Take care, Not Make Care!
How the elderly care facilities can prepare and anticipate themselves for the future staff shortage
Thesis, MSc Human Resource Management University of Groningen, Faculty of Economics and Business 15 June, 2014 Nynke de Vries Studentnumber: 2232391 Kalkwijk 181 9603 TC Hoogezand tel.: +31 (0)6 395 06 350 e-mail: nn.de.vries@live.nl Supervisor University T. Vriend O. Janssen
ABSTRACT
In this research, I investigate when and why nurses in the elderly healthcare sector entertain turnover intentions. The objective of this study is to determine whether skill variety and autonomy, two job characteristics, indirectly affect turnover intentions through affective commitment, and whether this is moderated by the career stage that a nurse is in. The main hypotheses are that skill variety becomes less influential for turnover intentions as nurses reach later stages in their career, and that autonomy becomes more influential for turnover intentions as nurses reach later stages in their career. The questionnaires were tested on two different samples. The first sample consists of 100 United States residents and the second sample consists of 79 nurses working in the elderly healthcare sector in The Netherlands. Data analyses confirmed the hypotheses about the relationship between job characteristics and affective commitment, and the relationship between affective commitment and turnover intentions. The moderated-mediation relationship of career stages, however, was rejected. The theory section, the gathered results and the conclusions may enhance the ability of
organizations to reduce turnover intentions within their company.
TABLE OF CONTENT
INTRODUCTION ... 4
THE THEORY SECTION ... 6
The Job Characteristics Model (JCM) and Affective Commitment ... 6
The Moderating Influence of Career Stages... 10
Skill Variety ... 12
Job autonomy ... 14
Affective Commitment and Turnover Intentions ... 17
Moderated-Mediation Relationship ... 18
STUDY 1: METHODS ... 19
Procedure and Sample ... 19
Measures ... 20
Analytic Strategy ... 21
STUDY 1: RESULTS AND DISCUSSION ... 22
Descriptive Statistics ... 22
Job Characteristics and Affective Commitment ... 23
Job Characteristics and Affective Commitment Moderated by Career Stages ... 23
Organizational Commitment and Turnover Intentions ... 23
The Moderated-Mediation Relationship ... 24
STUDY 2: METHODS ... 27
Procedure and Sample ... 27
Analytic Strategy ... 27
STUDY 2: RESULTS AND DISCUSSION ... 28
Descriptive statistics ... 28
Job Characteristics and Affective Commitment ... 28
Job Characteristics and Affective Commitment Moderated by Career Stages ... 29
Organizational Commitment and Turnover Intentions ... 29
The Moderated-Mediation Relationship ... 29
GENERAL DISCUSSION ... 32
Limitations and Future Research ... 34
REFERENCES ... 38
Appendix A: Questions for all variables ... 42
INTRODUCTION
In the near future, we will not have enough personnel to take care of our elderly. In 2012, more than 2.7 million people within the Netherlands were older than 65 years of age. It is estimated that by 2040 this number will be at least 4.6 million people. Therefore, between 2006 and 2030 the demand for elderly healthcare will increase by 34% (Nationaal Ouderen Fonds, 2013). At the same time the influx of students from nursing degree programs is not equivalent to the demand for nurses and the turnover intentions among registered nurses is progressively increasing and is expected to increase further. According to Karin Doornbos from the institution ‘Zorgplein Noord’ (Doornbos & Schouten, 2014), from 2025 there will be a severe shortage of personnel in the elderly care sector, partly caused by local government. In sum, the need for elderly healthcare increases, the quantity of personnel working in the
elderly healthcare sector decreases (Hellenthal, 2012).
This is quite a problem, because personnel shortage can have devastating effects. Organizations with personnel shortage cannot guaranteed the quality of care, cannot guarantee the safety of the patient, and the morale of these nurses will be low (Duffield & O'Brien-Pallas, 2003). This results in organizations either being forced to refuse admission to new patients, or a severely increased workload for the nurses which will likely contribute to an unacceptable and an unsafe work environment because these nurses will be confronted with burnout, lack of autonomy, low morale, job dissatisfaction and safety issues among nurses (Duffield & O'Brien-Pallas, 2003). These negative consequences will decrease nurses’ ability to provide basic nursing care required by patients. Causing that patients receive and
organizations to retain the nurses which are currently working in the organization in order to meet the demand for care, because satisfying the demand will be jeopardized by future personnel shortage among nurses.
Various research shows that the way in which a job is designed (i.e., job
characteristics) can determine whether nurses entertain turnover intentions or not (McNeese-Smith, 2001; Bhuiian & Menguc, 2002; Nwosu, Chiamaka, & Tochukwu, 2013; Elizur & Koslowsky, 2001; Meyer, Allen, & Smith, 1993). When jobs have characteristics that are highly desirable, for instance because they allow nurses to showcase their skill variety or because they allow for high degrees of autonomy (Fried & Ferris, 1987), nurses will become more affectively committed to their organization. This commitment, in turn, will lower the turnover intentions that nurses may have. (Kuokkanen, Leino-Kilpi, & Katajisto, 2003). At the same time, however, other research argues that employees move through distinct
occupational stages in their careers and each stage is characterized by differences in work attitudes, behaviors, types of relationships needed, and aspects of work which are valued (Aryee, Chay, & Chew, 1994). This suggests that the value of job characteristics, and thus its indirect effects on turnover intentions, may depend on the career stage that a nurse is in. Because this research is about the future personnel shortage it is of great interest to determine the importance of the job characteristics in each career stage and how this will affect the presence of affective commitment which in turn influence turnover intentions. The organizations can in this manner contribute to retaining employees and it can counteract premature fall out of employees (Buul van & Maas, 2004)
understand and better anticipate to the future personnel shortage in their organization. The gained knowledge may enhance the ability of managers and supervisors to develop strategies and a roadmap to prevent future personnel shortage. The managers and supervisors get a clear picture about how affective commitment influences the extent to which personnel voluntarily leave the organization. They can influence the level of affective commitment by applying an appropriate level of job characteristics in the design of the job. Thereby shall be taken into account the career stage of the personnel. The career stage of the personnel influences which job characteristics are important and how these characteristics contributes to the level of affective commitment. Generally, the presented results of this research contribute to a better understanding of the problem and how the organization can optimally respond to the
occurrence of the problem.
