Anglo-American Traits
The Depiction of Society and Manners in Nineteenth
Century Anglo-American Travel Writing
MA Thesis European Studies Universiteit van Amsterdam
Simone Monné
Student Number: 10617493 Supervisor: Dr A. Drace-Francis Second Supervisor: Dr S. Rajagopalan
Table of Contents
1. Introduction
32. Background
7History Anglo-American relations 7 English and American character in the nineteenth century 9 English and American nineteenth century stereotypes 12
3. English Travel Writers in America
14Frances Trollope- Domestic Manners of the Americans 14 Frederick Marryat – Diary in America 18 Charles Dickens – American Notes for General Circulation 21
4. American Travel Writers in England
25James Fenimore Cooper – Gleanings in Europe: England 25 Ralph Waldo Emerson – English Traits 29 Nathaniel Hawthorne – Our Old Home 33
5. Analysis
386. Conclusion
461. Introduction
The nineteenth century was the first century the United States experienced as an independent country. During this time, the Americans were passionately searching for their own identity and with that their own cultural traditions. Despite losing one of their major colonies at the end of the eighteenth century, Britain was still going strong and the nineteenth century marked the height of the British Empire. For nineteenth century American travellers, Europe was by far the most popular destination. Newspapers and magazines were full of travel letters, and travel narratives sold well. Until late into the nineteenth century, there was a general believe among Americans that their country lacked any form of proper culture, and in order to obtain cultural knowledge, one had to travel to Europe, where culture was abundant. Another reason for the enormous amount of travel narratives published in the nineteenth century was the fact that it offered many authors an instant format for success. It was an ‘established, respectable, and relatively undemanding literary genre’1 as
described by Stowe. It offered aspiring writers, who were not necessarily keen travellers, an opportunity to make their way into the literary world.
Andrew Campbell states that ‘British and American observers more often that not simply saw what confirmed their own national (or personal) prejudices instead of accurately reporting on what actually existed.’2 He is
therefore of the opinion that such travel narratives should be taken with a pinch of salt. While there is no denying that these books are biased in every possible way, as is the case with all travel literature due to the subjective nature of the genre, much information about the attitude of both countries towards each other can be gained through the information provided by travel writers. Therefore to suggest they ought to be taken with a pinch of salt does not do any justice to the historical importance of 1 William W. Stowe, Going Abroad, Princeton: Princeton University Press 1994, p.11
travel narratives. Due to the special relationship between the two countries, their shared history, and of course their common language, one wonders how the people of both countries perceived each other. Anglo-American travel narratives offer a great way of finding out what the English thought of Americans and vice versa in terms of each other’s manners and character traits. By analysing six popular nineteenth century Anglo-American travel books this research will attempt to reveal how the English and Americans felt about each other in terms of manners and character.
Only recently have several academic disciplines started to embrace travel writing as a serious field of study. Judith Hamera and Alfred Bendixen describe travel itself as ‘a tool of self –and national fashioning that constructs its object even as it describes it.’3 Peter Hulme and Tim
Youngs stress the relative novelty of the academic approach to travel writing, and state that it is a ‘broad and ever shifting genre with a complex history which has yet to be properly studied.’4 Roy Bridges has attempted
to give a general definition and purpose of travel writing, and describes it as ‘(…) a discourse designed to describe and interpret for its readers a geographical area together with its natural attributes and its human society and culture’.5 In this research, descriptions of nature are largely
ignored, as descriptions of human society and culture, habits/manners and character traits in particular, are the main focus.
When travelling, the ‘other’ is mostly described by his manners and his overall characteristics, especially is relation to one’s own cultural background. As mentioned earlier, the nineteenth century was the first century the United States endured as an independent country since the European colonisation, and the country was trying to establish its own identity in relation to its newly built society, but was also interested in its roots, which caused many to cross the Atlantic to England. With the British 3 Judith Hamera and Alfred Bendixen, ‘Introduction: new worlds and old lands – the travel book and construction of American identity’ in The Cambridge Companion to American
Travel Writing, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2009, p.1.
4 Peter Hulme and Tim Youngs, ‘Introduction’ in The Cambridge Companion to Travel
Writing, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002, p. 10.
5 Roy Bridges, ‘Exploration and travel outside Europe (1720-1914)’ inThe Cambridge Companion to Travel Writing, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002, p. 53.
Empire being at the height of its power during the reign of Queen Victoria (1837-1901), the question arises how the English felt about their disaffected former colony. Moreover, the nineteenth century marks the rise of nationalism, which caused people to start thinking more about the concept of national character, resulting in the creation and elaboration of ‘autostereotypes’, which consist of views people have of their own national character, rather than of other nations and their people.6
For this research, six nineteenth century travel narratives were analysed and compared, three narratives by English authors written about America, and three by American authors, written about England. The three English narratives used are: Frances Trollope’s Domestic Manners of the
Americans (1832), Frederick Marryat’s Diary in America (1839), and
Charles Dickens’s American Notes for General Circulation (1842). The American narratives used for this research are: James Fenimore Cooper’s
Gleanings in Europe: England (1837), Ralph Waldo Emerson’s English Traits (1856), and Nathaniel Hawthorne’s Our Old Home (1863). These six
books were all widely read at their time of publication in the nineteenth century, and some of them still are today. These travel narratives were chosen based on the fact that there were particularly influential in terms on public opinion,7 and are thus likely to contain relevant descriptions of
‘the other’. It must be noted that all authors solely refer to England, instead of Britain as a whole. The three British authors are in fact all English, and the three American authors discuss their experiences in England. Therefore, I too will refer here to England, except when it is to be made clear that the whole of Britain is concerned. Trollope, Dickens and Marryat all refer to the United States as America, and I will again follow their path and thus when discussing their work, I will refer to the country as America.
6 Peter Mandler, The English National Character: The History of an Idea from Edmund
Burke to Tony Blair, New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 2006, p.53.
7 See for example Peter Mandler, The English National Character, p.5, Patricia Ingham,
‘Introduction’ in American Notes by C. Dickens, London: Penguin Classics, 2004, p.xi,
The word ‘manners’ is often used with different connotations, and it is thus relevant to establish a general definition before analysing the narratives. In this study I will apply the term to cultural habits and social behaviour. While many slightly different definitions are used, both in daily life by people themselves, as well as in dictionaries, this definition is most general and is likely to give the most valuable information regarding the characterisation of ‘the other’ in Anglo-American travel literature.
