Transformation of sprawl-like neighborhoods into more sustainable living environment in Cebu City, the Philippines

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Renata Domeikait!

r.domeikaite@gmail.com

MSc International Development Studies

Supervisor: Dr. Bart Lambregts

Second reader: Yves van Leynseele

UvA, 2015

Photo: Author’s

MASTER THESIS

Transformation of sprawl-like neighborhoods into more

sustainable living environment in Cebu City,

the Philippines

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Abstract

The number of city dwellers is projected to grow “two-thirds by 2050” (UN Habitat, 2013), most of this growth will occur in the mid-size cities of developing countries. As numbers of the urban population increase, cities are forced to grow accordingly. However, a rapid and unplanned expansion of the city produces unsustainable outcomes – suburban neighborhoods with sprawl characteristics. In the context of threatening global warming consequences, growing Cebu city needs to address its expansion in a more sustainable way. The main purpose of this study is to reveal the perspectives for a sustainable transformation of the sprawl-like neighborhoods in Cebu city. Therefore, this research elucidates the characteristics of existing sprawl-like neighborhoods, shows the main barriers and opportunities for change, presents local stakeholders attitude towards sustainable transformation and explains how particular instruments – principles of green urbanism and new governance arrangements – can be used in order to foster desired changes.

The findings reveal that sprawl-like neighborhoods can be transformed into more sustainable living environments with the help of green urbanism principles and new governance arrangements and even more important – with unity of the local people and good leadership. The main barriers that prevent such sustainable transformation of the neighborhoods are existing mindset of the local people and lack of productivity in implementing ordinances and control mechanisms. The main opportunities come up in education of younger generation, inspiring leadership, BRT system, an active voice of civil organizations and unity of the people that live in such areas. Common goals and feeling that ordinary people have a power to change the situation they live in – that could inspire people to act and secure continuity of the projects.

Key words: urban sprawl; green urbanism; urban governance; sustainability; the Philippines; transformation;

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Acknowledgements

I want to thank to all the respondents that have participated in this study. Your input is very important, therefore thank you for your kind cooperation! I am grateful to all these friendly people I have met during my fieldwork in Cebu, especially to MLC and YLC organizations that have helped a lot. I also want to thank to all the closest people of mine that have supported me through this writing process. I do admit it was not an easy one. Last, but not least, a BIG thanks to my supervisor Bart, probably the best supervisor in the world. Without your comprehensive feedback and constant support this thesis paper would have not been possible. I greatly appreciate the time you have spent to supervise me. Thank you very much for your guidance and help!

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List of Figures

Picture 1. Urban sprawl in Cebu city Picture 2. Cebu city Panorama

Picture 3. A typical sprawl-like neighborhood in the Philippines Picture 4. A typical sprawl-like neighborhood in USA

Picture 5. The sprawling development patterns Figure 6. Green Urbanism

Figure 7. The outlined 15 principles of Green Urbanism

Figure 8. What each sector can do in order to contribute to more sustainable city? Figure 9. Core ideas of the MLC

Figure 10. Conceptual Scheme

Figure 11. Operationalization of the main concepts Figure 12. Research sub questions and methods Map 13. A political map of Cebu Island

Figure 14. Philippine Government Structure Map 15. Land-use map of Cebu city Map 16. Cebu city in 1944

Map 17. Cebu city in 1997

Table 18. Causes of urban growth

Table 19. A comparison of population growth in Cebu, Metro Cebu and the Philippines Photo 20. Plaza Idependencia in Cebu city

Map 21. Sprawl area in Cebu city Map 22. Cebu city barangays

Picture 23. Panorama of the Barangay Luz Picture 24. Activities in the Barangay Luz Picture 25. A street in subdivision VDR1

Picture 26. Dental clinic – Internet café, Urban gardens, Waste segregation line in VDR1 Map 27. Mixed-land use in the subdivision VDR1

Picture 28. The road and sidewalk inside/outside the subdivision VDR1 Picture 29. Moving around Cebu city!

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List of Abbreviations and Acronyms

AL – Aboitiz Land

AUICK – Asian Urban Information Center of Kobe BRT – A Bus Rapid Transit

CITOM – Cebu City Traffic Operations Management department COP 19 – The Nineteenth Session of the Conference of the Parties CSR – Corporate Social Responsibility

EEA – The European Environment Agency GHG – Greenhouse Gas

GIS – Geographical Information System GPS – Global Positioning System HA – Homeowners Association

IBRD – The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development LGU – Local Government Unit

MCDC – Metro Cebu Development Council MLC – Movement for Livable Cebu

NGO – Non-Governmental Organization PPPs – Public-Private Partnerships PR – Public Relations

PRG – Population Growth Rate UN – The United Nations

VDR1 – A Subdivision Villa del Rio 1

WBCSD – The World Business Council for Sustainable Development WHO – World Health Organization

WWF – The World Wildlife Fund YLC – Youth For Livable Cebu

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1. Introduction

1. 1. Problem Statement

“Sustainable urbanization is “one of the most pressing challenges, facing the global urban community in the 21st century” (UN-Habitat, 2013). More than 50 percent of the world’s population lives in the cities nowadays and this number is projected to increase to 66 percent by 2050 (UN Habitat, 2014). According to the WHO (2014) most of urban population growth will occur in the smaller and medium-sized cities of developing countries. For instance, the number of the city dwellers in East Asia is growing twice as fast as elsewhere on the planet and the urban population here has a huge demand for land, services and energy resources (World Bank, 2014). As population numbers increase, cities are forced to grow accordingly. However, the majority of the cities around the world has not been planned and managed in a sustainable way and today’s urban population highly “depend on environmental resources and services from outside their built-up area” (Allen, 2009: 3).

As the number of urban dweller increases, the amount of available residential land decreases, people move to the outskirts of the city and become dependent on transportation. The problem is that transport systems still rely mostly on the fossil fuels. All these and other factors are causing cities to develop in environmentally unfriendly ways. One of the forms of uncontrolled urban development is urban sprawl. Urban sprawl is a common mode of development of fast-growing cities in Asian countries. The development of Asian cities is characterized by rapid and continuous urbanization on an unprecedented scale (…) the result has been escalating greenhouse gas emissions, sprawling urban development and local environmental impact (OECD, 2014: 1). Planners refer to the urban sprawl as a “metropolitan development that produces undesirable social outcomes” (Wassmer, 2002: 3). It also produces a low density built environment that is far away from the city centre, consumes large amounts of land, fosters car-dependency, fuels demand for non-renewable energy resources, and, in result, contributes to increased amounts of pollution and the emission of greenhouse gasses. Therefore, from an environmental perspective sprawl is considered to be unsustainable form of city development that results in sprawl-like neighbourhoods (suburban residential districts with sprawl characteristics).

