Loaded visuals : how the music video is used to question authorities

L O A D E D V I S U A L S

How the music video is used to question authorities

15 | 08 | 2016

Amsterdam

Universiteit van Amsterdam

Mathilde Bindervoet

Student number: 10897186

Lecturer: Hans Abbing

Second reader: Kobe de Keere

Word count: 22539

I N D E X

!

1- Introduction... 3

1.1 Abstract...3

1.2 Introduction ... 3

2- Research Questions ... 6

3- Theoretical Framework ... 7

3.1 Introduction ... 7

3.2 Influence... 10

3.3 Art worlds like social movements ... 15

3.4 Protest... 19

3.5 Creativity, struggle, commerce, struggle ... 28

4 Method ... 33

4.1 Introduction ... 33

4.2 Visual content analysis... 33

4.3 Selection process ... 34

4.4 Break down the image... 36

5 Results ... 41

5.1 Introduction ... 41

5.2 Videos... 41

5.3 From code to code groups ... 52

6 Analysis... 62

6.1 Introduction ... 62

6.2 Analyzing code group with theories... 62

7 Conclusion... 76

7.1 Introduction ... 76

7.2 Sub questions... 76

7.3 Questioning authorities... 89

8 Discussion ... 81

9 Reference... 83

10 Appendix ... 84

1 – I N T R O D U C T I O N

1.1 abstract

The music video can be used by performing artists to promote

their music and themselves, but they can also communicate a social or

political message. Since the early days of the music video, the videos

are used to question authorities. The actions of world leaders, police

officers or other armed forces are questioned through a fictional

narrative. Often research has been done to analyze how the music

video influences one’s conceptions or behavior, less on what these

visuals actually communicate. This research analyzes how the music

video is used to question authorities. With a visual content analysis I

broke down the images and analyzed every visual aspect of a set of

music videos. The videos show that questioning authorities is different

from being anti authority. Often depicted with humor or a degrading

narrative, the music videos analyzed in this research show they are

anti an authority that handles idiotic or unrightfully.

Keywords: music video; performing artist; authorities; communication

1.2 introduction

Loaded visuals: the title of this research refers to authorities that have

music videos communicate. Both aspects are represented in the visuals.

Videos are made to support music since the late ‘70’s and used by performing

artists to promote their music or themselves. Often the artist is in the centre of

attention, making it the main concern of the music video to showcase the

performer (Baxter et al., 1985). Baxter et al., (1985) found 23 content

categories in the 62 music videos that were analyzed. These categories vary

from sex to friendship, wealth, religion and political issues. This last category

is explained as “overt behaviors or symbols, which represent political issues,

entities, or institutions” (Baxter et al., 1985:337).

Some music videos explicitly question authorities by showing large

groups of people against armed police, or more directly addressing questions

towards politicians and world leaders. Not only is the artist able to promote

its music and him or her self via a music video, but also a social message is

often communicated with a music video. The performing artist often has a big

audience and therefore a bigger chance of bringing their message into the

public sphere and reaching the authorities.

In the 60’s music was used as a means for social movements to spread

their message. The Civil Rights movement and antiwar movements are

examples that used music to show what they stood for. Nowadays, artists like

Beyoncé and Kendrick Lamar make music that could be linked to the Black

Lives Matter movement and support their songs with music videos. The

music videos evidentially reflect on contemporary society. Therefore, this

research can contribute to current debates. This way of using the music video

is something one sees nowadays, but in the early years of the music videos

performing artists also used this medium to communicate a critical message.

Music Television (MTV) was founded in 1981 and a popular channel to view

to examine the influence they are able to have on society. MTV’s awards

show, the Video Music Awards present since 2011 an award for music video

with a social message. This could show that nowadays there is more interest

in using the music video for these purposes.

Although multiple music videos have a social message, it will stay a

commercial product: promoting the single, the album and the upcoming tour.

By questioning authorities the performing artists profiles himself as

uninterested in economic benefits, which in the end will lead to commercial

success. I find this a fascinating contradiction, especially when it comes to the

music videos questioning authorities. On the one hand one shows to question

authorities or institutions, but on the other hand one is very confirmative

towards a system. Therefore, the main question of this research is: how is the

music video used to question authorities? Since music videos with a message

that questions authorities where also made in early years of the music video, I

will compare these to see whether and what has changed overtime. The music

video is able to give a representation of the world, or a vision of how this

should be according to the artist. Often the music is used as a starting point to

create the video, but sometimes the music video presents a story separate

from the music. For this research I will focus on the visual aspect of the

music video, and leave the music itself aside.

2 - R E S E A R C H Q U E S T I O N S

Main question:

• How is the music video used to question authorities?

Sub questions:

• What is the message that visualized in the music video?

• What are overarching themes used to visualize the message?

• Has there been a change in the way the music video is used to

question authorities over time?

3 - T H E O R A T I C A L F R A M E W O R K

3.1 introduction

3.1.1 overview

In the theoretical framework of my research I will look into several

theories, by combining and juxtaposing them I will try to find an answer to

my research questions. This theoretical framework is also used to put the

music video in a wider perspective and create a deeper understanding of the

topic. I will start by giving an introduction to the music video. Theory by

Björnberg (1994) explains how the music video combines visuals and sound

in order to create a new cultural product, which has high art influences, but

also influences from advertisements. This makes the music video an

interesting cultural product with on the one hand artistic value, but which is

on the other very commercial. After this introduction I will use theories by

Alexander (2003), Horkheimer and Adorno (1944) and Ward et al. (2005) to

explain what kind of influence the music video can have on society.

Alexander (2003) uses reflection and shaping approaches to explain how art

mirrors society, but also the other way around: how art may influence society.

Horkheimer and Adorno (1944) give a critical approach to the culture

industry and I will try to answer the question whether the music video

encourages critical thinking or whether they offer the audience merely one

approach to think about the content.