In order to understand the travel books in their contemporary context it is essential to have some knowledge about the Anglo-American relations during the time of the travels and publication of the narratives. Therefore I will briefly address the nineteenth century historical context of the relations between Great Britain and the United States. Moreover, a brief overview of existing research on English and American manners and character will be given, including research on stereotypical portrayals of both nationalities. The knowledge about these stereotypical characterisations of both countries and their inhabitants will make certain comments made by the travel writers more understandable. Each of the narratives has been analysed separately regarding the description of manners and character traits in order to form a complete image of the way in which the two nationalities perceived each other in the nineteenth century. A major feature of travel literature in general is the description of ‘the other’s’ manners and overall culture. Through describing the differences between ourselves and the one being observed, we reveal crucial information not only about ‘the other’ and our own culture, but also about the established relations between the countries in question. It therefore could function as an appropriate measurement of the feelings American and English people had towards each other during the publication of these narratives. By comparing the data collected from the narratives to existing research on both American and English manners and character, a conclusion will be drawn regarding the analysed description given by the six authors, and an attempt will be made to place it within a broader context of the overall Anglo-American relationship in the nineteenth century.
History Anglo-American Relationship
The United States of America and Great Britain enjoy a special relationship. Not only are they connected through the same language, but also do they share a common history, with the U.S. as ‘the former child’ of Great Britain that has grown up to be more powerful than its mother. After their independence, the U.S. tried to establish itself as culturally different from Britain. By travelling to the mother country they hoped to find certain aspects of British culture that would affirm their ‘differentness’, but also to find culture to bring home, as many American felt their country lacked cultural tradition. In order to understand the travel narratives discussed here properly it is useful to have a general idea of the relationship between America and Britain in the nineteenth century, and its history before that time.
Beginning in 1607 with the establishment of Jamestown, the first permanent English settlement in the United States, the rule of Britain over the U.S. lasted 176 years. Up until the 1760s, the colonists did not consider it a disadvantage being part of Great Britain, if anything, they realised that being part of the country that had established itself as the world’s leading country could only be regarded as a major advantage. Britain considered itself a good coloniser, allowing many freedoms in its overseas possessions. Until the middle of the eighteenth century, Britain paid little attention to the internal affairs of its colonies.8 They merely
functioned as affirmation of the position of Great Britain in the world, and were valued for their contribution to British wealth. The North American colonies, however, were not all Britain had hoped for. Their overseas possessions functioned, after all, mainly as a source of income, and compared to their other overseas territories, North America’s contributions were disappointing.
Americans oversaw their own affairs, and the colony functioned quite independently from its mother country. No other European overseas territory enjoyed as much control over their own affairs as British North America did. Tensions started to grow after 1763, when Britain decided to 8 Howard Temperley, Britain and America since Independence, Hampshire: Palgrave, 2002, p.7.
raise taxes in America, much to America’s dismay. Britain felt that the purpose of having overseas territory was that it ought to be profitable; an idea America did not live up to. Americans came to realise they did not have the same rights as the people of Britain, and with the slogan ‘No taxation without representation’ they began their road to independence.
While their independence meant controlling and ruling their own land, it also meant they were excluded from the British network and its benefits. This resulted in a great disadvantage for the Americans, since, according to Temperley, their prosperity mainly depended on overseas trade.9 In 1783, Britain implemented trading restrictions that banned
American ships from trading with British overseas territories (including Canada and the British Caribbean). Britain itself remained an important buyer of American goods, with America supplying its former coloniser with tobacco and rice. Temperley states that ‘with virtually complete control over the seas, the British displayed increasing arrogance, interpreting maritime law and convention to suit their interests’,10 and thus they did
not shy away from placing more trading restrictions upon the Americans. In 1807, the British ship HMS Leopard attacked and boarded the USS Chesapeake along the coast of Norfolk, Virginia due to suspicions of the presence of British deserters on the American ship. Three crewmembers of the Chesapeake were killed, and eighteen were wounded. The Americans responded with outrage, and the Chesapeake-Leopard Affair is now remembered as one of the events leading up to the War of 1812. The conflict lasted two-and-a-half years, and ended with the Treaty of Ghent on 24 December 1814. While neither America nor Britain came out as victor, the American victories during the war increased the sense of honour among Americans, which boosted American nationalism.
The nineteenth century was foremost the century of nationalism. At the end of the eighteenth century, this upcoming nationalism prevented Americans from crossing the Atlantic. Often considered as a betrayal towards everything American, foreign travel was out of the question and
9 Ibid., p. 20.
everything European was rejected. This idea, however, did not last long, as the Napoleonic Wars ended, many Americans travelled to Europe.11
Even though most Americans had never set foot on British soil, there was a strong feeling of hostility among them towards the ‘British dominant traits, namely upper-class snobbery and lower-class subservience’.12 Yet
despite these negative feelings, America remained surprisingly sensitive to any criticism from Britain, for example in the form of British travel writing. The British on the other hand were not so keen on their American cousins either. In nineteenth century Britain, it was easier to find signs of Germanophillia than of any pro-American sentiment, and, as Andrew Campbell puts it, their general opinion of the United States was often not that different from their opinion of France or Russia.13
English and American character in the nineteenth century
According to Paul Langford, travel writing indeed played an important role in the interpretation of English national character in the nineteenth
century, when the concept of a binding national character gained more interest.14 Langford also stresses that the English themselves attributed
greatly to the establishment of the English national character. The English novel, he mentions for example, was saturated with impressions of English character and manners, and thus caused international travellers visiting England to see the country with a preformed idea of its people.15
Langford gives an overview of the notion of English manners and characters throughout history, for which he used many accounts from travel writers, which again underlines the importance of the field. He describes the English as practical thinkers, who use more common sense than any of their contemporaries on the continent.16 Furthermore, he
11 Foster Rhea Dulles, American Abroad, Ann Arbor, MI: The University of Michigan Press, 1964, p. 2.
12 Howard Temperley, Britain and America since Independence, p. 44.
13 Duncan Andrew Campbell. Unlikely Allies: Britain, America and the Victorian Origins of
the Special Relationship. London: Hambledon Continuum, 2007, p.5 -8
14 Paul Langford, Englishness Identified: Manners and Character 1650-1850, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000, p.11
15 Ibid., p. 10
mentions the closed personality of the English observed by many
foreigners. Contact with other was not desired, and people were very fond of their privacy, especially regarding their home. According to Langford ‘it was a frequent complaint by foreigners that it was out of the question to call on an Englishman at the dinner hour and expect dinner. Indeed, to attempt to do so was a breach of manners.’17 Dinner was to be enjoyed
solely with the family. Additionally, the English house itself was secluded from the presence of any strangers, as Langford describes the English home as ‘not a space but an organism that ceased to function if reduced to four walls’.18 Peter Mandler states that the English individual thinking
was a result of the individual liberty enjoyed by the people.19
While this description of the lives of the English seems to indicate a domestic life where the warmth of the family home is considered most important, Langford refutes the idea of a warm and loving English family. Foreign travellers were often surprised by the independence of English children, especially regarding the sons, who were often separated from their parents at a young age to attend a boarding school.20 Moreover, little
affection was observed between parents and children, as children were expected to address their parents in a strained respectful manner.21
While the United States were, in the nineteenth century, a relatively new country, many of the descendants of European immigrants were born and raised in the country, thus creating their own identity, and with that habits different from those of their European ancestors.