Particular kind of lifestyle in the suburbs often produces unsustainable outcomes, so in order to create more sustainable living environment efforts should be focused on “more efficient use of urban space, reduced consumption of material and energy resources, improved livability, and improved administrative and planning processes capable of dealing effectively (…) with the social and environmental complexity of urban settlements” (Rees & Roseland, 1993). One of the ways

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moving towards more sustainable cities is a transformation of such sprawl-like neighborhoods. As Lehmann has stated, “the most sustainable building is the one that already exists” (Lehman, 2011 cited in Subido, 2011), so it is important to pay more attention to already existing neighborhoods and find ways how to make them sustainable instead of instantly building new ones. Consequently the gradual change may lead to the urban sustainability of the whole city.

1. 2. Research Relevance

Nowadays the Philippines are experiencing rapid urbanization, fuelled by increasing population and intensified by economic growth (UN, 2008). The country has one of the highest rates of urban growth in the developing world and experiences an intense rural-to-urban migration together with increasing population density in the cities (Constantino-David, 2001). In 2010 already 41.9 million people out of 92.3 million lived in areas classified as urban (Philippine Statistics Authority, 2013). A high rate of urbanization has occurred during the last five decades when many rural dwellers moved to urban centers in search for better quality of life (UN, 2008). However, urban regions have problems in absorbing rural migrants, in terms of provision of adequate housing, services and jobs (World Bank, 2002: 1). Additionally, air pollution and unmanaged solid waste disposals became serious problems (UN, 2008). Therefore World Bank (2002) has advised to focus on improving the performance of the Philippine city systems that would help to cope with such demographic growth instead of trying to limit the rate of urbanization.

For my research I have decided to focus on the issues of urban sprawl in the mid-size Asian city – Cebu city in the Philippines. It is important to look into the opportunities for sustainable urban development in the mid-size city located in South East Asia, because the literature and case studies on sustainability in the cities are often focused on developed mega cities such as Cape Town or Abu Dhabi that recently have been awarded during the COP 19 in Warsaw (WorldGBC, 2013). The most outstanding example of a sustainable city development in the South East Asia region is Singapore (Siemen’s Asia Green City Index, 2011). There is some mentioning of smaller cities that are leading in sustainability, such as Freiburg in Germany (Climate Action, 2013), but still – a lack of elucidation of the sustainability initiatives from the mid-size cities in the developing world, particularly South East Asia.

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Picture 1. Urban sprawl in Cebu city. Source: Google Maps.

It is important to analyze opportunities for and barriers to sustainable urban transformation in the city of Cebu, since “urban form, infrastructure, environmental quality, and delivery of basic services are major issues in the whole Philippines” (World Bank, 2002). This research will contribute to the knowledge in the social practice as sustainable and green city debates are taking the lead among Cebuanos – a goal to make Cebu a livable city is addressed in Metro Cebu 2050 plan, “Sustainability initiatives in the city of Cebu” presentation, also in the agenda of the local Movement for Livable Cebu. City of Cebu aims to become an example of a sustainable city in the Philippines. City mission presents this goal – “to ensure an environmentally friendly, financially dynamic, pro-active and self reliant city” (Cebu City Government, 2010).

This research will also add to the academic literature, as there are only few cases of green urbanism application to the Asian cities (mostly megacities), such as Singapore, Jakarta, Shanghai (Newman, (2010); Newman & Matan (2013)). I will look into green urbanism principles applicability in the mid-size Asian city analyzing the limitations and the opportunities for the change on the minor scale – sprawl-like neighborhoods. It is an additional approach to the other studies (Newman, 2010; Newman & Matan, 2013), where more attention is paid to the sustainable development process of the whole city. Here, I try to find out how small scale initiatives could eventually lead to bigger scale improvements.

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1. 3. Research Location !

Picture 2. Cebu city Panorama, author: P. Binter. Source:

http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Panorama-Cebu-City.jpg !

Cebu city – the capital city of Cebu Province, is located in Visayas region, in the Southern Philippines. It is the oldest city in the country with a population of 866,171 (Philippine Statistics Authority, 2010). The city measures 315 km2 (Resolution No. 1441, Ordinance No. 1656: 10). Cebu City is the second growth area in the Philippines (after the capital Manila) and is one of the main hubs for the outsourcing industry in the Philippines, placed 8th in the global TOP 100 Outsourcing Destinations (IBPAP, 2014). The city is an important seaport and an attractive destination for tourists. Cebu city is a part of Metro Cebu, which consists of seven cities: Carcar, Cebu, Danao, LapuLapu, Mandaue, Naga, Talisay, and six municipalities of Compostela, Consolacion, Cordova, Liloan, Minglanilla, and San Fernando (Mega Cebu 2050, 2013: 1).

In my research I focus on the central, biggest city of Metro Cebu – Cebu, because Cebu city is considered as “an example of how urban sprawl works” (Awit, 2013). In Cebu there is already lack of open green spaces, as open spaces and parks are often working as “leftovers” for development (Antonio cited in Mongaya & Mangubat, 2012) and the urban center is “strangulated” by gated communities (Awit, 2013). According to Filipino architect Senen Antonio, one of the prosperous options for Cebu is to take “smart growth” city direction “that would help to avoid “suburban sprawl”, where problems of traffic congestion, crime, poor health and lack of recreation space would have Metro Cebu looking like Metro Manila” (Antonio cited in Mongaya & Mangubat, 2012). As cities cannot be re-planned overnight, step-by-step strategy combating urban sprawl created problems in the neighborhoods could be a successful way towards transformation of the whole city.

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1. 4. Research Question

In order to guide the research process, I have formulated the main research question and five sub questions that will be presented in the Research Design – chapter 3. The main research question is: what are the opportunities for and barriers to the sustainable transformation of sprawl-like neighborhoods in the Cebu City, the Philippines?