After the section about society influencing art and vice versa, I will

further elaborate on how legitimating art is similar to legitimating social

movements, by using Baumann’s (2007) theory. After making this more

specific, I will elaborate the theoretical framework by explaining how culture

can be used and has been used by social movements as a means of protest. To

do so I will use theory by Koopmans (2004), Eyerman (2002), Collins (2012),

Durkheim (1912), Rodnitzky (1999) and conclude with theory by Hansen

(2005). As the music videos used for the analysis for my research all question

authorities, I find it important to explain how cultural products can be used in

order to do so.

As stated above, one can recognize influences from high art as well as

commercial culture in music videos. The music videos used for my research

could be considered as having a critical standpoint instead of a commercial

one. To complete the theoretical framework, I therefore use theory by Negus

(1995), Kalof (1999) and Bourdieu (1980) in order to research the crux

between the creative and the commercial. Where Negus (1995) states

creativity and commerce should not always be taken apart, Bourdieu (1980)

observes a constant struggle between the commercial and the

non-commercial.

3.1.2 visual + sound

By using theory developed by Björnberg (1994), I will give an

introduction to the music video in this sectin. I will explain how the music

video combines visuals and sound in one cultural product. Björnberg (1994)

explains how these two aspects engage with each other. Also, I will note how

the music video offers a wide spectrum of influences. On the one hand,

aesthetics and strategies of advertisements are used, but on the other one will

find links to video art and avant-garde modernism in music videos.

The music video is a cultural product. In this product, film and music

are combined to form a whole. Björnberg (1994) examined the relationship

between the music and the visual in music videos. According to Björnberg

(1994) the music video has been accepted as a postmodern phenomenon:

classical high art is combined with avant-garde modernism and popular

culture. The music video is used as a tool for advertisement and therefore

often uses the aesthetics of television advertising (Björnberg, 1994).

Björnberg (1994) states that some music videos have their own narrative

completely separate from the music. These videos sometimes show a classic

narrative of a Hollywood film. When this is the case there is a relationship

between the visuals and music that is similar to the relationship between film

and music. The music is supporting the narrative that is presented through

visuals. In other instances music videos lack a classic narrative that tells a

story, but merely show aesthetic shots. These kinds of videos show links to

video art (Björnberg, 1994).

Visuals of videos that lack narrative are often more dependent on the

music than videos that do have a narrative happening in ‘real time’

(Björnberg, 1994). Movements depicted in non-narrative music videos often

follow the rhythm of the music. Here, the music video visually follows the

structure of the musical syntax. This enables the viewer to quickly understand

the message of the video. This way the viewer will be able to understand the

message of the video quickly, but also to use his fantasy. Instead of giving the

viewer a set narrative, the visuals support the music and offer a range of

associations. Fragmented impression shots give the viewer an opportunity to

escape the reality of daily life (Björnberg, 1994). Björnberg (1994) points out

that the function of fantasy is also used for commercial purposes. Although

Björnberg (1994) points out these differences between music videos, he also

states that it is not a linear scheme and that one may find both aspects in one

video. This is demonstrated by the videos used for this research, where

aesthetic shots are often combined with a (classical) narrative.

3.2 influence

3.2.1 Influence of art

In this section I will explain the possible relationship of a music video

with society by using Alexander’s (2003) theory about reflection and shaping

approaches. The reflection approach states that the underlying meaning of art

can tell us a great deal about society. As the metaphors used for these

meanings can be interpreted very diversely, it still is difficult to objectively

say what these meanings exactly are. The shaping approach states that art

influences society, not the other way around. After explaining these

approaches I will question whether the music video is capable of inciting

critical thinking. According to Horkheimer and Adorno (1944), any form of

art produced by the cultural industry is created to eliminate any thought. I will

conclude this section by connecting the reflection and shaping approaches to

theory by Ward et al. (2005), regarding the influence of music videos. They

question whether the music video has the ability to influence young

adolescent’s sexual and gender schemas

I will explain Alexander’s (2003) reflection approach where she states

that images produced by art mirror society. Researchers therefore use the

reflection approach in order to become more familiar with societies. Pictures,

paintings, movies and books often portray persons, objects or situations that

contain information about our surroundings. By using contradictions even the

most fictional or mythical story has the ability to draw references from

society. Alexander (2003) argues that one will not find the meaning of art on

its surface, but more hidden and on a profounder level. Drawing from

Levi-Strauss’ (1967; Alexander, 2003) study, Alexander (2003) states that an

underlying meaning can be found by using a structural analysis. By analysing

narrative structures and combining these with conflicts of a society the

researcher will be able to do so.

Goffman (1979; Alexander, 2003) studied the relationship between

men and women as depicted in advertisement. He did this by studying

thousands of pictures and the differences in positioning, clothing, movements,

role and so on. Goffman (1979; Alexander, 2003) states that in advertisement

rituals from everyday life are used in order to drive a message home. These

rituals are hyper-ritualized (Alexander, 2003: 28) they merely show a

schematic representation of the ritual itself. Advertisers use stereotypical

themes in order to communicate their story, but these stereotypes are drawn

from everyday rituals. Thus the advertisements are a good example of an art

form that reflects on society. In my opinion this is to be seen in music videos,

where often everyday situations are depicted in a stylized manner.

The reflection approach enables us to elicit metaphors from

underlying structures. The problem though is that these metaphors can vary

widely. Therefore, one cannot be sure to which aspects of society or groups

the structures are referring (Alexander, 2003). Furthermore this approach

either assumes that artists are well aware of what is going on in their time, or

that the audience is fond of art that reflects society and therefore becomes

popular. In the end, both audience and producer create the meaning of art.