Several studies have been published on American alcohol
consumption, which, according to researchers, different strongly from the common drinking habits in Europe. Lender and Martin describe the
abundant use of alcoholic beverages as ‘a normal part of personal and community habits’.22 In colonial America, usually beer and cider were
17 Ibid., p. 107
18 Ibid., p.110
19 Peter Mandler, The English National Character: The History of an Idea from Edmund
Burke to Tony Blair, p.53.
20 Ibid., p 111
21 Ibid.
consumed during meals, which resulted in most Americans becoming ‘steady drinkers’.23 The English immigrants brought their own beer
traditions with them, however, most of these recipes turned out to form quite a challenge for the colonists, as not all ingredients were easily obtainable in the New World. Hard liquor, however, could be made much more easily with local ingredients.
Lender and Martin state that the period from the 1790s to the early 1830 is likely to be the ‘heaviest drinking era in the nations history’.24
People firmly believed in the health benefits of alcoholic beverages, and a sip of whiskey before breakfast was not uncommon.25 It relieved pain, and
especially for farmers who were exposed to hard work, it made working a lot less unpleasant. Lender and Martin even mentions that schoolchildren were no exception, and were encouraged to take little sips of whiskey several times a day.26 Worth noting is that the American drinking habits
rarely resulted in drunkards causing trouble. It was simply part of people’s daily life, and public drunkenness was punishable by law.27
Lois W. Banner describes ‘genteel’ as the most important virtue for American women, and states that ‘the pursuit of personal beauty has always been a central concern of American women’.28 Foreign travellers
not rarely mentioned the attention women paid to fashion, which was a habit not limited to women living in the major cities, as rural working class women too attempted to be as fashionable as possible.29
There was a certain idea of what the perfect American woman should look like, and how she ought to behave in public. The American woman ought to be tall and slender, an ideal going back to the French revolution and the reign of Napoleon, where height and weight were also considered, as Banner puts it, ‘defining features of beauty’.30 They were
expected to be refined and to embody the idea of beauty. Dietary rules 23 Ibid.
24 Ibid., p. 46.
25 Ibid., 47.
26 Ibid.
27 Ibid., p. 18
28 Lois W. Banner, American Beauty, New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1983, p. 3.
29 Ibid., p.14
were to be followed, and a genteel woman was not expected to be seen eating in public.31 The idea that women were only relevant because of
their beauty resulted in several psychological and physical problems for many of these women:
In the early 1850s Catherine Beecher conducted a rudimentary survey among the hundreds of women she met in her nationwide travels in order to support her observation that middle-class women were always ill – and observation validated by recent historians. American women were prey to gynecological ailments that doctor could not treat, to emotional disorders that were brought on by boring, powerless lives, to illnesses accentuated by a lack of exercise and physically damaging dress.32
American women were thus only judged on their beauty, and were not likely to be considered fully-fledged participants of society. While women in Europe were by no means (politically) powerful, their American
counterparts had no influence on society whatsoever, and according to D.W. Brogan, society had little place for them.33
Brogan describes the nineteenth century American as kind and enthusiastic, but also as having an entrepreneurial attitude, which he attributes to the spirit of the adventurous European ancestors who often hoped of creating better lives for themselves in the New World.34 Brogan
also states that in America, the idea of community was regarded as a vital part of their society. He notes that ‘American life imposes respect for the human interest of the community in your private affairs’.35 In other words,
one’s privacy was not considered to be of major importance.
English and American nineteenth century stereotypes
Both Americans and the English have been subject to the creation of different stereotypes, as is the case with all countries and cultures. Such 31 Ibid.
32 Ibid., 51.
33 Ibid., p. 56.
34 D.W. Brogan, The American Character, New York: Vintage Books, 1956, p. 30.
stereotypes often influence the perception travellers have of the country they visit, and it is thus relevant to distinguish the different stereotypes of both the English and the Americans circulating in the nineteenth century before examining the Anglo-American travel narratives.
In the case of the English, two main stereotypes have been around for centuries: ‘the Englishman’ and his opposite ‘John Bull’. Before the nineteenth century, the English gentleman is a melancholic and phlegmatic male, who lives according to the code of conduct that accompanies the character. This code included ‘honourable behaviour and a sense of duty, not just towards one’s peers, but also to the lower classes.’36 During the nineteenth century, his phlegmatic characteristics
become more dominant, and the English gentleman is characterised as a gallant and selflessness introvert.
The other English stereotype, John Bull, functions as the complete opposite of the gentleman. Whereas the latter one is an introvert, John Bull is a choleric extrovert and is described as simply a jolly fellow. The character of John Bull gained popularity in the eighteenth century, when Francophobia was at its height, and the English desperately tried to be as different from the French as possible.37 Washington Irving describes the
character as ‘a plain downright matter-of-fact fellow, with much less of poetry about him than rich prose.’, and said: ‘these is little of romance in his nature, but a vast deal of strong natural feeling.’38 While the gentleman
and John Bull differ strongly, Spiering notes that ‘what they share is a high regard for honesty and liberty’.39
While the term ‘Yankee’ traditionally only referred to people from the state of New England, outside of the U.S. it was, and still is in the twenty-first century, often used to refer to the American population as a whole. The term was made more prominent by ‘Yankee Doodle’, a popular patriotic song during the American Revolutionary War. Yet while English 36 Menno Spiering, ‘English’ in Imagology, ed. Manfred Beller and Joep Leerssen,
Amsterdam: Rodopi, 2007, p. 146.