In order to reach sustainability of the whole city it is important to work gradually – think big, but act small. Since more often everybody is focused on a bigger picture, there is a lack of attention paid on the development of smaller areas. The main idea of my research is to understand what are the limitations to and opportunities for the sustainable transformation of sprawl-like neighborhoods. A better understanding of barriers that block the way towards sustainable transformation of the sprawl-neighborhoods could help to identify the issues that make it harder to transform the whole city. A clear vision of opportunities could also help to develop a concrete plan and to assist local government and residents in turning their surroundings into more sustainable living environment. I am also looking into how the process of transformation is and could be influenced in order to become more effective. The primary hypothesis of my research is that a sprawl-like neighborhood with the help of proper urban governance arrangements and green urbanism principles can become a more sustainable living area.

1. 5. Outline of Thesis Chapters

Thesis is organized in 8 chapters. An introduction chapter covers: problem statement, research relevance, a description of research location and presentation of research questions. The second chapter addresses the theoretical framework. Here, I introduce and explain the main concepts related to my research question – urban sprawl, green urbanism and urban governance. The first section of the second chapter explains the term urban sprawl, elucidates issues related to this process and shows why it is important to initiate transformations of sprawl-like neighborhoods. The second section is about the theory of green urbanism and its principles. Here I explain, why I have chosen green urbanism over other concepts and why it is a relevant instrument in addressing urban sprawl. The third section is covering the concept of urban governance and explains the importance of the Public-Private Partnerships. The third chapter covers research design, including introduction of the main research question and sub questions, showing conceptual scheme and operationalization of the main research concepts, also presenting research methodology. Chapter four is devoted to the analysis of characteristics of urban sprawl in Cebu city. Chapters five and six are focused on presenting the local stakeholders’ perspectives on problems related to urban sprawl neighborhoods and elucidating desirable changes. Chapter seven is wrapping up the analysis part by introducing

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possible ways on how to realize those desirable changes in the context of Cebu city. The main insights and recommendations for the further research will be presented in the conclusions chapter.

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2. Theoretical Framework

In this research I have chosen the concepts of green urbanism and urban governance as potentially effective tools to address urban sprawl and impact sustainable transformation of sprawl-like neighborhoods in Cebu city. The concept of green urbanism is chosen, because it specifically focuses on the small-scale catalytic interventions that can be applied to neighborhoods, districts, and regions (Bardacke & Wells, 2012). It also has proven to be an effective way to shift cities to sustainability in different parts of the world (Lehmann, 2011; Newman, 2010; Newman, 2013; Beatley, 2000; Buck, 2014). The concept of urban governance proves to be important, because government regulations and interactions between stakeholders influence urban transformations in the city. Obviously, urban transformations must be conceived, prepared, initiated, managed, executed, monitored, evaluated and that requires a complex interplay between various categories of stakeholders – citizens, authorities, and actors from the private sector. Existing policies are also playing a role here, since “policies aimed at a more balanced distribution of urban growth (…) can also support sustainable development” (UN, 2014:17) of the city and its neighbourhoods.

In the upcoming sections I present the main concepts of this research. Firstly, I address the concept of urban sprawl. Secondly, I present green urbanism and explain, why principles of green urbanism are promising in addressing urban sprawl. The third concept that is described is urban governance. 2. 1. Urban Sprawl

There is no one concrete definition of urban sprawl, because it is a complex and multidimensional concept. According to Whyte (1958), urban sprawl refers to “the growth of a metropolitan area through the process of scattered development of miscellaneous types of land use in isolated locations on the fringe, followed by the gradual filling-in of the intervening spaces with similar uses”. Cornel University (2014) provides a definition, where urban sprawl is understood as “an increased development of land in suburban and rural areas outside of their respective urban centers”. It is important to add the social part of such mode of urbanization – Wassmer (2002: 3) compliment the definition by adding, that it is “a metropolitan development that also produces undesirable social outcomes”. According to European Environment Agency (EEA), “sprawling cities are the opposite of compact cities — full of empty spaces that indicate the inefficiencies in development and highlight the consequences of uncontrolled growth” (EEA, 2006 cited in Arelano & Roca, 2012: 2). It is considered that urban sprawl became a global trend around 1970s as other countries followed the model “as a result of the widespread American Dream, based on the extensive land consumption, the car as basic transportation, and oil as primal energy” (Arelano & Roca, 2012: 1). Urban sprawl

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is characterized differently, but there are some common patterns, mentioned by different scholars (Song & Knaap, 2004; Heimlich & Anderson, 2001; Torrens & Alberti 2000; Tsai, 2005) cited in Brody, 2013:2; Antonio (2012), cited in (Hinayas, 2012):

! Single-use zoning ! Low-density zoning

! Automobile dependent communities

! Job sprawl (geographically spread-out patterns of employment) ! Conversion of agricultural land to residential

It is a problematic urban development pattern, because it requires more land and space to supply the same given population with home, recreation and workspaces. Osborn noted that “this type of urban growth is wasteful from the economic standpoint and disadvantageous socially” (Osborn 1964 cited Nechyba & Walsh, 2004: 1). Urban sprawl is also dangerous for the environment since it “has led to the large-scale loss of natural forests, fields and other undeveloped land” (Cornel University, 2014). Even though the density of the city gets lower, the ecological footprint of the city expands (Nechyba & Walsh, 2004), because inhabitants of these areas become incredibly dependent on cars – the main means of transport to reach the city center for work and other activities. There are a variety of other challenges related to urban sprawl. For instance, low-density housing leads to high energy bills (heating – in cold climate region and air conditioning – in hot climate region); housing developments in the middle of the agricultural land produces a loss of green spaces and land degradation; separation of residential and work spaces, waste segregation are important issues that residents of the sprawl areas are facing (Nechyba & Walsh, 2004: 186). Overall results: decreased livability of the suburban areas, increased ecological footprint, environmental degradation and a lower quality of life. For all those reasons transformation of such sprawl-areas is necessary.

2. 1. 1. Patterns of Urban Sprawl in Different Locations

Even though it has common features, urban sprawl does not look the same around the world. For example, in Asia sprawl-like neighborhoods would be often characterized by a combination of two types of residential areas that exist near each other – squatter residential areas and gated subdivisions (Murakami & Palijon, 2005) (see Picture 3). In the US it would mostly look different, as most of such neighborhoods contain housing subdivisions, but also shopping malls, fast food chains, that would not be necessarily the case in Philippine cities.

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Picture 3. A typical sprawl-like neighborhood in the Philippines – Manila. Source: http://www.pbase.com/bmcmorrow/image/112554143.

Picture 4. A typical sprawl-like neighborhood in USA – North of Las Vegas. Source: http://townlandgroup.blogspot.nl/

The sprawling development patterns could be different in the cities. Picture 5 shows four spatial patterns of urban sprawl.