Figure 1
THE THEORY SECTION
The Job Characteristics Model (JCM) and Affective Commitment
Organizational commitment refers to the individual’s psychological experiences and the emotional and functional attachment to the goals and values of their organization (Elizur
& Koslowsky, 2001). According to Meyer et al. (1993, p. 541), commitment is a
psychological state that characterizes the employee’s relationship with the organization and has implications for the decision to continue or discontinue membership in the organization”. Committed employees believe in the organization’s goals and values and are willing to put effort and hard work for the organization (Ratner, Crawford, & Acorn, 1997). For
organizations it is important that employees are committed because commitment predicts a variety of organizational outcomes such as increased job performance, reduced turnover intentions, lower absenteeism rate, and increased organizational citizenship behavior (Monoshree, 2012).
Commitment consists of different components. In this research the focus will be on nurses’ affective commitment, because nurses with a high level of affective commitment are less likely to leave the organization and are often higher level performers. Affective
commitment is defined as the extent to which degree the nurse identifies with, is involved in, and enjoys membership, in the organization (Meyer, Allen, & Smith, 1993).
(Eby, Freeman, Rush, & Lance, 1999). Those two job characteristics have the most affinity with the presence of the nurses organizational commitment and determines the level of
intrinsic motivation. This means that the employee is self-motivated to perform effectively on the job. The level of intrinsic motivation can be developed by giving meaning to the job and granted responsibility to the employees (Eby, Freeman, Rush, & Lance, 1999). The variety of skills which are needed to be able to carry out the tasks are an important indicator of intrinsic motivation. In addition, the autonomy nurses perceive in their job contributes to the presence of feeling responsible for the work they perform (Eby, Freeman, Rush, & Lance, 1999).
According to Hackman and Oldham, (1975, p. 257) skill variety means ”the degree to which jobs require a variety of different activities in carrying out the work, which involve the use of a number of different skills and talents of the person”. This means that the nurse needs to have various skills and knowledge possessed through training programs and job rotation (Chen, Shi, & Yeh, 211). A high degree of skill variety means that nurses need a wide range of skills to complete their work. It is necessary that the organization gives the nurses the opportunity to develop their skills and expand their knowledge. Low degree of skill variety means that the job is very simple and a wide extend of skills and knowledge is not required (Chen, Shi, & Yeh, 211).
1999). Besides that nurses who have low variety of skills in their job are more often absent from work and be rated by supervisors as doing low quality work (Hackman & Oldham, Motivation through the Design of Work: Test of a Theory, 1975).
According to Nwosu et al. (2013) skill variety is a well-established and significantly related determinant of affective commitment. A low amount of skill variety in a job can result in early retirement intentions (Zaniboni, Truxillo, & Fraccaroli, 2013). The more variety in skills needed among all theme clusters (nurse-patient interaction, physical care, support/ advocacy and barriers to caring), the more affective commitment among employees occur (Nwosu, Chiamaka, & Tochukwu, 2013).
Hypotheses 1a: Skill variety is positively related to affective organizational
commitment.
According to Hackman and Oldham (1975, p. 258), job autonomy means “the degree to which the job provides substantial freedom, independence, and discretion to the individual in scheduling work and in determining procedures to be used in carrying out the work”. This means that nurses have the freedom to make job-related decisions with no external
constraints, to work at their own pace, and to set their own goals (Ling-Hsing Chang, Chen, Klein, & Jiang, 2011). A high degree of job autonomy means that the outcomes depend on nurses’ own effort, initiative, and decisions. In this situation nurses should feel strong
personal responsibility for successes and failures. Low degree of job autonomy means that the outcomes depend on the adequacy of instructions from their bosses or depend on a manual of job procedures (Lunenburg, 2011).
feeling of meaning, and self-determination (Liden & Wayne, 2000). The more freedom nurses receive in serving as patient advocates, questioning physician orders, teaching about patient medication, and consulting with medical doctors, the more affective committed they will be. If nurses feel appreciated and responsible they perceive their job as meaningful, which results in a higher level of affective commitment (Liden & Wayne, 2000).
Job autonomy gives employees the freedom to perform their work independently which reduces frustrations from prescribed actions and procedures, for example getting approval from supervisors who may not understand the situation (Ahuja, Chudoba, Kacmar, & McKnight, 2007). According to Ahuja et al. (2007) this will increase the motivation and satisfaction which are ways to determine the level of affective commitment.
Hypotheses 1b: Job autonomy is positive related to affective organizational commitment.
The Moderating Influence of Career Stages
Previous research shows that the characteristics of nurses’ job, influences the level of affective commitment. However these relationships can be affected by the career stage nurses are in. Research on employee career stages show that nurses move through distinct
occupational stages in their organizational careers and each stage is characterized by differences in work attitudes and behaviors, types of relationships needed, and aspects of work which are valued (Aryee, Chay, & Chew, 1994). Each stage is characterized by evolving life concerns and changing levels of motivation (Miao, Lund, & Evans, 2009).
concerned with finding an occupation in which one can succeed and grow as an individual (Cron, 1984). Nurses are searching for what they want, build up private relationships, appreciate teamwork, look for variety and diverse experiences, want to learn by doing, and continue to develop themselves (Stok & Vrooman, 2009). In the exploration stage it is all about self-discovery and establishing an initial professional self-image (Cron, 1984). The main proposed needs include peer acceptance, support, and a job in which one can succeed.
The second stage is the establishment stage. During this stage employees make a conscious commitment to a particular occupational field and these employees put effort to stabilize themselves and establish a secure place in their working environment (Miao, Lund, & Evans, 2009). According to Cron (1984, p. 222), the need for acknowledgement and promotion opportunities is of primary concern at this stage. In this stage employees want to achieve a sense of independence and are constantly working on their career advancement and upward career progress (Super, 1980). The main proposed needs in the establishment stage includes achievement, esteem, autonomy, and competition. The main challenges in this stage are balancing the demands of career and family (Cron, 1984).
The third stage is the maintenance stage. During this stage employees are doing everything possible to preserve their current position and pursue their high performance level (Cron, 1984). Employees in this stage expect that they have settled well into a career pattern and have a wide range of interests and capabilities. These nurses are often called the expert seniors because they have wisdom based on life and work experience, like a more additional role as mentor or counsellor, and are often responsible for defined and specific projects (Stok & Vrooman, 2009). When those employees just leave without the transmission of their
competitiveness, maintaining motivation, and productivity. The main challenges in this stage are maintaining motivation and facing concerns about aging (Cron, 1984).