37 Ibid., p. 147.
38 Washington Irving, The Sketch Book of Geoffrey Crayon Gent, New York: G.P. Putnam, 1863, p. 410
stereotypes are rounded characters, Americans in the nineteenth century are seemingly much less subjected to the creation of such stereotypes. This lack of rounded stereotype characters might be explained by the fact that the American people were still in search of their own identity and thus also their own culture, separate from that of their former coloniser. Stereotypes are indeed contributed to by their subjects, thus the English contributed to the formation of both ‘the gentleman’ and ‘John Bull’. With the Americans still in search of their own national identity, one could say it was still too earlier for them to form a stereotypical character in the nineteenth century.
3. English Travel Writers in America
Frances Trollope – Domestic Manners of the Americans
Frances Trollope left England for America in 1827 with the idea to open a department store in the New World. While in America, Trollope looked around and was astonished by the major differences between the refined England and the ‘raw’, young country she was staying at. Three years and nine months later she set foot on English soil again, with lots of new experiences, and an almost finished travel narrative. In Domestic Manners
of the Americans (1832), Trollope describes her very personal encounters
with the Americans, and does not shy away from criticism. It was said that ‘the book was nothing but four-and-thirty chapters of American scandal’.40
The book became a huge success in Britain, with four editions published before the end of 1832. In the United States, on the other hand, the general reactions were, unsurprisingly, not as praising as those in Britain. Many were outraged and Trollope was burned down in the papers.
While the nature of travel narrative always has a high level of subjectivity, Trollope’s attitude towards the Americans could have been influenced by her own failing in America. Her plan to open a store failed completely, and during her last months in the country she lived in relative poverty. Her experiences in the U.S. thus have a very negative side to them, which might have influenced her resentment towards the country, yet this remains speculation.
40 Donald Smalley, ‘Introduction’ in Domestic Manners of the Americans’, New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1949, p.xi
When it comes to American manners, Trollope mainly concerns herself with American table manners, by which she is appalled. She comments on the rapidity with which they eat their food, and the lack of importance that is given to the concept of dinner. ‘Dinner hour was to be anything rather than an hour of enjoyment’.41 Trollope gives a detailed
description of her account of dinner in an American household:
The total want of all the usual courtesies of the table, the voracious rapidity with which the viands were seized and devoured, the strange uncouth phrases and pronunciation; the loathsome spitting from the contamination of which it was absolutely impossible to protect our dresses; the frightful manner of feeding with their knives, till the whole blade seemed to enter into the mouth; and the still more frightful manner of cleaning the teeth afterwards with a pocket knife.42
Trollope describes her table companions as rough and lacking any form of decency. She writes that they ‘devour’ the meat, and afterwards clean their teeth by means of a pocketknife. Trollope presents the reader with an image of an almost savage American, who is not able to eat and behave in a proper (English) way. Throughout her book, she described the American men as rough, which, in her opinion, complies with the rough nature so different from the environment she is used to.
Trollope brands the American mode of living ‘abundant, but not delicate’.43 There is plenty of food available, something the Americans are
very proud of, yet none of the foods are as refined as one might find in Europe. The foods served during dinner are not particularly to the taste of Mrs Trollope. She comments on the ‘extraordinary amount of bacon’44 the
Americans consume, and cannot understand how they dare to put certain ingredients together. At the table, everyone drinks water, instead of wine, about which Trollope says that it is ‘a strange contradiction, in the country where hard drinking is more prevalent than in any other country, there is less wine taken at dinner’.45 Moreover, she mentioned that while the men
occasionally take a glass a glass of wine, women rarely do so, and the 41 Frances Trollope, Domestic Manners of the Americans. 1832. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1949, p.19.
42 Ibid., pp. 18-19.
43 Ibid., p. 297.
44 Ibid., p. 297.
majority of women never drink alcohol at all. And while they do not indulge in a second course, Americans do love dessert, which consists of pastry, fruits, and creams, and it are especially the ladies who are keen on everything sweet. However, Trollope then does mention that while they might enjoy dessert, they know little about the concept, and are by no means connoisseurs on the topic.
During dinner, American men sit on one side of the table, while the women sit on the other. And unless foreigners are present, they do not mix. This gender division is a part of American society Trollope discusses in depth. While society overall is more equal due to the lack of aristocracy, Trollope is surprised by the lack of equality between the American men and women. When she, for example, suggests a picnic, it turns out to be quite impossible, since it is regarded ‘indelicate for ladies and gentlemen to sit down together on the grass’.46 Mixed dinner parties are very rare,
which results in gentlemen having parties of their own, thus without any female presence, which, according to Trollope, does not contribute to the refinement of such parties.
During an evening party that Trollope attends, the division between genders becomes even more noticeable. While there is plenty of entertainment available for the men, there is none for the women:
The gentlemen had splendid entertainment spread for them in another large room of the hotel, while the poor ladies had each a plate put into their hands, as they pensively promenaded the ballroom during their presence. (…) The fair creatures then sat down on a row of chairs placed round the walls and each making a table of her knees (…). This arrangement was owing neither to economy nor want of room large enough to accommodate the whole party, but purely because the gentlemen liked it better.47
In both society and private households, the American man reigns. There is thus not only a clear separation between the two sexes, but a distinctive hierarchy too. Trollope is surprised by the lack of relaxation possibilities for women, yet knows what is likely to be this reason for this. She mentioned
46 Ibid., p. 138.
that women have no command of money of their own, and are thus completely depended on their husbands.
In the lives of American women, little is more important than outer beauty. Having not much else in life, they are defined by their looks, and therefore spend an extraordinary amount of time on it.
The ladies have strange ways of adding to their charm. They powder themselves immoderately (…) the effect is indescribably disagreeable by day-light, and not very favourable at any time. They are also most unhappily partial to false hair, which they wear in surprising quantities.48 In a passage cited earlier on, Trollope refers to the American women as ‘fair creatures’, which addresses their incessant need for beauty. They are constantly aware of the way they look, and, according to Trollope, ‘appear extremely shocked at the sight of comfortable walking shoes’.49 Moreover,
they are described as being quiet, yet not particularly gentle, and while Trollope believes them to be ‘the handsomest creatures in the world’, she also brands them ‘the least attractive’.50 American women are unaware of
their own power, and thus stay silently in the background. They marry at a very young age, which Trollope believes to be the reason for their insignificance in society.
While Trollope has plenty of criticism regarding the American way of life, she does occasionally reveal certain praise for the Americans. She applauds, for example, their enterprising attitude and says:
There is no point in the national characters of the Americans which commands so much respect as the boldness and energy with which public works are undertaken and carried through. Nothing stops them if a profitable result can be fairly hoped for.51
Trollope refers to the American people as ‘a busy, bustling, industrious population’, and she admires their hardworking way of life. The average American man Trollope encounters is a rough, hardworking man, with an enterprising mentality, always looking for new ways to make money and succeed in life. The fact that work takes up quite a substantial part of 48 Ibid., p. 300.