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Picture 5. The sprawling development patterns. Source: Ewing, Pandal & Chen (2002).

A build pattern that is common for all sprawl-like neighborhoods is housing subdivisions. Therefore, when analyzing urban sprawl a good starting point is community level – neighborhoods. Castirgnano & Manella (2011: 31) suggest that “attention to neighborhood relations can be a good point to pursue a more sustainable city and a more sustainable urban way of life”.

2. 1. 2. Driving Forces of Urban Sprawl

There are mainly two clear categories why is urban sprawl happening (Nechyba & Walsh, 2004: 183):

1. People move out of central cities because of attractive features of suburbs

A lot of middle-class urban dwellers prefer outskirts of the city as their residence location. Family life has more advantages in the suburbs – residents can have inner gardens, grow vegetables, etc. In addition, houses here are often more affordable than condos in the city center. Private developers play a role too. The land is cheaper in the outskirts of the city, so they can buy more land, create a development site there and put more residential units on the market place. A better availability of housing in the suburban areas fosters a greater consumption and creates an opportunity for continuous sprawling.

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2. People are pushed out of central cities because of inner city problems

With better availability of cars cities have changed unrecognizable – former small towns became monstrous megacities with traffic jams, polluted air and lack of green spaces. Skyscrapers occupied green zones in the city center and people therefore have fewer opportunities to hide from a messy city life in the parks, as park zones were often transformed into parking lots. Therefore people started to relocate to former remote areas in order to find more spacious housing, lower density and fresh air.

Urban sprawl is also driven by rural-urban migration. That is a common feature in the Philippines (UN, 2008). Rural dwellers come to the urban areas searching for job opportunities and better quality of life. Therefore, the urban population increases. However, central areas of the city cannot accommodate all the people, so they have to move towards the outskirts of the city.

2. 1. 3. Positive and Negative Consequences of Urban Sprawl

There are still both sides of urban sprawl. From the environmental perspective such uncontrolled urban development is understood as damaging process, since “urban growth should occur in existing city areas rather than on greenfield sites” (Lehmann, 2011: 244). However, densely populated areas in the center of a city also have drawbacks, as inner-city renaissance is often based on increasing consumption that “enlarges the ecological footprint of the urban dweller” (Lehmann, 2011: 244). From the economic perspective urban sprawl has some benefits. For instance, “a greater quantity of low-density housing, may point to potential environmental and other externalities, but also suggest social benefits of urban sprawl since they involve a greater consumption of land and housing” (Nechyba & Walsh, 2004: 186). Density leads to growth, so economists favor city models that are less dispersed. Urban sprawl also affects livability of the city center, as cities can be lively during the day, but often quite empty in the evening, when all the people, who live in suburban areas, leave for home. For e.g., an official number of population in Cebu City is 866 171 (Philippine Statistics Authority, 2010), but during the working day it is more than 1 million. This trend is one of the indicators of urban sprawl.

Urban sprawl can be addressed by using principles of green urbanism. Green urbanism promotes the development of socially and environmentally sustainable city districts (Lehmann, 2011). It captures both environmental and urban dimensions, so principles of green urbanism could help to develop the neighborhoods with sprawl characteristics into more sustainable, environment-friendly areas. In the next section the concept of green urbanism will be further discussed.

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2. 2. Green Urbanism

2. 2. 1. Definition and Characteristics of Green Urbanism

The very first steps for green urbanism come from E. Howard (1902) and R. Banham (1969). Here Howard (1902) was more concentrated on the environmental side – “garden cities” and Banham was probably the first historian that has consistently explored the impact of environmental engineering on building’s design (Lehman, 2011). Other important writing on green urbanism comes from J. Jacobs (1968; 1993), where she has presented “a definition of a “city ecosystem” parallel to that of a natural ecosystem” (Kidder cited in Hirt & Zaham, 2012: 9). However, a full, “principle-based concept of green urbanism was developed in the late 1990s, promoting more compact energy-efficient urban development, seeking to transform and re-engineer existing city districts” (Lehmann, 2014). Since then the concept was promoted and developed by Newman and Matan in Asia (2013), by Beatley (2000) and Lehman (2005; 2011) that wrote about the cities in Europe, United States and Australia.

According to (Beatley, 2000: 6), “green urbanism takes a primary goal the need to greatly reduce the ecological footprints of cities, to live within the limit of local and regional ecosystems”. This concept promotes cities that are green and function after the example of nature. It has long-term goals: “zero emissions, zero waste and the avoidance of energy, water, material wastage” (Lehmann, 2014: 1). Green urbanism concept is based on four pillars: energy and materials; water and biodiversity; urban planning and transport and socio-cultural features (see Figure 6).

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Green urbanism is often used as a way to describe settlements that are smart, secure and sustainable – smart in that they are able to adapt to the new technologies, secure in that they have built in systems that enable them to respond to extreme events as well as being built to last and sustainable in that they are part of solution to the big questions of sustainability, such as climate change” (Newman & Matan, 2009: 7). According to Lehman (2011), green urbanism aims to lessen the use of water, energy and other materials at each moment of the city’s or neighborhoods life cycle. Simply, green urbanism is described as a common sense urbanism, which “has to become the norm for all urban developments” (Lehman, 2011 cited in Subido, 2011).

The concept of green urbanism overlaps with ideas behind sustainable urbanism, compact city and resilience in the cities. The resilience concept looks for sustainable transformation in the city – “by creating regenerative cities, we create an urbanization model that will make our cities more resilient” (Lehman, 2011 cited in Subido, 2011). Sustainable urbanism is more focused on a self-sufficient city and neighborhoods as a goal. In addition, green urbanism includes community’s role in making city more sustainable. The closest concepts are compact city and green urbanism, since both concepts argues for high residential density with mixed land usage and advocates that this type of urban settlement is more sustainable than urban sprawl, because people are less dependent on cars and it requires less infrastructure provision, therefore is also less expensive (Williams 2000, cited in Dempsey 2010). I have chosen green urbanism over other concepts, firstly because green urbanism focuses on “small-scale catalytic interventions that can be applied to urbanized locations, which in aggregate, lead to an overall shift towards sustainable neighborhoods” (Bardacke & Wells, 2012). It is useful for my research since “green urbanism effectively captures both urban and environmental dimensions” of such change (Beatley, 2000: 5).

As urban sprawl produces unsustainable outcomes principles of green urbanism come in handy by prioritizing urban ecology and acknowledging the limits of local ecosystems (Beatley, 2012). Therefore it stands as a promising instrument in addressing sustainable transformation of sprawl-like neighborhoods.