The fourth stage is the disengagement stage. This final stage is the critical adjustment for employees to transition from working to retirement or switch to another job. The main aspects employees in this stage want to do is emphasize on developing ones self-image (independent of career success), transition into a new job, or moving into retirement (Miao, Lund, & Evans, 2009). Employees in this stage are often less concerned with career
progression or financial issues in their current job. Besides that they are more concerned about intrinsic benefits, formal recognition, and authority (Miao, Lund, & Evans, 2009). The main proposed challenges in the disengagement stage include establishing a stronger self-identity outside of the work environment while maintaining an acceptable performance level, and detachment from the organization and from organizational life (Cron, 1984).
Skill Variety
Research has shown that the importance of skill variety on affective commitment varies between employees. Employees move through distinct occupational stages in their organizational career and each stage is characterized by differences in work attitudes and behaviors, types of relationships needed, and aspects of work which are valued (Aryee, Chay, & Chew, 1994). Nurses in an early career stage benefit more from skill variety than
they want to perform tasks and skills in which they know they excel. Therefore, it is important to determine the career stage nurses are in. Listed below, we distinguish the influences of the four career stages (discussed earlier) on skill variety.
Nurses in the exploration stage are in most cases just getting started in their current position. Which means that these nurses still need to develop job specific knowledge and expertise. Nurses have to find their place in the organization and find out whether they have the required competencies to meet the expectations and fulfil the work obligations
(Demerouti, Peeters, & van der Heijden, 2012). Therefore nurses would like to prove and differentiate themselves in their new position, want to learn and develop themselves, and develop mastery goals. These nurses want to show what they are capable of and show all skills they possess (Zaniboni, Truxillo, & Fraccaroli, 2013). Therefore, in this career stage it is very important that their positions have a high level of skill variety where they can show what they have to offer (Elizur & Koslowsky, 2001).
The primary concern for nurses in the establishment stage is promotion and their psychological success resulting from high performance. In general the nurses are experiencing their job as more challenging and interesting, which will lead to employees who are more emotional and functional attached to goals and values of the organization (Elizur & Koslowsky, 2001). According to Noe et al. (1990), these nurses are actively involved in assessing new employment opportunities and they continuously want to develop themselves. Therefore, nurses are more open for different tasks including the associated skills (Miao, Lund, & Evans, 2009).
for nurses in the maintenance stage. According to Zaniboni et al. (2013) nurses are
specifically selecting and investing tasks in areas of their own expertise, this will give them the possibility to use their accumulated knowledge and skills to accomplish their work demands. These nurses do not have the need for developing new skills and talents, but wants to elaborate their current skills and talents and are willing to maintain their high level of performance. Giving nurses the opportunity to optimize their efforts to maintain a good performance level, will result in employees which feel less fatigue, less exhausted, have a higher sense of personal accomplishment, and increase their job interest.
Nurses in the disengagement stage know which skills and characteristics they possess and know how to anticipate in difficult situations. These nurses know where the limits of their abilities are and they can rely on broad expertise to cope with difficult situations and
excessive workload (Demerouti, Peeters, & van der Heijden, 2012). The urge to prove themselves is no longer present in this stage. Therefore a high range of skill variety is not desired. They want to perform tasks and use skills they are good at (Zaniboni, Truxillo, & Fraccaroli, 2013).
Hypotheses 2a The positive relationship between skill variety and affective
organizational commitment will be stronger when nurses are in an
early career stage (exploration stage), and becomes weaker when
the career stage develops.
Job autonomy
Research has shown that that the importance of job autonomy on affective
& Chew, 1994). Nurses in an early career stage need to prove themselves and they do not have the need for autonomy in their position and therefore have low autonomy aspirations. On the other hand, nurses in later career stages want to perceive more job autonomy which will lead to an increased emotional and functional attachment to the goals and values of the organization (Zaniboni, Truxillo, & Fraccaroli, 2013). Therefore, it is important to determine the career stage nurses are in. Listed below, we distinguish the influences of the four career stages (discussed earlier) on job autonomy.
Nurses in the exploration stage need to prove themselves by obtaining high job
performance and because of that have lower autonomy aspirations. The level of job autonomy and having a managerial position is not an important factor for nurses in this career stage (Stok & Vrooman, 2009). These nurses focus on their own tasks and how to optimize their own performance instead of having freedom within their job and being responsible for their own actions. These nurses desire a high level of external interventions and perform routinized tasks, because in this manner the nurses can receive instructions and confirmation of
performed tasks to optimize their own job performance (Ling-Hsing Chang, Chen, Klein, & Jiang, 2011). Therefore, if these nurses experience a high level of job autonomy, it will decrease the presence of intrinsic motivation which means that these nurses are less self-motivated to perform effectively. This has the effect that these nurses’ emotional and functional attachment to the goals and values of the organization will decrease (Elizur & Koslowsky, 2001).
to be eligible for expanding and enhancing their tasks or even for promotion. In addition, these nurses would like to be linked to performance when the outcome is positive, but
herewith is not aimed for independence. Therefore, if these nurses experience a high level of job autonomy, it will decrease the presence of intrinsic motivation because they are afraid to be judged on this.
Nurses in the maintenance stage have relatively higher autonomy aspirations than those in the exploration and establishment stage (Ling-Hsing Chang, Chen, Klein, & Jiang, 2011). For these nurses a high amount of challenges and a high degree of professional content is not important. These nurses have already proven that they can do the tasks independently and therefore their desire for competition has decreased (Miao, Lund, & Evans, 2009). They are more willing to help and direct others based on their knowledge and expertise (Stok & Vrooman, 2009). To be able to pursue this, these employees should have the freedom and trust to schedule and execute their own tasks so they have the ability to guide and help others (Menguc & Bhuian, 2004).
Hypothesis 2b: The positive relationship between job autonomy and affective
organizational commitment will be weaker when nurses are in an
early career stage (exploration stage), and becomes stronger when the
career stage develops.
Affective Commitment and Turnover Intentions
When the allocation of job characteristics is not sufficient for the position of nurses, the amount of affective commitment of them will decrease. A lack of affective commitment has several kinds of negative consequences. One major negative consequence of low affective commitment is a high level of turnover intentions among nurses. Turnover intentions is defined as “the intentions to permanently move beyond the boundary of an organization" (McEvoy & Cascio, 1985). Hereby turnover is seen as the balance between organizational benefits and careeristic attitude to work (Blau & Boal, 1989). Intentional turnover must be minimized because turnover can exert a major influence on the staff morale, patterns of communication and working practices. Besides that, undesirable turnover can be very expensive for the organization in terms of hiring, training, updating and maintaining nursing staff (Givanagh & Cofifm, 192).
organization will become more likely when they have better alternatives (Shaw, Delery, Jenkins jr., & Gupta, 1998). Affective commitment is therefore a proper predictor for turnover intentions among nurses. The main reason for this is that nurses who are affectively
committed, feel bound with the organization for which they are working. When they experience this feeling nurses want to achieve maximum performance in favor for their
organization and therefore have less intentions to leave the organization (Elizur & Koslowsky, 2001). The higher the amount of affective commitment the more committed they are to the organization because they ‘want to’, therefore there are less turnover intentions among these nurses (Meyer, Allen, & Smith, 1993).