49 Ibid.
50 Ibid., p. 267.
American life fits within the overall character image Trollope creates. She depicts them as joyless and lacking a proper sense of humour, which could be a result of all the hard work, leaving little time for fun activities.
When in Cincinnati, Trollope is confronted with the equal nature of American society. Being an Englishwoman, she often does not feel comfortable with certain manners implemented in American society. She describes an incident where she and several others are looking for her children who had been absent for too long. When asking a local woman whether she had seen the two children, she replies in a way unknown to Trollope:
A woman, whose appearance more resembled a Covent Garden market-woman than anything else I can remember, came out an answered my question with the most jovial good humour in the affirmative, and prepared to join us in our search. Her look, her voice, her manner, were so exceedingly coarse and vehement, that she almost frightened me; she passed her arm within mine, and to the inexpressible amusement of my young people, she dragged me on, talking and questioning me without ceasing.52
Trollope considers the jovial and familiar behaviour of the woman inappropriate and does not feel confortable around her. This ‘violent intimacy’ as Trollope calls it, made her dread to pass her door, even though the woman lives not far from where Trollope resides. This feeling of familiarity and neighbourliness can be found throughout West America, according to Mrs Trollope. She describes the ‘eternal shaking of hands’ as a great annoyance, and considers what she calls the ‘republican equality’ as highly uncomfortable. Another difference Trollope notes between the English and the Americans is that in Western America ‘no one dreams of fastening a door’. It would be considered an insult to the whole neighbourhood, which once again underlines the feeling of community that Trollope describes.
The concept of greeting in England differs, according to Trollope, strongly from the way in which greeting is approached in America. She remarks that when an American greets someone, social status is not regarded as a decisive factor, while in England, as Mulvey puts it, 52 Ibid., pp. 99-100.
‘greetings waited upon social understandings’.53 In America, social
exclusion is based on race, while in England one’s social status is considered of greater importance. Trollope therefore considers the greetings of someone from a lower class to be very inappropriate, instead of friendly.
Americans are, according to Trollope, not people who enjoy being on their own, and thus everything must be done while being in the company of others. When in Memphis, Trollope mentions she prefers eating in a private dining room, instead of eating with all other guests. However, it is made clear to her to the lady of the house will not allow such thing, and will even consider it offensive. In Cincinnati, comments are made as well about Trollope’s want for some privacy. One woman makes it clear that this desire is something that distinguishes England from America, and says: ‘(…) ye’ll be from the old country. I’ll see you will be having your tay all to yourselves, honey’54 when Trollope orders tea in her room. The landlord of
the house Trollope stays in then makes it clear that when in his house, one has tea with his family: ‘Then, madam, I must tell you that I cannot accommodate you one these terms; we have no family tea-drinkings here, and you must live either with me or my wife, or not at all in my house’.55
Frederick Marryat – Diary in America
Frederick Marryat was besides a celebrated novelist also a Royal Navy officer, whose system of maritime flag signalling was widely used and was named after him: the Marryat’s code. While largely forgotten nowadays, he was one of the most widely read authors of the 1830, both in England as well as in America. He is considered a pioneer regarding the genre of sea novels, which he often based on his own experiences. These adventure stories were hugely popular, and amongst its fans were other literary figures such as Mark Twain and Joseph Conrad. At the height of his popularity, Marryat dared to cross the Atlantic. But while he received a 53 Christopher Mulvey, Transatlantic Manners, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990, p. 103.
54 Frances Trollope, Domestic Manners of the Americans, p. 37.
warm welcome upon his arrival, when he left the country after eighteen months, the Americans were glad to see him leave. Marryat published his experiences in America in Diary in America (1839), in which he gives an account of Americans and their habits.
Marryat is surprised by the general equality in America. There is virtually no aristocracy, and people of all classes seem to take pride in who they are. Marryat states that one of the results of this equality is the fact that one is obliged to shake everyone’s hand upon meeting them, since there are no class distinctions that prevent one from greeting each other in the same manner. Thus Marryat is obligated to continuously shake hands with everyone he meets. He mentions that ‘it is impossible to know who is who, in this land of equality’.56
He compares the working class people of America with those back home in England, and is surprised by the differences between them. He writes that the working classes in America can command not only necessary comforts, but are also in possession of many luxuries. Here, Marryat again expresses his surprise at the equality and lack of any division of classes he finds in America.
In his narrative, Marryat does not only reflect upon the equality of the people regarding the lack of aristocracy, but also discusses the place of women in American society. Women in American enjoy, to Marryat’s surprise, more education than the women in England. They learn algebra and politics, although Marryat mentions that after they become a wife, their knowledge is not of much use. While Marryat speaks positively about education for women, his tone is conspicuously condescending when speaking of the women in the classroom.
Marryat comments on the excessive drinking of the Americans he encountered, especially during the celebration of Independence Day, when he speaks of ‘national intoxication’ of the country. He says: ‘the Americans may have great reason to be proud of this day, and of the deeds of their forefathers, but why do they get go confoundedly drunk?’57 Marryat states
56 Frederick Marryat, Diary in America, p. 99.
that on Independence Day, ‘all America was tipsy’.58 But while Marryat is
not entirely in favour of this amount of alcohol consumption, he does notes that he believes national intoxications seems an appropriate way to celebrate the rights of equality celebrated in the United States.
Marryat does not comment extensively on American table manners, however, he does address the speed with which they eat their dinners. He says writes about the unusual celerity with which the courses follow each other. Moreover, he says about American public dinners in general that ‘the celerity of the Americans at a public dinner is very commendable; they speak only now and then; and the toasts follow so fast, that you have just time to empty (…)’.59 Marryat writes thus rather positive about the
rapidity of American dinners, and does not consider it a pity. It seems that the Americans in Marryat’s travel narrative do not only consume large quantities of alcoholic beverages during their Independence Day celebration, but also during their public dinners.
Marryat describes the Americans he met during his journey as extremely excited people. He writes that he considers it ‘strange how easily the American people get excited, and when excited, they will hesitate at nothing.’60 He also explains what preposterous lies they often
tend to tell him, and even when the truth comes out, they often remain with the stories. Marryat then says that when not excited, which, in his opinion, they too often are, he considers the Americans a very good-tempered people.
Americans are, according to Marryat, very sensitive to public opinion. He states that they ‘fear it beyond the grave’.61 When he finds himself in a
large group of people, it is impossible to avoid the many questions about how he feels about America. They all want to know his opinion, and are greatly offended by any negative remarks from the Englishman. Foreigners pointing out any American faults are not appreciated:
58 ibid., p. 87
59 ibid., p. 86.