2. 2. 2. Principles of Green Urbanism

The main goal of green urbanism is based on “a combination of new technology, city design and community-based innovation” (Newman & Matan, 2009: 8). So, green urbanism works as a conceptual framework on how to tackle the challenge of transforming existing neighborhoods, districts and communities – for this Lehmann (2011: 245) has introduced 15 Principles of green

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1. Climate and context

2. Renewable energy for zero CO2 emissions 3. Zero-waste city

4. Water

5. Landscape, gardens and urban biodiversity

6. Sustainable transport and good public space: compact and poly-centric cities 7. Local and sustainable materials with less embodied energy

8. Density and retrofitting of existing districts

9. Green buildings and districts, using passive design principles 10. Livability, healthy communities and mixed-use programs 11. Local food and short supply chains

12. Cultural heritages, identity and sense of place

13. Improved urban governance, leadership and best practice 14. Education, research and knowledge

15. Strategies for cities in developing countries

Figure 7. The outlined 15 principles of Green Urbanism aim to guide urban designers and decision makers. Source Lehmann, 2008 cited in Lehmann, 2011: 257.

City or neighborhoods that develop under green urbanism principles aims to reach such features (Newman, 2010: 1): renewable energy usage, carbon-neutrality, biophilia (human-environment interaction), eco-efficiency and sustainable transport. These features “are overlapping in their approaches and outcomes, but each provides a perspective on how attempts to improve the green urbanism of a city can be achieved” (Newman, 2010: 1). The principles of green urbanism foster a new type of cities and neighborhoods that are needed all around the world in order to pursue the goal of sustainability.

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In accordance to my research focus – transformation of sprawl-like neighborhoods – I believe that not all of these principles can be used, as some of them are more balanced for the cities. However, my aim is to specify the most relevant ones that could be developed into practice (initiatives) in the sprawl-like neighborhoods:

- renewable energy (power supply from renewable energy resources); - zero waste (composting, recycling and reusing wasted materials);

- sustainable transport (BRT, electric cars, bicycles) and good public space; - water (independent water supply, rainwater collection and flood prevention); - gardens and urban biodiversity (initiatives of urban gardening, vertical gardens); - green buildings, using passive design principles (new buildings design);

- healthy communities (sport activities, availability of medical services);

- mixed-land use (integration of shops, service provision, residential houses in the neighborhood);

- leadership (neighborhood management and roles of local leaders); - density (effective use of land and houses in the neighborhood); - local food (food supply through community gardens/urban farming); - education (teaching/learning about sustainability, eco-initiatives);

Principles of green urbanism can assist in improving livability, increasing social interaction and potentially saving money. There is no one universal recipe on how to make cities and neighborhoods more sustainable, so these principles should be applied in an adapted way, depending on the context and local reality.

2. 2. 3. Green Urbanism in Practice

Green urbanism proved to be a good tool of change towards sustainability in other parts in the world, especially cities in the Europe (Beatley, 2000) – innovations and “the holistic planning has enabled them to revolutionize housing, transport, waste recycling (…) in a manner that is in sync with principles of green urbanism” (Sriraj, 2014). Principles of green urbanism have also been applied in some Asian cities. One of the most successful examples is Singapore, which has shown leadership in the Asian region by successfully adapting some of discussed principles and now is leading in the strategies for renewable city, distributed infrastructure and biophilic city (Newman, 2011).

There are no city yet, that had been implemented all of the principles, even though some are doing well in applying at least few (Masdar, Singapore, Freiburg). In fact, there are a lot of cities around

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the world, which has not implement any of these principles. There is a challenge for urban planners “to apply all of the approaches together, to generate a sense of purpose through a combination of new technology, city design and community-based innovation” (Newman, 2011: 3). For sure, there are also other specific issues that create barriers for sustainable transformation of the cities, including the attitude of government officials, a lack of planning traditions, a lack of collaboration between different stakeholders, etc. Therefore, in the next chapter I will talk about another important concept that I use in my research – urban governance.

2. 3. Urban Governance

In this section I present the concept of urban governance, because good urban governance is a key to sustainable urban development (Sardar, 2012). Sustainable transformations cannot be initiated, designed and implemented without the collaboration between people from the public, private and civic sectors. In order to propose recommendations, firstly there is a need to understand local power relations, identify main stakeholders and their interests and how processes of decision making operate.

2. 3. 1. Definition of Urban Governance

Urban governance is defined as “a sum of the many ways individuals and institutions, public and private, plan and manage the common affairs of the city. It is a continuing process through which conflicting or diverse interests may be accommodated and cooperative action can be taken. It includes formal institutions as well as informal arrangements and the social capital of citizens” (UN-HABITAT, 2003: 1). As Peters and Pierre (2012:1) suggest, if simply defined “urban governance is about the formulation and pursuit of collective goals at the local level of the political system”.

Urban governance is one of the main parts of the sustainability agendas promoted by UN, World Bank, NGO’s and also national governments (Raco, 2009). Primarily urban governance is “concerned with the processes through which government is organized and delivered in towns and cities and the relationships between state agencies and civil society” (Raco, 2009: 622). The focus is on ‘active citizenship’, when individual citizens and communities engage in “direct participative modes of governance” (Raco, 2009: 622). However, even though participative modes of governance are considered to be effective, different forms of urbanization are still dependent on direct political and institutional decisions (Allen, 2009: 3). In order to evaluate the responsiveness of such governance it is important to look at the mechanisms through which decisions are made, because “at the urban scale the impacts of development projects (imposed by government) on different social groups have been particularly marked” (Raco, 2009: 623). There is a need for a flexible type

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of governance that is able to be responsive to new global challenges, such as vulnerabilities to climate change at all levels, promotes cooperation between different stakeholders, but also enables local inhabitants to participate in the decision making processes that happens on urban scale.

2. 3. 2. Urban Governance: Participants and Mechanisms

Urban governance is about collective action and collaboration between public, private and civic sectors. Figure 3 shows a few examples of how each sector can contribute to a more sustainable living environment.

