenessScale, Self-ReportedDelinquency Scale

Cross-sectional questionnaires completedin school, participants receiveda debrieﬁngletter fortheirparents

Nogenderdifferenceswerefoundinnumber ofpositiveandnegativeselves.Greater negativeandfewerpositiveselveswere relatedtodelinquentbehavior

Questionnaire:‘‘Howprobablyisit thatthiswilldescribeyouinthe future”? Nurmi(1994, Study1)267adolescents11,15,&18Content:HopesandFearsInterview (Study1): Process:howadvancedplanswere, levelofrealizationofplans,and knowledgeaboutfactorsaffecting realization

T1in1982,T2in 1987.Interviews carriedoutin schoolsanddata comparedwith hopesandfearsof adults.(Onlydata onhopes presented)

Temporalorderforachievementwasas follows:getaneducation,getajob,get married,thenachieveproperty/materialgoals, extendingnofurtherthanthe3rddecadeof life.Ageandgenderdifferencesfoundingoal content,internalization,realizationand optimism Nurmietal. (1999)3250adolescentsfrom 11Europeancountries andtheUnitedStates

13–17Content:‘‘Whenyouthinkaboutthe future,whatdoyouconsideras beingimportanttoyou?”14items ratedonimportance(1–5)

Cross-sectional surveyconducted inschools.Partof theEuronetstudy

Olderadolescentsratedcareer,becoming successful,socialresponsibilityasless importantandsocialpleasureasmore important.Countryeffectsfoundforcareer, becomingsuccessful,family,social responsibility,andsocialpleasure.Girlsrated becomingsuccessfulaslessimportantand familyandsocialpleasureasmoreimportant comparedtoboys Nurmietal. (1994)367Australian&316 Finnishadolescents13–14, 16–17Content:HopesandFears Questionnaire:10linesallowedfor bothhopesandfears,relative frequencycalculatedperdomain

Rural/urbandwellingCross-sectional studycarriedout inschoolsin1991 inAustraliaand Finland

Expectedtemporalorderforgoalrealization: education,property,occupation,familyand leisuregoals.Longertemporalextensionfor youngeradolescents.Ethnicity,gender,age, andurbanversusarurallivingwerefoundto inﬂuenceonadolescentgoals

Process:temporalextension (continuedonnextpage)

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Table1(continued) AuthorSampleAge(M)GoalconstructOtherconstructsMethodMainresults Nurmietal. (1995)

120Australian,102 Finnish&46Israeli adolescents

16–17Content:HopesandFears Questionnaire,relativefrequency calculatedperdomain

Cross-sectional questionnaires completedduring schoolhoursin English,Finnishor Hebrew

Genderandcultureinﬂuencesongoals reported,e.g.,girlsreportedmoreeducational hopes,Israelisreportedtheleastproperty goals.Temporalextension,explorationand commitmentvariedaccordingtocountry. Girlsreportedgreaterexplorationand commitmentofeducationalgoalsthanboys

Process:temporalextension(age), explorationof,andcommitmentto educational,occupationalandfamily goals Nurmiand Pulliainen (1991)

113Finnish adolescents10–11,14–15Content:Interviewsonhopesand fearsParent–childinteraction: parentalcontrolandfamily discussion.Intelligence: ﬁgureanalogytest, Rosenberg’sSelf-Esteem Scale

Questionnaires completedin classrooms.1 weeklater individual interviews conducted regardinghopes, goalsandplans. Datacollectedin 1987

Moregirlsreportedfamilyandleisuregoals. Leisuregoalrelatedtoyoungerageandhigher parentalcontrol.Familygoalswererelatedto greaterfamilydiscussion.Educationalgoals wererelatedtoolderage,lowerparental control,higherintelligenceandhigherself- esteem.Temporalextensionwasgreaterfor boys.Planrealizationincreasedwithage

Process:optimism(1–5),temporal extension(age),plansforrealization andinternality(4–pointbipolar scale) Oysermanetal. (1995, Study3&4)