60 Ibid., p. 167.
There are certainly conditions usually attached to their hospitality, if you wish to profit by it to any extent; and one is, that you do not venture to find fault with themselves, their manners, or their institutions. (…) Thus, should you not agree with them, you are placed upon the horns of a dilemma; either you must affront the company, or sacrifice the truth.62
Americans take so much pride in their way of life, that criticising them is almost impossible, should one wish to remain in their company.
Marryat remarks that ‘there is no part of the world, perhaps, where you have more difficulty in obtaining permission to be alone, and indulge in reverie, than in America’.63 Furthermore he says: ‘(…) as I revelled in my
own thoughts and enjoyed the luxury of being alone – a double luxury in America, where the people are gregarious, and would think themselves very ill-bred if they allowed you one moment for meditation or self-examination.’64
Americans prefer the company of others to being alone, and consider it offensive when one does not include another in its daily activities. Therefore, Marryat comments, there is almost no occasion when one can be alone and indulge in some self-reflection. There is a strong sense of community in the American cities, where people are very enthusiastic about being part of a group, and the idea of a person wanting to be alone seems preposterous.
American funerals appear to be quite different from those held in England. Marryat mentions that Americans spend less money on a funeral, which he considers a rather smart habit. He remarks that ‘the Americans are sensible enough not to throw away so much money in funerals (…)’.65
Yet while he considers it a smart move not to spend a huge amount of money on a funeral, he does comment that he does consider some of the differences rather strange. Especially the distribution of horses in the procession strikes him. The body, which lies in an open hearse, is drawn by only one horse, while the other carriages, carrying the deceased’s family, are assigned two horses.
62 Ibid., p. 291.
63 Ibid., p. 81.
64 Ibid., p. 72.
Marryat describes American society as having no secrets. Wherever a foreigner goes, a book will be brought out and one’s name will be written down, not because of police regulations, but simply because they shun away from secrecy. Reading Marryat’s description of the Americans, this also seems to be a character trait:
(…) and finding there was to be no more sleep, took him up, in the American fashion, and put to him successfully the following questions, all of which were answered without hesitation: – “What is you name? Where are you from? Where are you going? What is your profession? How many dollars have you made? Have you wife and children?”66
The Americans in Marryat’s narrative are in no way private people, but are very open about their lives. Since Americans hold the sense of community very dear, their indifference towards privacy is not surprising.
Charles Dickens – American Notes for General Circulation
Charles Dickens was by far the most famous English author to set foot on American soil in the nineteenth century. Famous for his novels, Dickens was greeted by his American public in 1842 as a hero, and he himself was enthusiastic about his future travels though the New World with its revolutionary democratic society. However, Dickens came back to England a disillusioned man. One of the main things criticised by Dickens inAmerican Notes is the American press, and the way in which they pirate
his work. And as Dickens expected, within four months of his return to England, pirated reprints were sold in America. While he praised America on many levels, he also heavily criticised the young country, provoking hostile reactions not only on the American side of the Atlantic, but also on the British. Washington Irving, who earlier expressed a liking for Dickens’s work, now tried to avoid him when London. Surprisingly, American Notes did not do well in Britain either. Reviewers found Dickens to be incapable of criticising America effectively, and attributed the failure of the book to Dickens’s ‘Cockney style’, and ‘lack of education’.67
In America Notes, Dickens does not often describe the average American and their manners and habits. His main focus lies with the American institutions, however, though describing these he occasionally drops hints about his opinion on American manners. One of the American habits he does extensively write about is the one that appals him mostly: tobacco spitting. Not only do all men seem to take part in the spitting, even the Senate is not safe:
The Senate is a dignified and decorous body, and it proceedings are conducted with much gravity and order. Both houses are handsomely carpeted; but the state to which these carpets are reduced by the universal disregard of the spittoon with which every honourable member is accommodated, and the extraordinary improvements on the patterns which are squirted and dabbled upon it in every direction, do not admit of being described.68
Dickens does not understand that presumed gentlemen who work in the Senate do not abstain from the habit of tobacco spitting. The whole concept of tobacco chewing is something Dickens fails to understand. He mentions the swelled faces men walk around with due to the amount of tobacco they stock in their cheeks, and he is especially appalled by the fact that honourable gentlemen take part in the practice.
Overall, Dickens praises American society for its perfect politeness, and he mentions that in ‘all the public establishments of America, the utmost courtesy prevails’.69 He writes that while English institutions are
not all that bad, when it comes to dealing with foreigners, England could learn a great deal from America. Dickens also states that among
Americans, there is ‘no diversity of character’.70 To him, they are all alike,
and he says that ‘they do the same things in exactly the same manner’.71
Since Dickens mainly travelled through America by boat, many of his dinner stories take place on the boats he travelled with. Considering he often dined with Americans during these boat dinners, these sections can 67 Patricia Ingham, ‘Introduction’ in American Notes by Charles Dickens, London: Penguin Classics, 2004, p. xxviii
68 Charles Dickens, American Notes for General Circulation, London: Penguin Classics, 2004, p. 135
69 Ibid., p. 33.
70 Ibid., p.176.
be relevant regarding the study of American manners in the book. When on board the Messenger towards Cincinnati, Dickens comments on the dinner:
At dinner, there is nothing to drink upon the table, but great jugs full of cold water. Nobody says anything, at any meal, to anybody. All the passengers are very dismal, and seem to have tremendous secrets weighing on their minds. There is no conversation, no laughter, no cheerfulness, no sociality, except in spitting; and that is done in silent fellowship around the stove, when the meal is over.72
During dinner, his fellow passengers do not socialise with the rest, and keep to themselves. And again, the national habit of spitting tobacco can be observed.
When in New York, Dickens comments on clothing of the American ladies:
Heaven save the ladies, how they dress! We have seen more colours in these ten minutes, than we should have seen elsewhere, in as many days. What various parasols! What rainbow silks and satins! What pinking of thin stockings, and pinching of thin shoes, and fluttering of ribbons and silk tassels, and display of rich cloaks with gaudy hoods and lining.73
The ladies in New York dress themselves in lots of colours, and their garments are rather thin according to Dickens. He gives the impression American women are dressed less modestly than those back home in England. The women he encounters are gaudy dressed with lots of
different fabrics and accessories. The gentlemen, on the other hand, dress a lot less provocative, yet Dickens does have some remarks. He mentions that the American men he encountered in New York are fond of ‘turning down their shirt-collars and cultivating their whiskers, especially under the chin’.74
Dickens remarks that he believes the Americans to be ‘frank, brave, cordial, hospitable, and affectionate’. He believes these traits are part of the American’s personality by nature. However, he does state that the American personality has one great fault: their ‘Universal Distrust’. People 72 Ibid.