Hypothesis 3. Affective organizational commitment is negatively related to turnover
intentions.
Moderated-Mediation Relationship
Earlier, I described several individual relationships. These are summarized below. The more variety in skills needed, the more nurses become committed to the organization. This relationship will be influenced by the career stage nurses are in. It is expected that the positive effects of skill variety on affective commitment will become lower when the nurses are in a later career stage. When the level of affective commitment is high the nurses’ intention to leave the organization will be low. Hence, I propose a moderated-mediation relationship in which the indirect effect of skill variety on turnover intentions, through affective
commitment, is conditional upon the career stage that a nurse is in.
Hypothesis 4a. The indirect relationship of skill variety on turnover intentions, as
mediated by affective organizational commitment, will be moderated by career stages such
that the indirect effect becomes weaker when the nurse is in a later career stage and stronger
When the level of perceived freedom within the job of nurses is high, nurses become more committed to the organization. This relationship will be influenced by the career stage nurses are in. It is expected that nurses in a later career stage need a higher level of
experienced freedom to become more committed to the organization and have low aspirations of freedom when nurses are in an early career stage. When the level of affective commitment is high the nurses’ intentions to leave the organization will be low. Hence, I propose a
moderated-mediation relationship in which the indirect effect of job autonomy on turnover intentions, through affective commitment, is conditional upon the career stage that nurses are in.
Hypothesis 4b. The indirect relationship of job autonomy on turnover intentions as
mediated by affective organizational commitment, will be moderated by career stages such
that the indirect effect becomes stronger when the nurse is in a later career stage and weaker
when the nurse is in an earlier career stage.
To assess these hypotheses, I gathered data amongst two populations. First, I gathered data to assess whether the hypotheses hold amongst an United States working populace (Study 1). Second, I gathered data to assess whether the hypotheses hold amongst a specific Dutch working populace of nurses working in the elderly healthcare sector (Study 2). The results of these specific studies are discussed with the results, and the general results are discussed in the general discussion after these two studies.
STUDY 1: METHODS Procedure and Sample
and the mean respondent age was 34.60 years (SD = 10.63). Their average organizational tenure was 4.16 years (SD = 4.58). The average number of hours they worked each week was 38.57 (SD = 7.74). The largest part of the sample worked full time (85%), whereas a smaller part was employed part-time (15%). These respondents are employed in different sectors. Measures
The questionnaire was administered in English. All measurement instruments were originally in English. All items were rated on five-point Likert scales (1 = Strongly disagree, 5 = Strongly agree), the extent to which they agree or disagree with statements
Job characteristics. Hackman and Oldham’s (1975) Job Diagnostic Survey was used
to measure Job characteristics. Skill variety (α = .63) was measured with four items: “how much variety is there in your job?”, “to what extent does the job require you to do many different things at work, using a variety of your skills and talents?”, “the job requires me to use a number of complex or high-level skills”, “the job is quite simple and repetitive ®” (Hackman & Oldham, 1975). Job autonomy (α = .73) was measured with four items: “how much autonomy is there in your job?”, “to what extent does your job permit you to decide on your own how to go about doing the work?”, “the job denies me any change to use my personal initiative or judgment in carrying out the work ®”, “the job gives me considerable opportunity for independence and freedom to how I do the work” (Hackman & Oldham, 1975).
Affective commitment. Allen and Meyer (1990) organizational commitment
to another organization as I am to this one”, “I do not feel like ‘part of the family’ at my organization”, “I do not feel ‘emotionally attached’ to this organization”, “This organization has a great deal of personal meaning for me”, “I do not feel a ‘strong’ sense of belonging to my organization”.
Turnover intentions. Shaw, Delery, Jenkins and Gupta (1998) established questions to
measure turnover intentions. Turnover intentions (α = .92) were measured with three items: “in the last few months have you ever thought seriously about looking for a job in another organization, but in the same sector?”, “in the last few months have you ever thought
seriously about looking for another job?”, “taking everything into consideration, how likely is it that you will make a serious effort to find a new job within the next year?”.
Career stages. Miao et al. (2009) established four statements which can be used to
indicate in which career stage the respondent is in. The career stage was measured by letting the respondents pick one of the four statements which suits best. Hereby only one question is asked, namely which statement do you feel most connected to? The four statements were: “my current focus is on finding an occupation in which I can succeed and grow” (exploration stage); “I am now consciously committed to the career that I have” (establishment stage), “I am now focusing my attention on how to maintain what I have accomplished in my career” (maintenance stage), and “I am preparing for the transition from my current job to another job or retirement” (disengagement stage) (Miao, Lund, & Evans, 2009).
Analytic Strategy
job autonomy and affective commitment becomes stronger when the employee is in a later career stage (i.e., Hypothesis 2b), and that affective commitment is positively related to turnover intentions (i.e., Hypothesis 3). To test these direct (conditional) relationships, I estimated various OLS regression models. Finally, I proposed that the job characteristics are indirectly related to turnover intentions, that this is mediated by affective commitment, and that career stages moderate this indirect relationship (i.e., Hypotheses 4a and 4b). To test these conditional indirect relationships, I used the SPSS macro by Hayes (2013), to estimate bootstrapping confidence intervals for measuring the indirect effects.