Study3:55African AmericanadolescentsStudy3:grade7& 8Study3:Process:participants assignedto1of3conditions:nocue, positiveornegativesocial comparisoncuethenratedlikelihood ofacademicsuccessinthenextyear (1–4)

Study3:—Study3: Participants dividedinto1of4 conditions (success/failure, similaror differenttosocial comparison)

Study3:Focusingonothers’successincreased ownsuccessestimationsforboys,focusingon others’failuresproducespessimismregarding futuresuccess.Forgirltheoppositewastrue Study4:55African AmericanadolescentsStudy4:grade8Study4:Content:achievement relatedpossibleselveselicitedand codedforbalance

Study4:GPA,California AchievementTestmath andEnglishsubtestscores, 5-itemschoolpersistence scale(completedby studentandteacher)

Study4:Cross- sectional questionnaires completedin classrooms

Study4:Girlsreportedmorebalancedselves thanboys.Balanceinpossibleselvespredicted schoolpersistence(boys),English&math performance,andGPA.Effectofbalance greaterforboys Oysermanand Saltz(1993)230AfricanAmerican boys:97non- delinquents,133 delinquents

13–17(15.3)Content:Importanceratingof6 possibleselves(1–5).Approach/ avoidanceexpectanciesforthe comingyear

Socialskills:Adolescent ProblemInventory. Delinquency:Youthin Transitionquestionnaire. Communicationskills, schoolattendance

Participants interviewedat school(one frequently attendedbythe boyspriorto incarceration)or detentioncentre. Datacollectedin 1989

Non-delinquentsfoundmorelikelytohave balancedpossibleselves,investeffortto achieveoravoidexpectedselves,value individuatedandachievement-orientedgoals. Balanceinpossibleselvesandattemptsto achievepossibleselveswererelatedtosome delinquentbehaviors

Process:expected/fearedselves balance,achievementplans Patton,Bartrum,& Creed(2004)467Australian adolescents12.5–18.5(14.96)Content:levelofagreementto6 statementsregardingcareergoals, e.g.,‘‘Ihaveaclearsetofgoalsformy future”(1–5)

CareerDevelopment Inventory,career expectations(careerlocus ofcontrol),LifeOrientation Test-Revised,Rosenberg Self-EsteemScale

Self-report questionnaires completedin schools

Careergoalsrelatedtocareerplanningand exploration.Forgirls,careergoalswere predictedbyoptimism.Forboys,optimism andself-esteempredictedcareerexpectations whichinturnpredictedcareergoals

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Phinneyetal. (2001)81Armenian,47 Vietnamese,88 Mexican,95European, 60AfricanAmerican adolescents 12–18(14.8)Content:‘‘Ifyoucoulddoanything youwantedwithyourlife,what wouldyoumostwanttodoandbe”?

Adolescent:ethnicitybirth place,andifnecessaryage ofarrivalinUSA

Allparticipants bornormovedto theUSAbeforethe ageof7. Participants recruitedin schoolsandsent questionnaireand consentpacksto theirhomewith returnenvelope

Nosigniﬁcantdifferencesfoundingoal contentandattainmentexpectationsbetween Americanethnicgroups.EuropeanAmericans attributedgoalsuccessmoretoability; Americanminorityadolescentsattributed goalsuccesstomoreeffort

Process:expectedoutcome(positive, uncertain,negative),attributionsfor expectedoutcomes(effort,ability externalfactors)

Parent:occupation, education,language Pikoand Keresztes (2006)

1109Hungarian adolescents14–21(16.5)Content:AspirationsIndex:intrinsic (self-acceptance,afﬁliation, communityfeelingandphysical health)andextrinsic(ﬁnancial success,attractiveappearanceand socialrecognition)goalsratedfor importance(1–5)

Physicalactivity, SatisfactionWithLifeScale, PsychosomaticSymptoms Scale,Children’sDepression Inventory