Therefore, the reflection approach does not suffice to clarify the relationship

between art and society, which brings me to the shaping approach. Shaping

theories rely on the idea that art has the ability to influence one’s ideas or

behaviour. Research on the effects of mass or popular culture often focuses

on the negative influences it may have on society. For example whether the

amount of children jumping off rooftops increases after viewing a Superman

film, or whether rap music endorses anti-police feelings (Alexander, 2003).

Other studies show that fine art has a civilizing function on different levels of

society, which led to an assumption that high art led to good behaviour and

mass culture could harm society. For the consumption of mass culture often

metaphors of drug abuse are used. Watching television, or reading pulp

fiction is compared to a half-conscious way of living. The addict of mass

culture is portrayed as one that stares lifelessly at a screen, with a glazed look

in one’s eyes, while constantly looking for the next fix (Alexander, 2003).

Horkheimer and Adorno (1944) formulated critical theories about

mass culture and culture industry. According to Horkheimer and Adorno

(1944) all entertainment is created for working class people. In order to cope

with their labour process, they have to be able to escape from it during

non-working hours. Entertainment must be easy to digest; the audience of mass

culture is passive, so consuming it must be effortless. Not only is critical

thinking not needed in order to consume mass culture, it is discouraged.

Being entertained equals being in agreement. Entertainment provides the

audience with the opportunity to forget about pain and suffering. Even when

this suffering is presented by entertainment, it is a way forget about things

and escape painful thoughts. According to Horkheimer and Adorno (1944:

467) products created in the culture industry can be “alertly consumed even in

a state of distraction.” Film, for example, can offer such a realistic

representation of everyday life with sound and visuals, that it pre-empts the

need to use one’s own imagination or spontaneity. The better the techniques

to reproduce everyday reality in film, the better the illusion. This leaves the

audience with opportunity to expand the mind (Horkheimer & Adorno, 1944).

According to Alexander (2003) products created in the cultural industry are

valued for their exchange value, and not for themselves, as is the case with

authentic arts. Some products show a pseudo-individuality, presented in a

way to disguise the fact they are brought to life merely to sell a product.

As stated above, Björnberg (1994) also notes that music videos offer

the viewer the opportunity to escape daily life. The music videos used for my

research all seem to give the audience content to consider, contrary to what

Horkheimer and Adorno (1944) presume. Although the music videos I have

studied present content critical of authorities, this could be viewed as

pseudo-individuality: presented as critical and artistic, but in fact created to sell

music. According to Horkheimer and Adorno (1944) the music video, as a

product of the creative industry, is created to be digested easily. In these

videos a critical standpoint towards authorities is presented, but they offer the

audience only one way of looking at these authorities. And as stated above, in

fact even when suffering or difficult topics are presented in entertainment

they are a means to escape those thoughts. Therefore, one could state that

music videos are easy to digest and do not encourage critical thinking.

3.2.2. effects of music videos

Research has also been done on the effects of music videos. The

audience watching music videos are often of a young age and the images

shown are often of a violent or sexual nature. According to Alexander (2003)

the portrayal of fictional violence can encourage to engage in violent actions

or to consider it a normal act. Ward et al. (2005) studied the influence of

music videos in correlation to black adolescents’ gender and sexual schemas.

“Gender schemas both organize our knowledge about gender and

guide how new gender-related information and experiences are attended to,

perceived, and processed ” (Ward et al., 2005: 144). Children are already

exposed to and develop knowledge about gender roles at a very young age.

This continues to develop in adolescence and when they start engaging in

sexual relationships. The music video, a popular platform among adolescents,

often pictures men as being powerful and dominant, where women are often

pictured as sexually objectified. Ward et al. (2005) state that these

stereotypical images of male and female roles are more present in the genre of

the music video than in other genres. Men do not only seem to play dominant

roles in the music videos, but they also seem to dominate the industry

surrounding the music video: the artists, lead actors and directors most of the

time are male. The roles assigned to women in music videos, are often

smaller decorative acting parts, where their job was to please the male (Ward

et al., 2005).

According to Ward et al. (2005), gender schema theory and

media-priming theory state that exposure to the stereotypical images of music videos

affects our gender schemas, influencing both social judgement and opinions.

The more one is exposed to these images, the stronger and more accessible it

is imprinted in our gender schemas. Therefore, Ward et al. (2005) presume

frequent exposure to music videos will influence one’s judgement and

behaviour they researched this by running a series of correlational analyses.

First of all they examined whether there was a correlation between frequent

exposure to five different media and gender stereotyping. Not only did they

run correlational analyses between music videos and gender stereotyping

variables, but also with other genres as sports programming and comedy. Out

of all tested genres, frequent exposure to music videos showed, as was to be

expected, the most associations with traditional roles of masculinity and

femininity.

After running these analyses Ward et al. (2005) examined whether

participants showed more endorsement of traditional roles of males and

females, after frequent exposure of stereotypes portrayed in music videos.

Results show that participants were equally entertained by videos in the

control and experimental conditions, but related more to the videos with

control conditions that were less sexual. Ward et al. (2005) conclude that, as

predicted, participants that were exposed to the experimental conditions were

more accepting of stereotypical gender and sexual roles than those exposed to

the control conditions. Their research also showed that both younger and

male participants from the experimental group were more supportive of

gender and sexual stereotypes than older and female participants from the

experimental group. Therefore, Ward et al. (2005) state that music videos

have the ability to influence adolescents’ judgement and beliefs of how males

and females should look, act and behave.

3.3 art worlds like social movements

In the following section I will use theory developed by Baumann

(2007), where he states that the way art, whether this is considered to be a

high or low form of art, is legitimated, is closely linked to the success of

social movements. Both follow a path that is similar to one another. The

music videos used in my research are not only used as artistic outlet, but are

also used as a tool for social movements by questioning authorities. By

showing how a cultural product and how social movements become

legitimized, I am able to explain how the music video became a widely

accepted cultural product and how this works similarly for social movements.