STUDY 1: RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Descriptive Statistics
Means, standard deviations, and intercorrelations for all variables are reported in Table 1. This table indicates that these United States residents experience a high presence of skill variety within their job, because the average score is 3.31 (SD = 0.76) and the item was rated on five-point Likert scales. In addition, these United States residents also experience a higher moderate level of presence of autonomy within their job, because the average score is 3.47 (SD = 0.77) and this item was also rated on five-point Likert scales. The level of affective commitment among these United States residents is moderate, because the average score is 3.08 (SD = 0.92) and also this item was rated on five-point Likert scales. The correlations indicate that skill variety is positively related to affective commitment (r = .57, p < .01) and job autonomy is also positively related to affective commitment (r = -.39, p < .01). In
Table 1: Means, standard deviations, and correlation for Study 1 M SD 1 2 3 4 5 6 1. Gender 1.31 0.47 - 2. Age 34.60 10.63 0.09 - 3. Skill Variety 3.31 0.76 -0.15 0.18 (0.83) 4. Job autonomy 3.47 0.77 -0.01 0.24* 0.00** (0.73) 5. Affective commitment 3.08 0.92 0.00 0.19 0.570** 0.39** (0.90) 6. Turnover intention 2.90 1.22 0.09 -0.12 -0.40** -.019 -0.61** (0.92) 7. Career stages 1.93 0.97 -0.13 0.19 0.05 0.04 0.22* -0.10
Note: n= 100. *p <0.05, ** p < 0.01, *** p < 0.001. Gender is coded as 1 = male, 2 = female
Job Characteristics and Affective Commitment
The results for Hypotheses 1a and 1b are presented in Table 2. These hypotheses suggest that skill variety and job autonomy are positively related to affective commitment. Controlling for age and gender, the results show that skill variety is positively associated with affective commitment (B = 0.47, p < .001; Model 2a) and job autonomy is positively
associated with affective commitment (B = 0.34, p < .001; Model 3a). Thus, Hypotheses 1a and 1b are supported.
Job Characteristics and Affective Commitment Moderated by Career Stages The results for Hypotheses 2a and 2b are presented in Table 2. These hypotheses suggest that there will be a moderation of career stages on the relationship between skill variety and affective commitment and job autonomy and affective commitment. The results reveal that career stages do not significantly moderate the relationship between skill variety and affective commitment (B = -0.05, p = .56; Model 2b). Besides that, career stages do not significantly moderate the relationship between job autonomy and affective commitment (B = -0.04, p = .59; Model 3b). Therefore, Hypotheses 2a and 2b are rejected.
Organizational Commitment and Turnover Intentions
and gender, the results show that affective commitment is significant negatively related to turnover intentions (B = -0.75, p < .01; Model 5). Therefore, Hypothesis 3 is supported. The Moderated-Mediation Relationship
The results for Hypotheses 4a and 4b are presented in Table 2. These hypotheses summarize the full moderated-mediation model. The moderated-mediation analysis shows that only affective commitment is significant negatively related to turnover intentions (B = -0.70, p < .01). This suggest that there are two mediation effects. The first is between skill variety and turnover intentions mediated by affective commitment. The second is between job autonomy and turnover intentions mediated by affective commitment. Given the fact that there are no significant moderations, the moderated-mediation model cannot be analyzed and therefore the bootstrapped confidence intervals cannot be measured per career stage, because these results do not differ. There is no significant evidence that career stages have a
moderating effect on the mediation between the job characteristics (skill variety and job autonomy) and turnover intentions through affective commitment. Thus, Hypotheses 4a and 4b are rejected.
Discussion
The objective of this study was to determine whether the indirect effect of job characteristics on turnover intentions, as mediated by affective commitment, will be moderated by career stages, and if the impact of career stages becomes stronger or weaker when these United States residents are in a later career stage.
Table 2: Regression results for organizational commitment and turnover intentions for Study 1
Affective commitment Turnover intentions
Model 1 Model 2a Model 2b Model 3a Model 3b Model 4 Model 5 Model 6 Model 7
Constant 3.08*** (.09) 3.08*** (.08) 3.08*** (.08) 3.08***(.09) 3.08*** (.08) 2.90*** (.12) 2.90*** (.10) 2.90*** (.10) 2.90*** (.10) Gender -0.02 (.09) 0.06 (.08) 0.09 (.08) -0.00 (.09) 0.02 (.09) 0.12 (.12) 0.11 (.10) 0.10 (.10) 0.12 (.10) Age 0.17† (.09) 0.08 (.08) 0.06 (.09) 0.09 (.09) 0.06 (.09) -0.15 (.12) -0.01 (.10) -0.02 (.11) -0.04 (.10) Skill variety 0.47*** (.08) .047*** (.08) -0.11 (.12) Job autonomy 0.34*** (.09) 0.35*** (.09) 0.08 (.11) Career stages 0.16† (.08) 0.07† (.09) 0.06 (.11) 0.09 (.11)
Skill variety x career stages -0.05 (.08)
Job autonomy x career stages -0.04 (.08)
Affective commitment -0.75*** (.10) -0.70*** (.12) -0.79*** (.11)
Skill variety x career stages x
affective commitment 0.04 (.10)
Job autonomy x career stages
x affective commitment 0.08 (.09)
r² .04 .29*** .32 † .41*** .45 .15 .62*** 0.63 0.63
STUDY 2: METHODS Procedure and Sample
I gathered data from several elderly healthcare organizations in the Northern part of the Netherlands. Approximately 20 organizations that have a business in elderly healthcare were sent an e-mail or called with the request to participate in this research. The organizations who confirmed, received an email with a cover letter and a link to the online questionnaire or questionnaires on paper. The cover letter explained the purpose of the study, provided the respondent with a short introduction, and stated that the experimenter clarifies the guarantee of the confidentiality of the participants’ responses.
Each respondent completed a questionnaire of nine pages evaluating the job
characteristics skill variety and job authority, career stages, their affective commitment and turnover intentions. In total there were 89 respondents who work in an elderly healthcare organization. Of these respondents 89% were female, and the mean respondent age was 39.96 years (SD = 11.77). Their average organizational tenure was 12.41 years (SD = 12.17). The average number of hours that nurses worked each week was 24.20 (SD = 9.43). The largest part of the sample worked full time (65%), whereas a smaller part was employed part-time (35%).
Measures
Although the same measurement instruments were used to measure skill variety, autonomy, affective commitment, career stages, and turnover intentions, they were translated to Dutch for the purpose of this study.
Analytic Strategy
STUDY 2: RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Descriptive statistics
Means, standard deviations, and intercorrelations for all variables are reported in Table 3. This table indicates that nurses experience a high presence of skill variety within their job, because the average score is 4.12 (SD = 0.60) and the item is rated on five-point Likert scales. In addition, the nurses also experience a moderate level of presence of autonomy within their job, because the average score is 3.41 (SD = 0.50 and this item is also rated on five-point Likert scales. The level of affective commitment among the nurses is moderate, because the average score is 2.92 (SD = .0.37) and also this item is rated on five-point Likert scales. The correlations indicate that skill variety is positively related to affective commitment (r = 0.26,
p < .05). Job autonomy is also positively related to affective commitment (r = .0.07, p = 0.55),
though this result is not significant. In addition, affective commitment is negatively related to turnover intentions (r = -.32, p < 0.01).