Datacollected anonymouslyin schools

Studentsdividedintoinfrequentandfrequent activitygroups.Lessactiveyouthswere signiﬁcantlyhigherontheextrinsicgoalsof ﬁnancialsuccess,physicalhealth,attractive appearanceandsocialrecognition Pinquartetal. (2004)T1:1234German adolescents T2:980T3:867

T1:(13.7)Process:extenttowhich5 developmentaltaskshadbeen achieved(1–3),desiredstateof development(1–3).Changeinstate codedasassimilative, accommodative,goal-heighteningor state-diminishingforall5tasks

Self-esteemQuestionnaires completedin school. Longitudinal designovera2 yearperiod

Decreasingtheideal-currentstatediscrepancy wasrelatedtogreaterself-esteem,goal adjustmentwasnotrelatedtoself-esteem changes.Areductionincurrentgoal attainmentwasrelatedtoadecreaseinself- esteem Raineyand Borders(1997)276Americangirls andmothers:96% Caucasian

12–15(13)Content:CareerAspirationScale: accuracyof10itemsrated(1–5)OccupationalCheckList, InventoryofParentand PeerAttachment,GPA, PsychologicalSeparation Inventory,BemSex-role Inventory,Attitudes TowardsWomenScalefor Adolescents

Schoolcouncilors posted questionnaires andconsentforms tomothersof7th and8thgrade girls.Participating adolescents completed questionnairesin groupsatschool

Girlswhoaspiretoleadershipandadvanced positionsintheircareerstypicallyaremore assertive,dominantandindependent.Levelof attachment,psychologicalseparationand agenticcharacteristicsinﬂuencedgirls’career aspirations Rojewskiand Yang(1997)18,311American adolescents:Asian, African,Hispanic, CaucasianandOther American

Grade8,10and12Content:Educationalgoals: educationleveltheythoughtthey wouldachieve(9-pointscale). Occupationalgoals:jobexpectedto haveatage30chosenfromalistof 17categories.Codedaccordingto SocioeconomicIndex

SES,ethnicity,Rosenberg’s Self-esteemscale,locusof control,academic achievement

Threedata collectionpoints ofanational, longitudinalstudy (NELS:88 database)

Femalesendorsedhighereducationaland occupationalgoalsthanboysatallthreetime points.Gender,raceandSESallwererelated tooccupationalgoals.ParticularlySESwas stronglyrelated.Effectsdecreasedwith increasingage.Academicachievementand self-evaluation(self-esteemandlocusof control)werepositivelyandconsistently relatedtooccupationalaspirations (continuedonnextpage) E.K. Massey et al. / Developmental Review 28 (2008) 421–460

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Table1(continued) AuthorSampleAge(M)GoalconstructOtherconstructsMethodMainresults Schmuck(2001, Study1, sample4)

76German adolescentsand61 parents

(18.4)Content:AspirationsIndex:32 intrinsic(self-acceptance,afﬁliation, communityfeeling)andextrinsic (ﬁnancialsuccess,socialrecognition andattractiveappearance)goal itemsratedforimportance(1–5)

Self-ActualizationScale, SubjectiveVitalityScale, physicalsymptoms checklist,StateTrait Inventory,CenterFor EpidemiologicalStudies DepressionSurvey

Self-report questionnaires completedat homeorduring experimental sessions

Adolescentsreportedmoreintrinsicgoals thanextrinsicgoals,althoughtheyattached greaterimportancetoﬁnancialgoalsthan adults.Endorsementofintrinsicgoalswas correlatedwithhigherwell-beingwhereas endorsementofextrinsicgoalswasassociated withlowerwell-being Schönpﬂugand Jansen(1995)192Polish&157 Germanadolescents14–15Content:Importanceofautonomy, preparationforprofession,andan opposite-sexrelationshiprated(1–3)

Preferenceforaction (coping)strategies, persistenceofpreference forstrategies,self-as-agent beliefs:self-esteem,self- efﬁcacyandlocusofcontrol