After this section, I will explain how cultural products can also be used by

social movements in order to spread their message.

Baumann (2007) explains legitimating as the process that makes ideas

that are not widely accepted, accepted. In the different art worlds this goes

through justification, consensus and in the end legitimacy. By justifying a not

yet accepted work of art one conforms that it has similar values and rules as

those art works that already have been accepted. It might relate to other forms

of art; a novel could be viewed as modernist literature, and a painting might

have characteristics of an expressionist painting. After the justification part of

the process, the audience has to become aware of its existence. The consensus

of a work of art has to exist on a wider level than the individual level: the

collective level. This can be on an internal level, where the cultural experts

give their judgement of the not yet accepted works of art, or this takes place

on an external level, where the general public accepts the new works of art.

Legitimacy can only be generated through the process of collective action

(Baumann, 2007). Becker (1982) states in Art Worlds that art can only be

produced and received by collective action, therefore the legitimating of art is

also a collective action. When linking this to the music video, one could state

that through a popular television channel like MTV and award shows, the

music video is legitimated by the producers of the cultural product on an

internal level as well as by general public on the external level.

After explaining the process of legitimacy in the art world Baumann

(2007) explains how this relates to succeeding of a social movement. He

argues that their main similarity lies in their goals of collective action:

making the ideas and concepts that are not yet accepted, widely accepted.

Most social movements start with an ideological statement; a counter idea of

what is accepted in society. By seeking acceptance from the public social

movements have a way in to generate further change in the “social structure,

system of rewards, or political system” (Baumann, 2007: 51). In order to be a

successful social movement, it has to become a widely accepted idea:

something that is not even thought about anymore, but part of common

knowledge by the general public, or for example politicians: the internal and

the external level (Bauman, 2007).

A changing cultural opportunity space, the institutionalization of

resources and practices, and a legitimating ideology are needed for both an

art form and as a social movement to become successful or legitimized

(Baumann, 2007:48). The opportunity space can be seen as the environment

in which a social movement exists. Factors from outside this environment

have the ability to influence the opportunity space; making room for new

ideas and in the end making room for a social movement or art form to

succeed. Often factors from the outside are needed to explain the success of a

new art form. Baumann (2007: 53) uses research by DiMaggio (1982) and

Levine (1988) to state that elites create new cultural products viewed as high

art in order to distinguish themselves from lower classes and thereby taking

their opportunity space when needed. Baumann also notes one should take in

consideration that factors influencing legitimacy are separate from factors

influencing mobilization. How would this work for the music video; usually

considered to be a popular form of art, but also created by elites? This being

said, factors from outside can make a music video legitimate e.g. by creating

new awards, or commenting on political situations.

Not only factors from the outside play a part in influencing the

legitimacy process, also factors from the inside have can determine the

success of a social movement. Intangible and tangible recourses, from money

to knowledge, are needed for a movement in order to find its way. In this

stage the production of art moves from an individual act to a collective act

(Baumann, 2007; Becker, 1982). For the production of a music video a long

list of resources is needed, from directors, cinematographers and media

strategists to accomplish symbolic work, to a production team to provide the

right lighting, camera work, studios etc., to accomplish physical work.

The final factor Baumann (2007) uses to explain the success of a

social movement is the process of framing. The movement’s ideas and

statements have to be made comprehensible for the audience. It has to be

explained in a way that the audience the movement wants to reach is appealed

by it and gets the ‘right’ way of understanding. A music video often makes

use of stereotypes so that the audience immediately understands what the

video is about. Baumann separates framing from the discourse and ideology,

and places them in an inverted pyramid. Discourses are in the top and use a

broad and loose vocabulary and concepts in order to communicate. In the

second level one finds the ideologies; they have more clear belief surrounding

normative claims. In the lowest level are the frames; here there is only one

way presented as the correct one. It contains the ideas of an ideology that

came through the discourse (Bauman, 2007: 58). Critics for example can

frame a certain cultural product or movement as art by referring to ideologies

of other established art movements. Critics also often point out cultural

references made in music videos. By doing so they show the music video’s

deeper layers and thus legitimize the video. The main criterium for the music

videos used in my research is that it has to question authorities. These videos

often have deeper layers underneath the narrative and are considered to be

controversial, therefore critics often write about them.

3.4 protest

3.4.1 third parties

In the following section I will elaborate on how the music video can

be used by artists and social movements in order to spread their message. I

will start by explaining Koopman’s (2004) theory about the way social

movements and political authorities interact and I will explain how the music

video can function as a communicative channel between these parties.

Koopmans (2004) also describes what it takes for a message to reach the

public sphere even before authorities might respond to it. After using

Koopmans’ (2004) theory about social movements in relation to political

authorities, I will use theory by Rodnitzky (1999), where he explains how one

is able to use protest music to explain American history. In the sixties and

early seventies music was often made in protest against or in praise of certain

political topics. I will also use theory by Eyerman (2002) to explain how

music does not only spread political messages, but is also capable of bringing

those together that feel connected to that message. I will end this section by

explaining how an artist like Beyoncé uses her music, videos and overall

personal narrative to spread a modern-day feminist message, by using theory

by Hansen (2015).

According to Koopmans (2004) social movements and political

authorities nowadays do not interact directly with each other, while in the past

people would gather in places located near authorities to make themselves

audible and visible. Authorities would respond in direct ways. Nowadays,

they use third parties to react to one another. Although protests often take

place at places where authorities are located, like national capitals or at places

where leaders come together to debate, a direct conversation between the two

parties is often lacking. For authorities to react to a protest, or to even be

aware of it’s existence, often the event has to be covered by media. When this

happens, they respond to the protest the way the media covered it and not

necessarily to the way events actually happened. Authorities are also most

likely to react in the media, instead of directly to the protesters (Koopmans,

2004). Social movements depend to a great extent on media for information,

but they also depend on media to reach the authorities they want to address.