Figure 8. What each sector can do in order to contribute to more sustainable city? Source: Sustainable Singapore, http://app.mewr.gov.sg/web/Contents/ContentsSSS.aspx?ContId=1034

When it comes to planning the city or transforming the neighborhoods, everyone’s participation is important. The lifestyle choice of city dwellers has an impact for overall city outputs, though city administration also has to implement some tools in order to help residents to address their needs, to encourage them to contribute to sustainable development of their neighborhoods and the city. However, vice versa, when city government puts efforts to ensure minimal impact on the environment and local lifestyles, alone it cannot reach any great results. For sustainable urban development a mechanism of PPPs could play a role as one of the strategies that leads to better implementation and institutionalization of effective urban planning and policy. In South East Asia there is a serious concern about continuation of development projects as “the governments in power often (…) discontinue or slow down the implementation of policies and projects of previous government (Sardar, 2012: 7). The PPPs could be an opportunity for ensuring a continuation of the projects. However, there is also a risk, since not all businesses are transparent with their political

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views or decision-making processes. In order to achieve effective results, the collective efforts of different sectors and transparency in the decision-making are needed.

According to Peters and Pierre (2012: 1), “political institutions and elective office are expected to play a leading if not dominant role in urban governance (…) to define collective goals and to ensure the provision of financial resources and organizational control to pursue those goals”. However, it does not mean that other groups are less important, because “governance theory makes no prejudgment about which social actors are most central to the pursuit of collective goals” (Peters and Pierre, 2012: 1) and groups should seek a consensus, therefore creating arrangements. Urban governance arrangements play an important role in creating more sustainable neighborhoods and cities. When we talk about urban services, “there are two sides to the governance equation: firstly the production of services which is concerned with the technical question of how resources are put together to deliver services, and secondly, the representation of individuals and groups in civil society” (Harpham & Boateng, 1997: 66).

For instance, MLC (see Figure 9) is a local example of public and private cooperation and also an example of active citizenship that aims to achieve better livability in the city of Cebu.

Figure 9. Core ideas of the Movement for a Livable Cebu. Source: www.livablecebu.com

The World Business Council for Sustainable Development (WBCSD) claims that “businesses are vital players in ensuring that a sustainable future can be achieved for urban areas all over the planet” (Bakker, 2014). When the interests of public, private and civic sectors come together there is a room for cooperation. For instance, developments such as shopping malls, fast food chains are typical for urban sprawl. Private companies have an interest in establishing shopping malls, but they

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also need to contribute to the local community, as they usually take the land, what otherwise could be devoted to, for example, community’s green zone. However, there is also an interest of the local community and the government to have more job opportunities in the district, so all three sectors can come together and negotiate the best decision for all. Since developers always look for profits, it is very important for civic society to be active in order to reduce this risk. Usually “developers have an incentive to create local public goods (such as parks, small lakes and recreation areas) to drive up prices for land they are developing near such spaces” (Nechyba & Walsh, 2004: 190). That is why a good governance is in need, because it is “a lever for ensuring that the community sector has the opportunity to contribute to both provision and production” of services around them (Harpham & Boateng, 1997: 66).

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3. Research Design

Here I first present the main research question and sub questions, followed by visualization of the conceptual scheme and operationalization of the main research concepts. Next, I elaborate on the research methodology. The final paragraph of this chapter presents the limitations that I have faced while conducting the research.

3. 1. Research Question and Sub Questions

What are the opportunities for and barriers to the sustainable transformation of sprawl-like neighborhoods in the Cebu city, Philippines?

Since, the main research question seeks revelation of barriers to and opportunities, the sub questions are formulated so that the answers provide information about current situation, problems that are encountered and desirable changes, which main stakeholders want to see.

Research sub questions:

1. How are the existing sprawl-like neighborhoods in the Cebu city characterized?

2. What are the problems related to sprawl-like neighborhoods as perceived by local stakeholders and experts?

3. What do local stakeholders and experts perceive as desirable changes in the sprawl-like neighborhoods?

4. How to initiate and realize desirable changes in the sprawl-like neighborhoods? 5. What are the wider implications or the lessons learned from this qualitative study? 3. 2. Conceptual Scheme

A conceptual scheme (see Figure 10) works as a graphical representation of my research core and helps to visualize the relations between the most relevant concepts that are going to be used. This scheme shows that the main focus of this research is on the sustainable transformation of the sprawl-like neighborhoods. It reveals that urban governance and green urbanism concepts are possibly affecting barriers to and opportunities for sustainable transformation of sprawl-like neighborhoods. The conceptual scheme mainly shows the presumption, that sprawl-like neighborhood with the help of proper urban governance arrangements and green urbanism principles can become more sustainable living area.

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Figure 10. Conceptual Scheme.

3. 3. Operationalization

An operationalization scheme reveals three main concepts that I have addressed during my research – green urbanism, urban governance and sprawl-like neighborhoods. All three concepts are broken down into dimensions and each dimension has particular number of variables and measures. Operationalization of these concepts helps in data collection and analysis processes (see Figure 11).

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Concept Dimension Variables Measures/Indicators Green Urbanism Urban design Urban Planning

and Transport Green districts and buildings Urban Density

Mix-land use practices

Public Transport System (traffic volume, availability)

Availability and amount of green public space

Energy and

Materials Zero waste

Renewable energy Local food

Energy saving practices Water and

Biodiversity Water management systems Landscape management practices Number of urban gardens

Flaura and fauna in the neighborhood Socio-cultural

Features Existence of strategies for sustainable _{development of the neighborhood} Livability and mix-use

Preservation of cultural heritage Self-government and leadership Education about sustainable development

Public-private partnerships Urban

Governance Good urban

governance Effectiveness

Vision/sustainable development strategy stated

Sources of budget Delivery of services

Participation Public forums (number of people participating)

Elected council Representation Informal gatherings

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Figure 11. Operationalization of the main concepts.

3. 4. Methodology

“The type of glasses you wear defines the world you see” (Tracy, 2013: 38). This research is based on post-positivism paradigm, where “qualitative methods aim toward garnering representative samples that provide a clear answer to the question” (Tracy, 2013: 38). However there is also an understanding that reality can be captured only partially, because we all are shaped by our previous experiences and our opinions therefore are subjective. That is why a triangulation of methods is very important. A triangulation means “using multiple types and sources of data, diverse methods of collection, various theoretical frames, and multiple researchers, in order to truly answer a research question” (Denzin, 1978 cited in Tracy, 2013: 40). Methodological triangulation also contributes to the reliability and generalizability of the case study.