Table 3: Means, standard deviations, and correlation for Study 2
M SD 1 2 3 4 5 6 1. Gender 1.89 0.32 - 2. Age 39.96 11.77 -.20† - 3. Skill Variety 4.12 0.60 -0.15 0.11 (0.74) 4. Job autonomy 3.41 0.50 -0.03 0.06 .38*** (0.50) 5. Affective commitment 2.92 0.37 -0.05 0.17 .26* 0.07 (0.71) 6. Turnover intention 2.25 1.05 .07 -.47*** -.0.15 0.09 -.32** (0.87) 7. Career stages 2.06 0.88 -.02 .28* -0.27* -.23* -0.13 -0.27*
Note: n= 79. † < .10, * p < .05, ** p < .01, *** p < .001. Gender is coded as 1 = male, 2 = female Job Characteristics and Affective Commitment
with affective commitment (B = 0.16, p < .05; Model 3a). Thus, Hypotheses 1a and 1b are supported.
Job Characteristics and Affective Commitment Moderated by Career Stages The results for Hypotheses 2a and 2b are presented in Table 4. These hypotheses suggest that there will be a moderation of career stages on the relationship between skill variety and affective commitment and job autonomy and affective commitment. The results reveal that career stages do not significantly moderate the relationship between skill variety and affective commitment (B = 0.02, p = .73; Model 2b). Besides that, career stages do not significantly moderate the relationship between job autonomy and affective commitment (B = 0.12, p = .15; Model 3b). Therefore, Hypotheses 2a and 2b are rejected.
Organizational Commitment and Turnover Intentions
The results for Hypothesis 3 are presented in Table 2. Hypothesis 3 suggests that there is a relationship between affective commitment and turnover intentions. Controlling for age and gender, the results show that affective commitment is significant negatively related to turnover intentions (B = -0.54, p < .001; Model 5). Therefore, Hypothesis 3 is supported. The Moderated-Mediation Relationship
these results do not differ. There is no significant evidence that career stages have a moderating effect on the mediation between the job characteristics (skill variety and job autonomy) and turnover intentions through affective commitment. Thus, Hypotheses 4a and 4b are rejected.
Discussion
The objective of this study was to determine whether the indirect effect of job characteristics on turnover intentions, as mediated by affective commitment, will be moderated by career stages, and if the impact of career stages becomes stronger or weaker when the nurse is in a later career stage.
This study was conducted among nurses working in elderly healthcare organizations within the Northern part of the Netherlands. The results show that the outcomes are consistent over both studies. These results did not show much significant numbers and therefore the moderator variables were rejected.
Table 4: Regression results for affective commitment and turnover intentions for Study 2
Affective commitment Turnover intentions
Model 1 Model 2a Model 2b Model 3a Model 3b Model 4 Model 5 Model 6 Model 7
Constant 3.28*** (.07) 3.28*** (.07) 3.29*** (.07) 3.28***(.07) 3.30*** (.07) 2.29*** (.11) 2.27*** (.09) 2.26*** (.09) 2.25*** (.90) Gender 0.02 (.07) 0.04 (.07) 0.04 (.08) 0.03 (.07) 0.03 (.07) -0.06 (.11) -0.05 (.09) -0.05 (.10) -0.05 (.10) Age 0.12† (.07) 0.11 (.07) 0.09 (.08) 0.07 (.07) 0.03 (.08) -0.50*** (.11) -0.40*** (.09) -0.37*** (.10) -0.37** (.11) Skill variety 0.13† (.07) 0.15† (.07) -0.05 (.10) Job autonomy 0.16* (.07) 0.21** (.08) -0.02 (.11) Career stages 0.07 (.08) 0.10 (.08) -0.12 (.10) -0.12 (.10)
Skill variety x career stages 0.02 (.07)
Job autonomy x career stages 0.12 (.08)
Affective commitment -0.54*** (.09) -0.52*** (.09) -0.52*** (.10)
Skill variety x career stages x
affective commitment -0.03 (.09)
Job autonomy x career stages
x affective commitment -0.08 (.10)
r² .19 .28† .30 .30* .36 .47*** .69*** .70 .70
GENERAL DISCUSSION
The objective of this study was to determine whether the indirect effect of job characteristics on turnover intentions, as mediated by affective commitment, would be moderated by career stages, and if the impact of career stages becomes stronger or weaker when the nurse is in a later career stage. Below each hypothesis will be evaluated and discussed in light of the results.
The first hypotheses were about if job characteristics are positively related to affective commitment. The results supports the pronouncements of Nwosu et al. (2013). Nwosu et al. said that if nurses perceive a lot of variety in skills needed among all theme clusters, the more committed they become to their organization (Nwosu, Chiamaka, & Tochukwu, 2013). The result section shows that skill variety is positively associated with affective commitment, therefore Hypotheses 1a is supported. Ahuja et al. (2007) stated that if nurses experience a lot of autonomy within their job it will reduce frustrations and dissatisfaction which will
increases nurses’ affective commitment. The results support the pronouncements of Ahuja et al that job autonomy is significantly associated with affective commitment. Therefore Hypotheses 1b is supported.
The second hypotheses were about the moderating influences of career stages on the relationship between job characteristics (skill variety and job autonomy) and affective commitment. According to Demerouti et al. (2012) the higher the career stage the nurse is in the less urge to prove themselves. This means that nurses in a later career stage do not have the urge to show their variety of skills which they acquired in the course of years too become affective committed to the organization. Therefore a high range of skill variety is not desired. The results show that there is no significant evidence that career stages moderate the
more freedom and less orders from others in their job, which will positively affect the level of affective commitment. Therefore a high level of job autonomy is desired. The results show the opposite, it shows that career stages negatively moderate the relationship between job autonomy and affective commitment. This means that nurses in a later career stage have less desire for autonomy in their job, which positively influences the level of affective
commitment. The results also show that there is no significant evidence that career stages moderate the relationship between job autonomy and affective commitment, therefore Hypothesis 2a is rejected. One possible reason could be that the career stage of the nurses do not have any influence on the level of affective commitment. It may be that nurses always consider a high level of skill variety and job autonomy as very important regardless the career stage they are in. Both skill variety and job autonomy must be present in the job, hereby it does not matter in what career stage the nurse is, to gain affective commitment.