On a daily basis a large amount of press statements is made and

political issues are debated about with several standpoints, but the media is

covering not all of them. Next to official statements there is also a large

amount of people that would like to bring their standpoint to the front

(Koopmans, 2004). Only a few of these voices are heard, because when it

comes to media coverage, space is limited. Communication channels like the

Internet make is possible to enlarge the public sphere. Although it seems

everybody has a fair chance of entering the public sphere by inserting

messages on the supposedly limitless Internet, the competition level is high

and for example search sites make it easier to visit one page of the other.

According to Koopmans (2004: 373) visibility, resonance, and legitimacy are

important concepts in order to communicate a message properly. To make a

message properly visible it should be reported in a number of communication

channels. When an artist makes a music video that questions authorities, the

artist may choose a certain channel in order to stress its support towards a

social movement. The way the message is communicated is also of high

value; what is the narrative? How is the story told and by whom? My research

shows that a music video can also be seen as a modern day protest. The way

the speaker of the message provokes reaction is what Koopmans (2004: 374)

calls resonance. Whether this is a positive reaction, or a negative reaction, in

combination with the narrative and its speaker the message has to stir up the

audience. And whether the audience takes this seriously or not depends on the

legitimacy of the message.

Although music videos are not used for news coverage and are not a

medium authorities use to react to social movements, artists may use this

medium in order to show their support for a social movement. Therefore one

could state that music videos that question authorities are used as a tool to

mediate between social movements and political authorities. By generating

attention for a certain topic from different perspectives, in this case via music

videos, it has more chance of reaching authorities that are able to make a

change.

3.4.2 music in social movements

In the next paragraphs I will explain, based on theories about protest

music, how artists and social movements use creative products to reach out to

a public audience and attempt social change. In the 60’s music was linked to

social movements like the Civil Rights movement, the anti war, the feminist

and the environmental movement. What was special about this time and this

kind of music, according to Rodnitzky (1999), is that this was the first time

American youth let their voices be heard over those of elder people. They

presented their political standpoints and showed their anger about race, the

environment and the hypocrisy of adults. They experienced adult hypocrisy in

the way adults disapproved of drugs, but consumed lots of alcohol themselves

and disapproved of principles of sexual behaviour of their children, but at the

same time had adulterous affairs themselves.

Folksingers like Bob Dylan sang about topics as discrimination, race

and warfare. During presidential campaigns politicians were directly

addressed in music, sometimes by showing their support, sometimes by

protesting against them. Rodnitzky (1999) explains American history by

linking political events to protest songs. For example, he explains how Bob

Dylan sang in 1963 about the fist black student at the University of

Mississippi in his song ‘Oxford Town,’ and how Pete Seeger responded to the

Vietnam War in 1967 in his song ‘Waist Deep in the Big Muddy.’ Multiple

anti-war songs were made in reaction to the Vietnam War, but in general

these songs were not played on the radio and never became ‘big hits’. Over

the years, protest songs became more universal. Artists tried to reach a large

audience; the songs became less and less specific. Now one was able to read

whatever one wanted to read in the lyrics. Specific folk protest-songs were

still made, but did not reach a wide audience or the top charts after 1965

(Rodnitzky, 1999).

Eyerman (2002) explains what the role of music can be in social

movements and how culture and politics are connected. He does this by on

the one hand giving examples of The American Civil Rights movement and

on the other of White Power music from Sweden. The Civil Rights movement

stood for more social integration and was called the singing movement

(Eyerman, 2002). By connecting the past, the present and the future in its

music, the Civil Rights movement became a collective. Although they would

at first not meet their group members in face-to-face settings like a concert,

cultural expressions gave black people from all over the United States a sense

of group belonging, identity and strength. The songs they collectively sang

where filled with coded meaning. Through music they could make themselves

visible and reflect on history (Eyerman, 2002).

Although the content of messages could be viewed as opposite from

each other, White Power groups also use music to spread their message and

create a collective experience (Eyerman, 2002). Collins’ (2014) interaction

ritual elaborates further on the rituals that create a collective experience. A

mutual focus of attention between two or more participants can lead to an

experience where one becomes “entrained in each other’s bodily

micro-rhythms and emotions” (Collins, 2014: 47). The participants have to be

physically present and create clear boundaries between the in- and outside.

This way, it is clear for the participants who belongs where. The participants

have to focus on the same object or activity. They also have to experience a

similar mood or emotion. Under these circumstances the interaction ritual

may create group solidarity, emotional energy in the individual, feelings of

morality and symbols that represent the group. Collins (2014) discerns formal

and natural rituals. Where formal rituals employ stereotyped activities and

symbols in order to create a mutual focus of attention, natural rituals creates

this without stereotyped procedures. Both are capable of creating intense

feelings of togetherness. Collins (2014) also notes that when shared attention

is lacking, rituals may fail. When rituals are forced, for example, they will

have a tiring effect, but when a ritual is successful the participants will feel

energized. Creating noises together in each other’s direction is a factor that

can develop into entrainment. When this ritual would be forced upon the

participants, it will cost them energy to act enthusiastic, and this will put them

off at a certain point.

Collins (2014) questions whether the bodily presence of the ritual is

necessary, as on the one hand it is a starting point of the ritual process, but on

the other hand modern communication technology makes it possible to

generate a sense of mutual attention. Sound is an essential element in the

process. When for example one watches a sports game on the television, he or

she will experience more excitement when the sound is on. The noises create

the feeling of being present in the crowd, more than mere visuals do (Collins,

2014). The music videos used for analysis in my research often have a

narrative that is separate from the music and lyrics. Therefore, one could state

that the visuals are actually silent. In No Church in the Wild, by Jay-Z and

Kanye West one does not hear sounds of a riot, but merely sees a stylized

image of a riot. In other videos, like M.I.A.’s Born Free, noises of the setting

are added, and this gives a stronger impression of being present. After a

successful ritual, the participant is prone to share the experience with others.