Alongitudinal questionnaire studywith measurementsin 1986,1987,and 1988conducted anonymouslyin schools

Highself-as-agentbeliefsareassociatedwith moreactive,self-reliantstrategiesofgoal pursuit.Inalllifegoals(exceptautonomy), highself-as-agentbeliefswereassociated withgreaterachievementofgoals.Gender differencesfoundinattainmentstrategiesfor autonomyandprofessionalgoals

Process:urgencyanddevelopmental state(1–3)Codedinto developmentaldemand(3to+3) Schoon(2001)7649British adolescentsand parents

1974:16Content:Occupationalaspirations: ‘‘Whatwouldyouliketobeyourﬁrst full-timejob”?codedinto professions(scientist,health professionalorengineer)

1974:Personality attributesandparental interestinchild’s education,scientiﬁcability, MathematicalAbilityTest, familybackground,school environment

Longitudinal study,data presentedatage 16(1974)and33 (1991)

Occupationalaspirationswererelatedto gender,parentaleducation,parentalinterest ineducation,teacherandself-abilityratings, actualmathematicalability,andschooltype. Realizationofaspirationsisrelatedto(among otherthings)earlieraspirations.Datafrom mostrecentmeasurementover15yearsoldat timeofpublishing1991:331991:Realizationof occupationalgoals Schoonand Parsons(2002)11016(1958cohort) 6417(1970cohort) Britishadolescents

T1:16T2:26 (1970cohort),33 (1958cohort)

Content:Occupationalaspirations: 1958cohort:‘‘whatdoyouexpectto beyourﬁrstfull-timejob”?1970 cohort:choicefromalistof professionsEducationalaspirations: agelikelytoleaveschool,andfurther educationwishes

Educationalachievement (T1),socialclass(T1), materialconditions (overcrowding,housing tenure,statebeneﬁts, parentalaspirations, occupationalattainmentat T2)

Follow-upstudy oftwoBritish cohortsbornin 1958and1970. Datafromwhen participantswere 16(1974and 1986)and33 (1991)and26 (1996)

Effectofparentalsocialclassonoccupational attainmentwasmediatedbyteenage aspirationsandeducationalattainmentfor bothcohorts.Highparentalaspirationswere relatedtohighadolescentaspirations.High occupationalattainmentwaspredictedby highteenagedaspirations.Socialclasswas foundtoinﬂuenceaspirationsviaproximal familyandmaterialconditions Schoonetal. (2007)9519(1958cohort) 8481(1970cohort) Britishadolescents

T1:16T2:30 (1970cohort),33 (1958cohort)

Content:Occupationalaspirations. 1958cohort:‘‘whatwouldyoulike tobeyourﬁrstfull-timejob”?1970 cohort:‘‘isthereanactualjobyou wouldliketodo”?

Familybackground, individualassets,adult occupationalstatus

Comparisonof twoBritish cohortsbornin 1958and1970. Datapresented fromwavesat ages16and30/33

Adolescentsaged16whoheldscience, engineeringortechnology(SET)related occupationalaspirationsweremorelikelyto haveSET-relatedjobsasadults;thiseffectwas particularlyfoundinwomen

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Schvaneveldt,Lee, Miller,Berry (2002) 1145American adolescentsandparentT1:7–11Content:numberofyearsatschool hopedforandexpected(1–5) measuredatT2&T3 Adolescent,allwaves: Perceivedacademicrank, educationalachievement

Longitudinal designwith measurementsin 1976,1981and 1987.Facetoface andtelephone interviews conducted

Highereducationalgoalswererelatedto delayedﬁrstsexualintercourse.Sexually inexperiencedadolescentsreportedhigher educationalgoals.Thosewhoremained inexperiencedatT3hadhighereducational goals.Sexualexperiencewasrelatedtolower concurrentscoresoneducationalvariables. Noneofthevariablespredictedageofﬁrst sexualintercourseofBlackmales