The third hypothesis was about the negative relationship between affective
commitment and turnover intentions. Elizur and Koslowsky (2001) pronounced that nurses who are strongly committed to the organization are those who are less likely to leave the organization. The results showed that indeed affective commitment has a negative relationship with turnover intentions. This means that if a nurse is committed to the organization their intentions to leave the organization is unlikely. The numbers were very significant and therefore Hypothesis 3 is accepted.
Limitations and Future Research
This study shed light on the future personnel shortage in the elderly care sector, and future research would benefit by considering important limitations of this study. There are many limitations and future research aspects to think of and to determine, some important limitations and future research aspects are described below.
The first limitations is common to many studies that attempt to examine
time-dependent constructs. Given that career stages evolve over time and are often based on long term changes, it is better to follow and investigate a specific group permanently. Besides that a larger sample of people working in elderly healthcare could shed more light on turnover intentions and the factors associated with this. In this manner the impact of career stages on job characteristics and affective commitment can be enhanced (Miao, Lund, & Evans, 2009).
Besides that, another use of the measuring instruments can contribute to better
research outcomes. In this study only two of the five job characteristics were examined. The three which are not discussed are: task significance, task identity, and feedback. Task
significance means ‘the degree to which the job has a substantial impact on the lives or work of other people, whether in the immediate organization or in the external environment’. Task Identity means ‘the degree to which the job requires completion of a "whole" and identifiable piece of work; that is, doing a job from beginning to end with a visible outcome’. Feedback means ‘the degree to which carrying out the work activities required by the job results in the individual obtaining direct and clear information about the effectiveness of his or her
supports this expectation. They state that the most established and significantly related
determinant of affective commitment is the design of the job. The design of the job consists of all five job characteristics, therefore I expect that measuring all five job characteristics
together gives a better view of the actual organizational commitment.
In addition, there are various ways to determine in which career stage nurses are in. In this research there is made use of four statements which indicate in which career stage the respondent is in. This measurement is not a widely accepted mean of measuring employees’ career stages. Many articles operationalize the career stages by the tenure of the employee. I think that is not a right operationalization because now a days it is not normal to have life-employment within the same company. Many employees switch from employer within the same type of organizations but also many people swift between types of jobs. Besides that not every employee is in the same stage when they have the same tenure. That is the reason why I used the operationalization of Miao et al. However a weakness of this measuring instrument is that the career stage was measured by letting the respondents pick one of the four statements which suits best. Hereby only one question is asked, namely which statement do you feel most connected to? The use of tenure can be a more stable measurement in this situation. The tenure is a fixed value where there can be no doubt. For example, there can be made use of categorization. With the use of categorization the frequencies among all career stages will be better divided. Therefore, I expect that more significant numbers emerge and the formulated hypothesis can better be judged. However, this might not give a good representation of the actual career stage of the nurse as discussed above.
major impact. Normative commitment is “the totality of internalized normative pressures to act in a way that meets organizational goals and interests”. In other words, the employee’s belief that loyalty towards an organization is the right thing to do and they feel the internal obligation to stay loyal to their organization. Continuance organizational commitment describes the attachment to an organization based on extraneous interests. This type of commitment consists of two parts, low alternatives and high sacrifice (Yao & Wang, 2006). I expect that measuring all three aspects of organizational commitment will increase the significance of the results. People experience commitment in different ways, thereby measuring one item may create a wrong impression. In addition, the different career stages appeal different types of organizational commitment. Therefore, the relationship between job characteristics and organizational commitment moderated by career stages can be better and more accurately examined.
Besides all above, it may also be that the described model in this research will be better when the moderator will be modified. Perhaps, the variable ‘affective commitment’ is to general to do a good measurement. Therefore it might be better when affective commitment will be replaced by job satisfaction of the nurses. Because skill variety will perhaps have a relationship with job satisfaction and career stages can be used to distinguish the amount of job satisfaction in the different career stages. Besides that the used moderator can be modified there is also another possibility to improve this model. Perhaps career stage is not a sufficient moderator and therefore the model can be improved when the moderator will become a mediator. For example, the relationship between career stages and affective commitment can be mediated by the degree of skill variety or job autonomy. Hereby a later career stage will have a negative relationship with skill variety and skill variety will have a positive
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APPENDIX A: QUESTIONS FOR ALL VARIABLES
The questions that will be asked to determine the degree of job autonomy (Hackman & Oldham, 1975):
1. How much autonomy is there in your job?
2. To what extent does your job permit you to decide on your own how to go about doing the work?
3. The job denies me any change to use my personal initiative or judgment in carrying out the work ®
4. The job gives me considerable opportunity for independence and freedom to how I do the work
The questions that will be asked to determine the degree of skill variety (Hackman & Oldham, 1975):
5. How much variety is there in your job?
6. To what extent does the job require you to do many different things at work, using a variety of your skills and talents?
7. The job requires me to use a number of complex or high-level skills 8. The job is quite simple and repetitive ®
The questions that will be asked to determine the degree of organizational commitment are (Allen & Meyer, 1990):
Affective Commitment Scale Items:
1. I would be very happy to spend the rest of my career with this organization.* # 2. I enjoy discussing about my organization with people outside it.#
3. I really feel as if this organization’s problems are my own.#
4. I think that I could easily become as attached to another organization as I am to this one.(R) #
1. I am not afraid of what might happen if I quit my job without having another one lined up.(R) *
2. It would be very hard for me to leave my organization right now, even if I wanted to. 3. Too much in my life would be disrupted if I decided to leave my organization now.* 4. It wouldn’t be too costly for me to leave my organization now.(R) *
5. Right now, staying with my organization is a matter of necessity as much as desire.* 6. I feel that I have very few options to consider leaving this organization.
7. One of the few serious consequences of leaving this organization would be the scarcity of available alternatives.*
8. One of the major reasons I continue to work for this organization is that leaving would require considerable personal sacrifice—another organization may not match the overall benefits I have here.*
Normative Commitment Scale Items
1. I think that people these days move from company to company too often.*
2. I do not believe that a person must always be loyal to his or her organization.(R) ** # 3. Jumping from organization to organization does not seem at all unethical to me.(R) * # 4. One of the major reasons I continue to work in this organization is that I believe
loyalty is important and therefore feel a sense of moral obligation to remain.* 5. If I got another offer for a better job elsewhere I would not feel it was right to leave
my organization.* #
6. I was taught to believe in the value of remaining loyal to one organization.** # 7. Things were better in the days when people stayed in one organization for most of
their careers.*
8. I do not think that to be a ‘company man’ or ‘company woman’ is sensible anymore.(R
The four statements to conclude in which career stage the employee is (Miao, Lund, & Evans, 2009):
1. “My current focus is on finding an occupation in which I can succeed and grow” (exploration stage)
2. “I am now consciously committed to the career that I have” (establishment stage) 3. “I am now focusing my attention on how to maintain what I have accomplished in my
4. “I am preparing for the transition from their current job to other work or retirement” (disengagement stage)
The questions that will be asked to determine the degree of intentional turnover:
1. In the last few months have you ever thought seriously about looking for a nursing job at another hospital?
2. In the last few months have you ever thought seriously about looking for a non-nursing job?
APPENDIX B: QUESTIONNAIRE IN DUTCH
Organisatie:
_____________________________________ Enquête nr.: ___________
Onderzoek Toekomstig Personeelstekort in de Ouderenzorg
Uit onderzoek is gebleken dat vanaf 2025 een groot te kort wordt verwacht aan verplegend personeel in de ouderenzorg. Dit wordt voornamelijk veroorzaakt door een gebrek aan nieuwe studenten die geïnteresseerd zijn in dit vakgebied en door de toename van oudere mensen die zorg nodig hebben. Het is daarom van groot belang om het personeel wat al werkzaam is binnen de organisatie ook binnen de organisatie te houden. Ik ben Nynke de Vries een WO-student aan de Rijksuniversiteit te
Groningen. Dit onderzoek doe ik om mijn master Human Resource Management met succes af te ronden en om deze belangrijke kwestie met betrekking tot de ouderenzorg op de kaart te zetten. Graag wil ik uw medewerking vragen voor dit onderzoek naar het toekomstige personeelstekort in de ouderenzorg. Dit onderzoek wil ik doen aan de hand van een literatuurstudie en de praktijk. Om de praktijk goed in kaart te kunnen brengen vraag ik u om hieraan mee te werken. De enquête bevat vragen over onder andere de verschillende taken en verantwoordelijkheden binnen de functie, de betrokkenheid bij de organisatie, de intenties om een bedrijf te verlaten en enkele algemene vragen over de functie. Het invullen van de enquête neemt ongeveer 10 minuten in beslag.
De verzamelde gegevens uit de enquêtes vallen onder het privacy reglement van de Rijksuniversiteit Groningen. De antwoorden worden strikt vertrouwelijk behandeld en de antwoorden blijven anoniem. De gegevens worden uitsluitend gebruikt voor wetenschappelijk onderzoek, zij worden dus niet aan externe partijen verstrekt en zullen ook niet door derden worden gebruikt. De onderzoeksresultaten worden gepresenteerd op een zodanige wijze dat de uitkomsten niet zijn te herleiden naar organisaties, teams of individuele teamleden.
Geachte heer/mevrouw,
Deze enquête vraagt u om zo objectief mogelijk uw werk te beschrijven. Gebruik de enquête niet om aan te geven hoe leuk u uw baan vindt of om uw ongenoegen uit te spreken.
In dit gedeelte van de enquête wordt gevraagd naar uw functie binnen de organisatie. De vragen gaan over de karakteristieken van uw functie. Hieronder staan verschillende uitspraken. Wilt u op een schaal van 5 aangeven of u het eens of oneens bent met de uitspraak? Hierbij betekent 1 helemaal niet mee eens, 3 betekent neutraal en 5 betekent helemaal mee eens.
De volgende vragen gaan over de karakteristieken van uw functie
Voll edig m ee one ens Me e one ens Ne utra al Me e e ens Volledig mee e ens
Mijn werk vereist nauwe samenwerking met cliënten 1 2 3 4 5
Mijn werk vereist nauwe samenwerking met collega's 1 2 3 4 5
Mijn werk vereist veel zelfstandigheid 1 2 3 4 5
Ik mag mijn eigen dingen bepalen binnen mijn werkzaamheden? 1 2 3 4 5 Ik doe een gedeelte van de werkzaamheden van een groter geheel dat
afgemaakt wordt door andere mensen of machines 1 2 3 4 5
Ik handel het werk van begin tot het eind zelf af 1 2 3 4 5
Mijn werk biedt veel variatie 1 2 3 4 5
Mijn werk vereist veel verschillende vaardigheden en talenten om het werk
uit te kunnen voeren 1 2 3 4 5
Mijn werk is over het algemeen erg belangrijk 1 2 3 4 5
Het resultaat van mijn werkzaamheden heeft een significant effect op
levens of welzijn van andere mensen 1 2 3 4 5
Hieronder vindt u enkele uitspraken. Wilt u op een schaal van 5 aangeven of u het eens of oneens bent met de uitspraken? Hierbij betekent 1 helemaal niet mee eens, 3 betekent neutraal en 5 betekent helemaal mee eens.
De volgende vragen gaan over de karakteristieken van uw functie
Volledig mee one ens Me e one ens Ne utra al Me e e ens Volledig mee e ens
Mijn werk vereist van mij dat ik een aantal complexe vaardigheden kan
uitvoeren 1 2 3 4 5
Mijn werk vereist veel samenwerking met andere mensen 1 2 3 4 5 Mijn werk is zo ingericht dat ik niet de kans heb om het werk van begin tot
eind af te ronden 1 2 3 4 5
De werkzaamheden uitvoeren die bij mijn baan horen geeft me inzicht in
hoe ik mijn werk uitvoer 1 2 3 4 5
Mijn werk is erg eentonig en er is veel herhaling 1 2 3 4 5
Mijn werk kan worden uitgevoerd door mensen die goed alleen kunnen
werken zonder te praten of te overleggen met andere mensen 1 2 3 4 5 Mijn leidinggevenden en collega’s geven mij vrijwel nooit een
terugkoppeling over hoe ik mijn werk doe 1 2 3 4 5
Het is van groot belang dat ik mijn werkzaamheden goed verricht omdat
het effect heeft op andere mensen 1 2 3 4 5
Het werk weerhoudt mij ervan om mijn persoonlijke initiatieven en of
oordelen over mijn werk kenbaar te maken 1 2 3 4 5
Leidinggevenden laten mij vaak weten hoe ik mijn werkzaamheden uitvoer 1 2 3 4 5 Mijn werk geeft mij de mogelijkheid om mijn werkzaamheden af te maken
wanneer ik er aan begonnen ben 1 2 3 4 5
Mijn werk zelf biedt weinig aanwijzingen om op te maken of ik mijn
werkzaamheden goed uitvoer 1 2 3 4 5
Mijn werk geeft mij de mogelijkheid om onafhankelijk en in alle vrijheid
mijn werkzaamheden te kunnen uitvoeren 1 2 3 4 5