As Collins (2014) explains this as the need to be physically present in an

interaction ritual, I would like to point out that after Beyoncé released her

video Formation multiple videos appeared on YouTube where people filmed

their own shocked and enthusiastic reaction. On the one hand this shows that

after a successful ritual one wants to share this with others, but it may also tell

us that modern time technology makes the need of bodily presence less

needed.

Since it is possible to order White Power recordings online, it is easy

to participate without giving full commitment to the white power movement,

as Eyerman (2002) observes. After listening anonymously to the music, one

may feel tempted to join a concert, where the individual is encouraged to

shout and move along with the rest of the audience. The individual may thus

feel that he or she belongs to the collective. There is a strong and emotional

bond created by the musical experience of White Power music performances.

The fact that these performances are illegal in combination with the

aggressive nature of this type of music contributes to the emotional value

these performances have (Eyerman, 2002). These two examples show that

music is not only used to spread messages created by social movements, but

also to bring individuals together to connect in collective action whatever the

message may be.

When the performing artist already has a status of being a sacred

object, this will enhance the experience of the audience. In concert, the

performing artist is the collective focus point of the audience, which is the

crucial point of the interaction ritual (Collins, 2014). Collins (2014) draws

from Durkheim’s (1912) theory, who states that sacred objects are used to

represent a group. These objects can be icons or words, but also persons. The

persons and objects that represent the group, respect their symbols, and to

which the participant can relate become the sacred object. A political leader,

sport hero or celebrity can become the image of a crowd by whom he or she

is surrounded. The sacred status is a status that is added above the real

(Durkheim, 1912).

3.4.3 Beyoncé: the modern day celebrity feminist

Theory by Hansen (2015) will help me to bring together all other

theories used in this section. Hansen (2015) explains how Beyoncé uses a

music video to spread a contemporary message about feminism. This shows

that music and the music video are nowadays used as a tool in order to protest

against the status quo. It also brings in mind Koopman’s (2005) theory about

social movements; with visibility, resonance, and legitimacy Beyoncé

successfully spreads, her message.

Music played an important part in the feminist movement (Rodnitzky,

1999). Declarations of independence were often brought to the public with

humour and through music. Strong females from the first feminist movement

compensated their lack of musical knowledge with their identities and female

togetherness. Later generations of feminist groups employed more

experienced musicians; whether they played traditional songs or songs about

their own experiences, they always represented the feminist movement.

During performances feminist bands spoke to all women (Rodnitzky, 1999).

The second wave of feminists even tried to make music that represented the

worldwide view of feminists.

Nowadays, artists like Beyoncé still claim to represent the female

feminist. She is strong and independent, but she is also a sexual being.

Hansen (2015) made an audiovisual analysis of Partition: a music video and

song by Beyoncé. He wonders whether she indeed represents the empowered

woman she claims to be in her personal narrative, rather an objectified

woman presented with stereotypical gender and sexuality norms. According

to Hansen (2015) a pop star’s personal narrative is performative. For a pop

star the way a story is told is as important as what the story tells. The identity

of a pop star as shown in videos, interviews, songs etc., is a character he or

she created for the public eye in order to bridge the gap between the artist as a

real person and as the one seen on those platforms. Beyoncé displays herself

as having total control over her music and other creative outputs. Life is but a

dream is ‘a film by Beyoncé,’ in which she shows how she is the one that

makes the decisions in the creative process of making her music and

performances. She also gives the public a glimpse of her personal life,

presenting herself as a loving wife, mother and daughter. In 2013 she released

without any prior marketing the album BEYONCÉ. Each song is accompanied

by a video, making this album ‘the visual album.’ In the songs Beyoncé

preaches gender equality and female empowerment (Hansen, 2015). Bringing

this together with the documentary she made, she presents herself as a

feminist both on and off stage.

One could state that Beyoncé’s personal narrative clashes with

Partition. The song contains a French monologue about a woman’s sexual

desires, suggesting feminism and enjoying sexual pleasure can go hand in

hand. The voice is soft and sensual and the video shows Beyoncé doing a pole

dance routine in a nightclub (Hansen, 2015). This way she presents the

modern day feminist as one that is also a sexual being, but when looking at

this video and listening to the music one could state that she is objectified like

females are often objectified in music videos: reacting to the gazes of the

audience. At the start of the video, Beyoncé is filmed in the shadow, showing

merely the contours of her body curves. She is made anonymous, which

according to Hansen (2015) is the same as being objectified. Her performance

throughout the video resembles a highly sexual pop performance following

the way she moves, is dressed, the props used and the venue in which the

video is shot, in combination with the music and lyrics one hears.

Although this seems to clash with Beyoncé’s personal narrative, she

presents the music and video as part of a statement about female

empowerment. She shows that a striptease or pole dance routine does not

have to mean a woman is, as many think, being exploited. It can also show a

woman’s claim of sexual freedom and freedom of choice (Hansen, 2015).

With this video Beyoncé presents erotic display as a form of female

empowerment. Hansen (2015) concludes his article by stating that the

boundaries between female empowerment and objectification are blurring and

constantly evolving. Therefore I close this section by stating that, whether one

agrees on Beyoncé’s personal narrative or not, it seems to show that music,

and nowadays also visuals, are still used to advocate feminism and protest

against the status quo. Thereby, this example shows us how a cultural product

like a music video can tell us something about the time we live in.