T2:12–17 T2:Interestinschool, Englishproﬁciency,T3:Age atﬁrstsexualintercourse

T3:18–22 Parent:T1:Education, expectationsforchild’s education.T1&2:Child’s academicachievement Seginer(1992)124IsraeliadolescentsGrade9(15.1), Grade12(17.9), undergraduate girls(22.5)

Content:FutureOrientation Questionnaire.Hopesandfears codedforsalience(sumofhopesand fears),density(rationumberofgoals perdomaintototalnumberofgoals), speciﬁcity(concretenessof statements),positiveoutlook(ratio hopestototalgoals),differentiation (numberofdomainsendorsed)

Datacollected duringclassesin 1989.Goals categorizedand codedby2 research assistants

Salienceanddensityofschoolgoalshigherfor youngergirls.Salienceanddensityhigherin oldergirlsforhighereducationgoals.College studentsreportedhighersalienceanddensity offamilygoalsandgreaterspeciﬁcityof educationandcareergoals.Nosigniﬁcantage differencesforemotionaltoneofgoalsorfor existentialgoals(self,others,collectiveissues) Process:temporalextension(age) Seginerand Halabi-Kheir (1998)

276Druze(Moslem), 308JewishadolescentsDruze:grade9 (14.7)grade12 (17.8) Content:FutureOrientation Questionnaire.Hopesandfears codedfordensity(seeSeginer,1992)

Self-report questionnaires werecompleted inschool anonymously

Druzeyouthsreportedmoregoalsoverall. Controllingforageandgender,ethnicity inﬂuencedschool,occupation,family,self, othersandcollectivistgoalendorsement. Druzereportedmoreexistentialgoals,Jews reportmoreprospectivelifegoals.Gender effectswerelargerfortheDruzesample

Jewish:grade9 (15.1)grade12 (17.9)

Process:temporalextension(year/ age) Seginerand Halabi(1991)55Druze,38Arab,59 JewishadolescentsGrade10Content:FutureOrientation Questionnaire:Responsescodedfor salience,densityandspeciﬁcity(see Seginer,1992)

Cross-sectional questionnaires completedin groupsinschools. Datacollectedin 1984

DruzeandJewishyouthsscoredlowerthan Arabsongoalsalienceinall8domains.Self andcollectivitistgoalsweremoresalientfor DruzeyouthsthanJews,whileschool,military serviceandfamilywerelesssalient.Goal densityandspeciﬁcitywaslowerforDruze youths

Process:temporalextension(year/ age) Seginerand Vermulst (2002)

329IsraeliArab,357 JewishadolescentsGrade8Content:Idealandrealisticacademic aspirations(1—non-academicto5— universitydegree)

Academicexpectations (expectedgrades), perceivedparental expectation,parental demandingness&support (adaptedfromSocial SupportQuestionnaire), GPA

Self-report questionnaires completedduring school.Grades obtainedfrom schoolrecords

Pathstoacademicachievementdifferedfor Arab/Jewishboysandgirls.Educationalgoals arerelatedtoacademicachievement(except Arabboys).InallgroupsexceptArabgirls, educationalaspirationswerepredictedby parentalsupportanddemands Segineretal. (2004)458IsraeliJewish adolescentsGrade11Process:ProspectiveLifeCourse Questionnaire:careerand prospectivefamilygoalsratedon value,expectance,internalcontrol, basiccognitiverepresentation, domain-speciﬁcdevelopment, explorationandcommitment(1–5)

Mother–Father–Peers Questionnaire,Rosenberg’s Self-esteemScale,self- agency:self-dependence, determinationand responsibility

Questionnaires completedin school

Parentalautonomyandacceptancefoundto inﬂuenceadolescentfutureorientation(value, expectationsandcontrol)viaself-evaluation. Girlsreportedhigherfamilyfutureorientation andoncareermotivationthanboys (continuedonnextpage)