Qualitative case studies usually serve the purpose of developing a better understanding of how particular things work or might work in a concrete setting. In this case, developing a better understanding of how sustainable transformation in sprawl-like neighborhoods can be achieved in Cebu city. My aim is not to proof that all sprawl-like neighborhoods in the Philippines are similar

publication

Independent audit availability Facility for residents complains and suggestions

Anticorruption activities Sprawl-like

neighbourhoods Characteristics Density Number of residents per hectare Number of houses per hectare Heterogeneity of the

neighbourhood Types of buildings (mix-land use) Variety of functions and services available in the neighbourhood Modes of transport

supported Availability of the public transport system Roads

Sidewalks Bicycle lanes

Location Distance from the city center Surroundings

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and can be transformed in the same way, even though by studying three different neighborhoods the chance of the findings being too much dependent on the possible particularities of one case is reduced, and it results in increased generalizability.

On the other hand, Flyvbjerg suggests, that “formal generalization is overvalued as a source of scientific development, whereas ‘the force of example’ and transferability are underestimated (Flyvbjerg, 2006: 228). This is relevant for my study, which essentially aims to investigate by example how sustainable transformation in sprawl-like neighborhoods can be achieved. I am looking for the lessons that can be learned from studying three neighborhoods in Cebu city – one main case study and two secondary, supplementary cases. Their validity may (in various degrees) extend to other neighborhoods in the Philippines and possibly beyond. However, caution must be exercised, as conditions may differ and produce different barriers to and opportunities for effectuating transformations.

This research is a mix of emic and etic (inductive and deductive) type of study. Here I focus on the “meanings that emerge from the field” (Tracy, 2013) I aim to develop a better understanding of how sustainable transformations in sprawl-like neighborhoods can be achieved, however I do not aim to build a grounded theory (Glaser & Strauss, 1967; Strauss & Corbin 1990, 1998; Charmaz, 2006). Here I try to find out what are opportunities for and barriers to the sustainable transformation of sprawl-like neighborhoods in Cebu city, the Philippines. However, before starting the research I am also making a presumption, that principles of green urbanism and new governance arrangements should help to achieve a sustainable transformation of such neighborhoods. Therefore my study is not clearly emic or etic, it uses both inductive and deductive approaches.

3. 4. 1. Research Methods

Different types of methods had been used in order to gather data in the field: participant observations, semi-structured and open interviews, participatory method – focus group and mapping. The qualitative methods proved to be useful in collecting the subjective experiences and acquiring a deeper understanding of complex phenomena (such as sustainability, urban sprawl, urban planning in this case).

Participant Observation

“Participant observation is an excellent method for understanding gestalt meanings” (Tracy, 2013: 26).

In order to better understand the local context and the effects of urban sprawl, participant observation technique came in handy. I have managed to find a place to live in a neighborhood with

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sprawl characteristics. As being a resident of the particular neighborhood I had a better access to meet local people and to organize a focus group, interviews, etc. It gave me a better understanding on how sprawl-like neighborhoods look like and function.

Observation method also proved to be valuable, as I have got an opportunity to participate in the meetings of local civic organization Movement for Livable Cebu. A close relationship with this organization has also opened the doors to me and I could participate in relevant conferences and events with the networking opportunities.

Semi-structured and open interviews

Government officials, community leaders, urban planning experts had been asked to participate in the semi-structured and open interviews. I have conducted a few open interviews at the beginning of my fieldwork. This method has helped to gather information about local context with out any limitations. Afterwards, semi-structured interviews came in handy, since I had some concrete questions and I was already familiar with the local context. Because of time constraints, and usage of specific terminology (sustainable development, urban sprawl, etc.) semi-structured interviews seemed to be the right choice to gather relevant data.

Focus group

A participatory method – focus group – was used in order to collect data about local perceptions related to sustainability. It helped me to gather information for answering several research sub-questions: SQ2, SQ3 and SQ4. The participants of the focus group were the residents (and active community members) of the subdivision Villa del Rio 1, a neighborhood with sprawl characteristics. Field diary

I took notes during the whole fieldwork period. This method helped me to remember tiny, but important details, to draw a broader picture of observed issues and contexts. It also helped to reflect on my own experiences and to present my ideas about local reality after coming back from the field. Mapping Technique

The method of mapping (with GPS) was used in order to show different types of sustainability initiatives that take place in the subdivision Villa del Rio 1.

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Figure 12. Research sub questions and methods.

3. 4. 2. Unit of Analysis

The main unit of analysis of my research is a concrete neighborhood with sprawl characteristics – Villa del Rio 1 in Cebu city, the Philippines. I have also collected information from other two neighborhoods (barangay Luz and subdivision Maria Luisa) that work as secondary, supplementary cases.

A concrete case (sprawl-type neighborhood Villa del Rio 1) was chosen in the Cebu city and residents’ opinions were studied. In particular focus was placed on their perceptions on unsustainable outcomes of urban sprawl, characteristics of the sprawl-like neighborhoods and desired changes in their residence location.

The unit of observation contains government officials from city planning and environment departments. The focus was on official city development agenda, ordinances, practices and initiatives that have been implemented or are in official agenda. The main aim is to understand local

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urban governance practices and to what extent does local government participate (or aim to participate) in the transformation of urban sprawl neighborhoods towards sustainability, do they support PPPs on this matter.

A unit of observation also includes local architects, urban planning experts from academia. The main focus was on their opinions about urban sprawl effects on the suburban neighborhoods, their evaluation of government’s and local communities’ initiatives, also their assessment of the prospects of sustainable development of the sprawl-like neighborhoods in Cebu city.

In addition the third unit of observation are local “advocates” for sustainability, community leaders from civic organizations. They were interviewed, in order to grasp a better understanding of such movement’s initiatives that take place in the city and in the neighborhoods.

3. 4. 3. Sampling

The sampling of interviewees was purposive, because of the interest of my research and in a line with my theoretical framework I was aiming to talk with people from particular sectors – government, academia, NGOs and residents of sprawl-like neighborhoods. A snowball technique proved to be the most effective way to meet and interview the needed people. I was lucky to get in touch with local non-profit organization MLC that was very interested in my research and helped me by providing a list of useful contacts.

Choosing a case study – a concrete sprawl-like neighborhood – was not easy. A snowball technique proved to be useful again, as a member of MLC assisted me and organized a few tours around the most relevant (their recommendation) neighborhoods for my research. Since currently urban sprawl is intensifying towards the North, I have focused my research on the neighborhoods in the North side of the Cebu city. I have chosen and approached 3 neighborhoods with different characteristics (informal settlers residential area, upscale subdivision and middle class sprawl-like neighborhood). The main criteria for choosing these neighborhoods were: availability, sprawl-characteristics, environment-friendly initiatives that are practiced by its residents. A subdivision Villa del Rio 1 (VDR1) is located in the Barangay Bacayan – one of the furthest and densely populated residential barangays in the North of Cebu city, so it was the most representative sprawl-like neighborhood among the others. As my research is about transformation of sprawl-like neighborhoods, most of the information I have collected is about VDR1. Other data from two neighborhoods is complementary and helps to understand local attitudes towards sustainability.