3.5 creativity, struggle, commerce, struggle

3.5.1 creativity + commerce

As I already mentioned above, consumption of mass culture is

considered to be harmful. Not only for society, but being ‘too’ commercial

can also harm an artistic career. In this section I juxtapose theory by Negus

(1995) with theory by Bourdieu (1980). Negus (1995) offers several

standpoints about the combination of creativity and commerce and states that

although a cultural product is commercial, that does not mean it cannot be

creative. Bourdieu (1980) states there is a disavowal of economy: a collective

pretending of not being interested in economic and material profit. It is

frowned upon to strive for economic capital, but it is not to strive for

symbolic capital. According to Bourdieu (1980) symbolic capital will in the

long run always lead to economic capital. This leads to a constant struggle

between the commercial and the non-commercial, a struggle also to be seen

among artists in the music industry.

Although this is not the main focus of this research, I find it important

to dwell a moment upon the music industry to place the music video in a

broader perspective. One could say that the music video is an outcome of this

industry. When it comes to the music industry, one should be aware that this

is a large profit-conscious industry where just a few entertainment companies

worldwide call the shots. These companies take care of the production,

manufacturing and distribution (Negus, 1995). The music video is part of the

music industry; a product made to promote a single, album or tour. It serves

as a popular form of entertainment among adolescents; an audience that

strongly reacts to popular culture (Kalof, 1999). Research shows that the

music video has the ability to influence one’s mood and attitude in a negative

way (Kalof, 1999). In a short amount of time, often around three minutes, the

music video has the ability to influence especially the young on a cognitive

level (Baxter et al., 1985). Just like the majority of recorded popular music, it

will always be commercial in a way.

Creativity and commerce are generally considered as opposites. Negus

(1995) argues that especially when it comes to the production of popular

music one should not see a conflict between creativity and commerce, but try

to define what creativity is and what commerce is. According to Negus

(1995) creativity and commerce should not only be considered as two

opposite concepts, with the artists, producers, musicians and performers on

one side and the record companies and corporations on the other. Commerce

often has a negative connotation in combination with creativity. A Marxist

approach would say commerce corrupts art and will be a hindrance to the

creative process of the artist. A complete opposite approach states creativity

and commerce are always closely related; one is not able to produce one

without the other (Negus, 1995). Therefore although Negus (1995) states

there should be a clearer definition of what exactly defines creativity and

what defines commerce, he especially offers a range of standpoints in the

matter.

Negus (1995) also notes that although a cultural product is

commercial, that does not mean it is not creative. He gives examples of rock

and rap music. Both music genres started off as non-commercial, but through

the process of becoming popular both music genres are nowadays

commercial. The ways words, techniques, performative practices and visual

appearance are combined require creative skills. When a maker of creative

goods, whether this is a musician or a maker of fine art, starts working in the

art business, he or she often starts non-commercial. As it is frowned upon to

show interest in material success, new makers start their career by merely

looking for a way to make a name for oneself (Bourdieu, 1980).

3.5.1 the field of struggle

According to Bourdieu (1980: 261) art worlds show a disavowal of the

economy: a collective pretending of not being interested in economic and

material profit. Artists often start working in order to gain symbolic capital.

Symbolic capital is the credit one gains by misrecognizing, but therefore

recognizing economic profits. In the art worlds it is frowned upon to show

interest in material success, while on the other hand symbolic success is not.

When a producer of cultural goods finds a commercial way of working, he or

she is most likely to miss out on opportunities one does gain by showing

disinterest in economic profits. When a producer of cultural goods only has

its conviction as capital, and disavows but not denies the practical necessities

to make art and make a living, he or she is able to make a name for oneself in

the market. Therefore, showing disinterested or even an anti-economic

attitude can actually be considered as a form of economic rationality.

Bourdieu (1980) states that the only reason artists can afford to show this

disinterest is because symbolic capital in the long run will always lead to

economic capital.

Although Negus (1995) states that cultural products that are

commercial also are creative, this does not say anything of the value of this

product. In order to become a successful artist, but still keep one’s integrity

one has to walk a fine line between showing interest in symbolic capital while

disavowing the economic capital outcome of it. And in order to do so, one

way or the other, an artist has to become to a certain extent commercial.

Someone, an art trader, publisher etc., who discovered the artist has to market

the artist with all one’s might while at the same time defend his artistical

integrity. It is the person that frees the artist from financial difficulties and

encourages him or her to continue working. The charisma ideology is based

on the belief that the artist himself is the true producer of the art’s value, but

when it comes to the value of art, Bourdieu (1980) states it to be obvious that

this covers much more than merely the production costs. Therefore, Bourdieu

(1980: 263) wonders: “Who is the true producer of the value of the work – the

painter or the dealer, the writer or the publisher, the playwright or the theatre

manager?”

The value of art is created in the field of production (Bourdieu, 1980:

265). In this system cultural goods are surrounded not only by the producer of

it and manager, but also by other agents and institutions in order to contribute

to the value of art and belief thereof. A constant struggle and competition

between different agents (for example critics) with a range of different

interests, and between producers (author - publisher) is at the basis of the

value and belief of a work of art. Although together they create the economic

and symbolic value of art, in the heart of this struggle lies the disavowal of

the economy: recognizing the values of disinterestedness (Bourdieu, 1980). A

similar struggle comes to the front when an unknown artist becomes a

recognized artist. The notion that good art can be distinguished from bad or

non-art, gives competitors the ability to rule each other out from the field. The

new coming artist therefore has to convey its style or definition of art as being

dominant. The artist does this by putting his work at stake in- and outside the

field of production and by doing so it will give the work of art value

(Bourdieu, 1980).