73 Ibid., p. 91.
are suspicious of everything, and seem to distrust everyone. The reason for this phenomenon given in American Notes is that this is caused by the concept of freedom of opinion. Every man is to think for himself, and have his own opinions.
Americans are, according to Dickens, a people of traders. He describes the national love of trading, which coincides with the love for money. One of matters Dickens heavily criticises is the fact that literature in America is still unprotected. While Britain already had a copyright law protecting works of literature, America had no such law, which resulted in literature being heavily pirated. Dickens saw the American traders mentality as one of the reasons for the lack of laws protecting literature and authors. Dickens also criticises the moral of America as a whole, which is mostly bases on the, in his opinion, abject state of their journalism.
Dickens also comments on the Americans’ lack of humour. He says: ‘They are certainly not a humorous people, and their temperament always impressed me as being of a dull and gloomy character’.75 He is surprised
by the air of melancholy and seriousness he encounters on his travels through the country, and again mentions the lack of differentness between the individual American people he meets.
At the end of his travel book, while coming to a conclusion, Dickens gives some advice regarding the American health. He believes the country to suffer from too many diseases, and suggests improving their personal cleanliness. Moreover, he suggests a little more exercise for both man and women:
Greater means of personal cleanliness, are indispensable to this end; the custom of hastily swallowing large quantities of animal food, three-times a-day, and rushing back to sedentary pursuits after each meal, must be changes; the gentler sex must go more wisely clad, and take more healthful exercise; and in the latter clause, the males must be included also.76
75 Ibid. p.271.
Dickens suggests the lack of physical activity in the daily lives of many Americans causes health troubles. Moreover, he suggests a change in clothing for the women.
Dickens’s travel narrative was, as mentioned before, not received well on both sides of the Atlantic. The American outrage was mainly caused by his criticism regarding their journalism, the lack of copyright laws in America, and the fact that slavery still widely existed.
4. American Travel Writers in England
James Fenimore Cooper – Gleanings in Europe: England
While the U.S. is nowadays regarded as a major super power, during the life of James Fenimore Cooper, America was still struggling to shrug off its status of former colony. It was looking for its own culture, and thus also its own literary tradition. One of the major parts of Coopers travel works is that he not only tried to capture the British identity, but also spends a lot of time explaining the American identity as well. Through comparing English manners with manners from back home, he juxtaposes both countries and thereby attempts to establish a national American identity. During his career, which spanned over three decades, in which hepublished 32 novels, Cooper was among the most famous American authors, enjoying recognition on both sides of the Atlantic. After establishing himself as a novelist, Cooper turned to writing travel narratives about his lengthy stays in Europe, which he quickly produced one after another. In just two years, he published five non-fiction travel books: Sketches of Switzerland (1836), Sketches of Switzerland (Part
Second)(1836), Gleanings in Europe (1837), Gleanings in Europe: England
(1837), Gleanings in Europe: Italy (1837).
Cooper’s writings on England are set during his extended visit to the country with his wife, their son, and his nephew. Gleanings in Europe:
England exists of twenty-three letters, directed to different people. Even
though they are addressed to people who actually existed, no manuscripts have ever been found, and it therefore assumed they were written solely for the purpose of the book. This occasionally caused some difficulties for Cooper since the book was written nine years after his travels, and he thus had to keep in mind political and cultural changes that had happened over time.77 Cooper’s postcolonial voice is very present in his writings about
‘the mother country’. His is critical of English society and criticises the English condescending attitude towards America and its citizens.
Cooper’s England starts in 1828, when he arrives in Dover. This visit to England was his not first though. Early in the 19th century he had visited
the country too on his way to Spain, and later on, in 1826, he moved to Europe, yet stayed in London for only a short period of time though. Even though he acknowledges Britain as ‘the mother country’, he spent less time there then in any other European country he travelled to, and felt least at home there.78
Through his connections in literature, Cooper managed to surround himself with the most important people in English (and British overall) society. Therefore, his descriptions often concern the upper classes. He does occasionally refer to manners of the lower class people though, for example in his second letter, written to Captain W.B. Shubrick, when he 77 Donald A. Ringe and Kenneth W. Staggs,. ‘Historical Introduction’ in Gleanings in
Europe: England. Albany: State University of New York Press, 1982, p. xxv.
78 Henry Steele Commager, Britain through American eyes. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1974, p.166-168.
says: “In this particular, the common people had the appearance of having adhered to fashions that our own population dropped some forty years since.”79 He thus implies American people know better how to dress
themselves and have a more modern sense of fashion than the English do. In the second letter, Cooper also touches upon the ‘neatness’ and the ‘structured-ness’ of the English:
One of the merits of England is the perfect order in which everything is kept, and the perfect matter with which everything is done. One sees no cracked cups, no tea-pots with broken noses, no knives thin as wafers, no forks with one prong longer than the other, no coach wanting a glass, no substitute for a buckle, no crooked poker or tongs loose in the joint, no knife that wont cut, no sugar cracked in lumps too big to be used, no hat unbrushed, no floor with a whole in it, no noisy servants, no bell that wont ring, no window that wont open, no door that wont shut, no broken pane, nor any thing out of repair that might have been mended.80
Cooper praises the way in which the English maintain their houses, and describes them as neat people who keep everything in order. It should be mentioned though that Cooper’s enthusiastic description of English manners was only concerned with the upper class, as he mentions: “I now speak of the eyes of him who can pay”. 81 He suggests that his description
can only be applied to the richer people of England. A little further on he mentions the English neatness again, and says: “The English are unquestionably a neat people, in all that relates to their houses (…)”.82 The
fact that he is very much impressed by the English manners regarding their neatness is likely to give information on American manners, since travellers tend to look for differences between their home country and the country they are visiting. Hereby he suggests that Americans back home are much less neat then the English are.