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3. 4. 4. Types of Data

During my fieldwork I have conducted twenty interviews, organized one focus group, collected observations, and practiced mapping technique. In addition, fieldwork diary was written and notes were taken.Most of the data I have collected is qualitative content, coming from semi-structured and open interviews, focus group and participant observations. This data was recorded with voice recorder and notes were taken. Afterwards all the data was transcribed and coded. Coding enables researcher to have a look at connections within interviewee’s statements. I have used an open and thematic coding, because of the nature of the indicators and open questions of my research. The data that I have gathered by using GPS was analyzed with the ArcGIS and Google Maps.

3. 4. 5. Challenges and Limitations

I was going to the field without initial contacts in academia or NGOs, only with 2 meetings arranged through an email. Obviously I have worried about how am I going to meet all the people I need to interview, how I am going to find a place to live, especially as I was aiming to live in urban-sprawl neighborhood. Finding a proper neighborhood for my research location was a challenging task. Most of the neighborhoods were gated communities with security 24/7, so if you do not know any residents inside, you cannot get in. I did not know this in advance, so it was a limitation to my research.

Ethical considerations also come in mind. Some of the interviewees did not want their names to be revealed, so, for instance, all the participants from the focus group remain anonymous. Some of the businessmen also wanted to talk anonymously, because they did not want their opinions to have any impacts on their businesses.

Additionally, as a researcher I could hardly change the local people’s attitude and understanding that I am a foreigner and they are representing their neighborhood, city and the country while talking with me. They naturally wanted to make a good impression, so sometimes avoided talking about serious problems that much. This situation has influenced some outcomes of the conversations. Some cultural differences played a role and some misunderstandings have happened occasionally too. Time constrains has also played a role – preventing me from collecting more relevant data.

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4. Urban sprawl in Cebu City

This chapter starts with a short description of how Cebu city is planned and administratively divided. It subsequently explains how urban growth takes place and for what reasons, and when the urban sprawl has started. The chapter ends with a discussion of the main characteristics of sprawl-like neighborhoods.

4. 1. Administrative division of Cebu City

Cebu city – the capital city of Cebu Province, is located in Visayas region, in the Southern Philippines (Map 13). More details about the city are provided in the section 1. 3 – Research. This section focuses on administrative division.

Map 13. A political map of Cebu Island. Source: CebuWatch.com

The Philippines has four levels of the elected administrative (and spatial) divisions, which when grouped together are called Local Government Units or LGUs (see Figure 14). The lowest administrative unit is a barangay. The city of Cebu consists of 80 such barangays.

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Figure 14. Philippine Government Structure. Source: UN, Republic of the Philippines, Public Administration Country Profile, 2004: 7. (http://unpan1.un.org/intradoc/groups/public/documents/un/unpan023241.pdf)

Barangays can be sub-divided into sitios (in the urban areas) and puroks (in the rural areas). However, sitios and puroks do not have official elected leaders or government branches (Cebu City Government, 2014). Sitios can be further divided into subdivisions (urban neighborhoods), which are also called villages. All subdivisions are neighborhoods, but not all neighborhoods are subdivisions, since the subdivision is characterized by the existence of a private piece of land (lots) with a particular number of residential houses that are mostly build around the same time and are around the same size (Cambridge Dictionary, 2014). The urban and rural areas of Cebu city are further subdivided into districts. Residential districts are classified into: Low Intensity (R-1 – West/Northwest/North Blocks; 20-40 dwelling units/hectare) and Medium/High Intensity (R-2 – Northwest/North/East Blocks; 70 or more dwelling units/hectare) (Res. No. 1441, Ord. No.1565: 64). The 80 barangays comprising Cebu city are divided into two parts: South and North. My main research area – the subdivision VDR1 is located in the barangay Bacayan, in the North of Cebu city (see Map 15).

4. 2. Urban Growth of Cebu City

The 1980s and 1990s are called “the urban growth years” in many Philippine cities (Espina et al., 2013). The unprecedented urban growth came with renewed freedoms after the “EDSA People Power revolution in 1986 ended 15 years of Martial Law and 21 years of Marcos rule in the Philippines” (Espina et al., 2013: 48). During the 1990s “major roads, and arterial links were constructed together with the widening of the main streets (…), a computerized Traffic Signal System was implemented, the North and the South Bus Terminals were constructed” in Cebu city (Espina et al., 2013: 48). All of that were called a “Ceboom” phenomenon (Espina et al., 2013). At that time the urban growth was mostly concentrated in the South, however, nowadays the city is

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expanding towards the North – to the mountains area (see Map 3). Land area records indicate that Cebu city expanded from 284,9 km2_{in 1990 to 320,1 km}2_{in 2010 (WWF, 2011: 17). The} population number has changed accordingly: from 610,417 in 1990 to 841,927 in 2010 – an increase of 231,510 inhabitants. Population density has also increased: from 1,907/ km2 in 1990, to 2,630/km2 in 2010 (WWF, 2011: 17).

Map 15. Cebu city in 2008: an Existing Land-use map of Cebu city. Yellow color marks residential districts. Source: Cebu City Municipality.

Barangay Bacayan

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Map 16: Cebu city in 1944.

Source: http://www.mapcruzin.com/free-maps-philippines/cebu_philippines_1944.jpg

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Statistics show a trend of increasing numbers of urban dwellers not only in Cebu city, but in the whole Metro Cebu area (see Table 19) – “if the average annual Population Growth Rate (PRG) recorded at 1.88 percent during the period 2000 to 2010 continues, the population of Cebu city would double in 37 years” (Philippine Statistics Authority, 2013).

Urban sprawl and urban growth are interlinked, hence it is important to distinguish that “urban growth may be observed without the occurrence of sprawl, but sprawl must induce growth in urban area” (Bhatta, 2010: 17). However, these two processes are not influenced only by the population growth, but also by wealth increase (fostering a demand for larger houses and larger lots) and reduction in the average household size.

Table 18. Causes of urban growth, which may result in the compact and/or sprawled growth. Source: Bhatta, 2010: 18.

Modernizing societies often display a reduction in the average household size. The main reasons why the average household size decline are an increasing number of the one-person households and