Bourdieu (1980) states that there is a constant and reappearing

struggle between the commercial and the non-commercial, the small and the

large-scale productions. Cultural goods have to come across as genuine, and

therefore not commercial, in order to be taken seriously. Genuine art is

considered to exist in order to generate cultural capital, where commercial art

merely is merely created to gain economic profit. Once an artist receives

recognition for his work and becomes ‘too commercial,’ there will be a next

generation ready to preach for a return to sources and thereby claim a new

definition of art. Often they do this by mirroring what happens in the field of

art. By trying to not play the game by the rules or change the status quo, and

therefore disavowing the economy, they play the game exactly by its rules.

Bourdieu (1980) states that this constant struggle between the established

artists, struggling to stay in focus, and the artists that yet have to make a name

for themselves is what creates the history of the field. This he calls the field of

struggle. New art movements are created in the struggle for recognition, by

naming resemblances and differences (Bourdieu, 1980: 289). All agents in the

field started once as an outsider, hoping to create a name for oneself. Once an

artistic act has found its place in time and ‘made history,’ previous artistic

acts that ‘made history’ are pushed into the background.

4 – M E T H O D

4.1 introduction

In the Method chapter of this research I will elaborate on the way I

decided on the criteria the videos had to fulfill in order to be representative

for this research. I will also elaborate on how I systematically analyzed the

videos and present the limitations to the method used for this research.

4.2 visual content analysis

In order to answer my research questions I performed a visual

content analysis of music videos. Content analysis is used to analyze

messages; these can be written, verbal or visual (Elo & Kyngäs, 2008).

Although the music video contains both audio and the visual, I chose to

merely analyze the visual aspect of the data. As mentioned in the theoretical

framework, a music video is able to have a storyline completely separate

from the music. Music can generate associations and pictures in our minds,

but also to influence one’s emotional status (Baxter et al., 1985). In order to

keep a clear focus on the content and message of the visuals and not be

influenced by the words and melody sang by the artist, I chose to solely

analyze the images presented in the video. Therefore, I performed the

content analysis with the sound off.

By using a content analysis one is able to systematically and

objectively describe phenomena. Close to a discourse analysis, the success of

a visual content analysis depends on asking the right questions and looking

critically and systematically at the materials (Schneider, 2013). A content

analysis can be performed in both a deductive and an inductive way, both

quantitative and qualitative. I did not start this research with a hypothesis or

existing theories about the matter, therefore this research has an inductive

approach. By first of all taking everything from the data into account, and

later on observe and combine my findings I was able to make a general

statement (Elo & Kyngäs, 2008). The content analysis is done in three phases;

preparation, organizing and reporting (Elo & Kyngäs, 2008: 109). During the

preparation phase of the research one decides what to analyze. The videos

used for this research all had to fulfill a set of criteria in order to be

representative. These criteria I will describe later on in this section. After

preparation, I organized the data by finding out what is happening in the

music videos. I did this with a coding system in three stages, also explained

later on in this section. By viewing and coding the videos several times and

writing down every step in memos, I was able conduct an analysis in the

reporting phase of the visual content analysis.

4.3 selection process

4.3.1 criteria

I prepared by viewing videos that were nominated for ‘best video with

a social message,’ an award presented at the VMA’s since 2011. Videos

nominated for this award have a broad range of themes: from gay rights and

other political issues to beauty standards and personal victories. Some videos

did not communicate a social message with its visuals, but merely supported a

song that had a social message. Since 1981 the Grammy’s also present an

award for best music video. By entering search terms in YouTube and

Google, I found several lists with politically charged videos. After viewing

videos on YouTube, I often got recommendations for similar type of videos. I

created a list of 66 music videos with ‘a social message’ from the period1981

– 2016.

Searching through these videos I found 26 videos representative for

my research. In order to create a sample of music videos representative for

the main question, how is the music video used to question authorities?, the

videos had to meet to several criteria. To answer the main question and the

sub questions, the videos have to question authorities. To make my choices

systematically, I decided to only use videos for my analysis where politicians,

world leaders, police officers or other armed forces were depicted. I searched

for symbols that represented authorities. Police officers are often armed, wear

a uniform and sometimes even a patch with ‘police’ written on it. Politicians

and world leaders are often portrayed wearing a suit and speaking towards an

audience. Also images of political situations are often depicted in these

videos. After I found a video I thought was representative for my research, I

searched for more background information in order to be sure the video was

questioning authorities.

One of the sub questions is whether there has been change overtime in

the way the music video is used to question authorities. I decided to make a

comparison between the early years of the music video and the last years of

the music video. Although before this point in time there were already videos

made to support music, the year 1981 in which MTV was founded is used in

several studies as a starting point for research about music videos (Baxter,

1985; Ward et al., 2005). As noted above, 1981 is also the year in which the

annual Grammy Awards started with presenting an award for best music

video. MTV used to give 80% of their programming time to showing video

clips of recording artists (Baxter et al., 1985). Therefore, I continued this

trend and selected videos from 1981 till 1991 as music videos from the early

years. Nowadays MTV still airs music videos, but it does not consume as

much time as it did in their early years. Music videos that are made nowadays

are mostly viewed on websites like YouTube. The second group of videos I

analyzed is made between 2006 and 2016.

4.3 .2 the videos

From the period ’81-’91 I found 16 videos and from the period

’06-’16 I found ten videos. From both periods I chose four videos randomly.

Therefore, I performed the visual content analysis over a total of eight videos.

The length of a music video usually is around three minutes (Baxter, 1985),

but the videos used for this research vary from four to ten minutes. A possible

reason for this could be that the videos used for this research try to convey a

broader message than merely that the song has to be promoted.

4.4 break down the image

4.4.1 defining visuals

While doing a visual content analysis the researcher has to be aware of

its own biases (Schneider, 2013). To eliminate as many biases as possible, the

analytical process is done in three steps: describing, explaining, analyzing. By

following these steps, one breaks down the image. Each music video was

described, explained and analyzed separately in ATLAS.ti. After doing the