Cooper does not restrain himself from criticising English society and his postcolonial voice is often clearly visible. One of the aspects of society he strongly criticises in the way in which it is structured. Consider, for example, the following passage:
79 James Fenimore Cooper, Gleanings in Europe: England. Albany: State University of New York Press, 1982, p.16.
80 Ibid., p. 19.
81 Ibid.
(…) As one descends in the social scale, I think the English get to be the most artificial people I know. Instead of recognising certain great and governing rules for deportment, that are obviously founded in reason and propriety, and trusting to nature for the rest, having heard that simplicity is a test of breeding, they are even elaborate and studied in its display. The mass of the people conduct in society like children who have their hair combed and faces washed, to be exhibited in the drawing-room, or with a staid simplicity that reminds you always how little they are at their ease (…). I have seen eight or ten men sitting at a dinner table for two hours, with their hands in their laps, their bodies dressed like grenadiers, and their words mumbled between their teeth, evidently for no reason in the world but the fact they had been told that quiet and subdued voiced were the tone of the higher classes.83
Cooper expresses his surprise at the way in which English society functions regarding its division in classes. Members of the lower class do not seem the function as individual thinkers, which is something Cooper, as an American, regards as the foundation of his nation. With his American values, Cooper is surprised by the lack of independence of the lower classes. He does not only criticises English high society in his Gleanings on
Europe, but also does so in his previously published Notions on Americans
(1828), a guide to America for Europeans, in which he says: ‘Beyond a doubt what is called high English society, is more repulsive, artificial and cumbered, and, in short, more absurd and frequently less graceful than that of any other European nation.’84 The aristocracy and their role in
English society is heavily criticised by Cooper. People not belonging to the upper class imitate the manners of that class, and thus society’s structure and manners are created by the upper aristocratic class.
In the sixth letter, directed to Mrs Jay in New York, Cooper comments on the way English people value things. His opinion is based on his experience during meetings with members of the higher class:
Things appear to me, to be more than usually estimated here, by the difficulty there may be in attaining them, and less than usual by their intrinsic value. (…) England is singularly a begrudging country. Everything is appreciated by its price.85
83 Ibid., pp. 47-48.
84 Paul Langford, Englishness identified: manners and character, 1650-1850, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000, p. 264
According to Cooper, English people base their opinion about certain products on their availability. When something is very hard to come by, it immediately enjoys status and thus becomes desirable. Cooper expresses his surprise about this high society manner, and then condemns it. He calls England a ‘begrudging country’ and then continues: ‘They say a thing is “ridiculously cheap.” Now when one becomes ridiculous from buying a thing at a low price, common sense is in a bad way.’86 Cooper expresses
clear discontent with the manners of the members of the higher English classes that he surrounds himself with. He mocks their desperate need for etiquette. He then goes on and mocks the high society even more, by revealing that the mistress of the house asked him where he had learned to speak such good English87, and thus seems oblivious to the fact that
America and England share the same language (and therefore clearly lacks any knowledge regarding the shared history of the two countries). Cooper is clearly surprised by the condescending attitude of the English towards America, especially since he believes America to be quiet more modern than England and its society.
Cooper also has some other remarks concerning manners of the high society. While previously the gentleman has been established as an English stereotype, Cooper does not seem to agree. He notes:
In two or three instances in houses where I have made first visits, I have observed the young men lolling at their length on the ottomans and sofas, and scarcely giving themselves the trouble to rise, in a way that would hardly be practised in Paris. Such things are disrespectful to strangers, and in exceedingly bad taste, and I think them quite English (…).88
In this case, Cooper brands the English as plain rude and without proper manners. Strangely enough, Cooper later on refers to the English as having the best manners, and describes the English even as superior to Americans when it comes to manners and intelligence. As an experiences traveller, Cooper also compares English and American manners to those of the French, who, according to him, posses rather good manners.
86 Ibid., p. 59.
87 Ibid.
When it comes to their mood, Cooper brands the English unpredictable. He notes:
The man, or woman, who receives you to-day with a frank smile, and a familiar shake of the hand, may meet you to-morrow coldly, and with a chilling or repulsive formality. (…) They are formalists in manners, and too often mistake the spirit that ought to regulate intercourse.89
Cooper also touches upon the formalist attitude of the English regarding personal contact. He notes that English society is the most socially drilled society he has ever come across. People deal with interpersonal relationships in ways that society taught them, which, to strangers, often comes across as distant and indifferent. This lack of empathy is also discussed by Cooper. According to him, the indifference regarding other people’s feelings is ‘a dark spot on the national manners of England’.90
The women of England behave rather differently from those in Cooper’s homeland. He claims that “while English women would command the most respect, the American would win most of your feelings”.91 English
women are much more aware of political issues and concern themselves with the struggles of society, while American women hardly know anything about politics and, according to Cooper, do not concern themselves with such things.
Ralph Waldo Emerson – English Traits
In 1833, Ralph Waldo Emerson travelled to the Old World for the first time. He had recently become a widower and this first trip gave him much-needed intellectual inspiration. He embarked on his second voyage to Europe in 1847, a trip that was largely limited to England, which the exception of a brief visit to France. Emerson’s English Traits was published in August 1856, and is very unlike other travel narratives. The book is divided in several chapters, each describing a particular facet of English life, such as ‘character’, or ‘manners’. In English Traits, Emerson combines 89 Ibid., p. 249.
90 Ibid., p.216.
his two travels, although most of his information was gathered during his second visit, the reason being that his first visit was rather short and not in the first place meant to observe the culture.
English Traits was well received on both sides of the Atlantic. It is of
course unsurprising that the English approved of Emerson’s travelogue; while he occasionally critiques English society, mainly regarding the place of aristocracy within society, he mostly praises the English and their way of life. Moreover, he expresses a very favourable attitude towards the average Englishman. Describing an England at the height of its power, Emerson asks the question what that means for the future of America. Because while he is clearly fond of England and its people, he makes it clear that, in fact, America is the best country on Earth and thus holds the future.
But while he regards America as the country of the future, Emerson does realise its major connection with England. When arriving in England for the first time, he speaks of a feeling of ‘English sentiments, English loves, English history and social manners’.92 Emerson does not shy away
from English sentiments, and regards England as the beginning of America. And when praising the English race by saying it is powerful and indigenous, he clearly sees the English man as the ancestor of the American man, and thereby also compliments his own racial background. Emerson states that Americans are only ‘the continuation of the English genius into new conditions, more or less propitious’.93 In other words: the
English are geniuses, but Americans will evolve that genius mind.
In his chapter ‘Ability’, Emerson mentions that the English are full of common sense. He quotes Montesquieu and says that ‘no people have true common sense but hose who are born in England’.94 According to
Emerson, the English people value logic very highly, and consider theory and facts to be of major importance. With their common sense attitude, Emerson seems to label them as quite down-to-earth people.
92 Ralph Waldo Emerson, English Traits, p.20.
93 Ibid., p. 22.
