Understanding Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, and Transgender individuals’ gender and sexual identity construction and expression through entertainment media: a qualitative study
Name: Alexandra Cacovean Baciu Student ID: 12098310
Supervisor: Chei Billedo
Entertainment Communication Graduate School of Communication University of Amsterdam
Master’s Thesis 31-01-2020
Abstract
This study aimed to explore how the portrayal of gender roles on entertainment media has shaped the formation of gender and sexual identities of LGBT individuals.
Moreover, we wanted to understand how these individuals perceived entertainment media from their childhood to their adult life. The sample consisted of 12 LGBT young adults from different cultural backgrounds. The interviews were divided into three themes that matched key developmental stages: childhood, adolescence, and emerging adulthood. Participants revealed similar consumption patterns, preference towards strong female characters, and perceiving gender stereotypes in retrospect. Strikingly, participants also discussed LGBT stereotypes that were portrayed in media. Results also indicated that entertainment media, although it could have been a very important factor in the gender and sexual identity construction of individuals, was limited during their childhood and early adolescence. Due to this, most of the
participants used the Internet to get answers for their questions and for content more related to their gender and sexual identity struggles during their adolescence.
Accordingly, the LGBT young adults we interviewed use mostly Internet streaming-on-demand platforms such as Netflix or social media platforms to seek for entertainment media. Entertainment media has changed drastically in the lifespan of these young adults, and although the participants also pointed out good practices of new LGBT shows, the lack of representation and diversity, especially mainstream media, is still a common problem in today’s media landscape. To finalize, this study provided practical implications for media companies and helped on expanding the research on identifying more suitable content for LGBT individuals in entertainment media.
Keywords: LGBT, sexual identity, gender identity, entertainment media, childhood, adolescence, young adults
Introduction
The rise of feminism in the ‘80s put a focus on the academic development of gender studies. As a result, many scholars have centered their work on the conceptualization of the components that conform gender. Gender identity was found to be a socially constructed role that is highly influenced by society, institutions or entertainment media. These sociological factors reinforce traditional gender role beliefs where certain groups of individuals might be misrepresented.
Extreme-gender role beliefs have been crucial to understanding how media can emphasize gender stereotypes beliefs. Research reveals that, especially television, has great power in reinforcing more sexist views of women’s role in society (Signorielli, 1989). More recent research by Coyne, Linder, Rasmussen, Nelson, and Birkbeck (2016) found that girls engaged with Disney Princess media had higher levels of
female stereotypical behaviors. Similarly, Valkenburg and Piotrowski (2017) argue that, especially during adolescence, girls and boys imitate and learn from entertainment media appropriate behavioral options such as the feminine or the macho ideal for boys. Qualitative analysis on adolescent boys analyzed how this group perceived
hypermasculine media stereotypes (Millington & Wilson, 2010), or the development of masculinity through the media memories of heterosexual males (Dunlap & Johnson, 2013). Overall, there seems to be a general agreement over the fact that certain types of media consumption portraying traits such as male dominance and aggression, or female subordination and sexualization, can impact our socialization of gender beliefs for heterosexual women and men (van Oosten, 2017).
Despite the development of this field of research, little is known about how entertainment media cultivates beliefs on LGBT individuals. Likewise, studies analyzing the different media portrayals of LGBT characters are neglected (Yan, 2019). As we mentioned previously, entertainment media replicates hypergender ideologies that reinforce homophobic beliefs (Hamburger, Hogben, McGowan, and Dawson, 1996). For LGBT individuals, the depiction of these stereotypes can be more harmful than to
heterosexual populations. Moreover, the members of this collective do not belong to the prescribed heterosexual roles and have to construct their own identity development across their lifespan (Page & Peacock, 2013). Thus, in this study, we aim to explore how the portrayal of gender roles on entertainment media has shaped the formation of gender and sexual identities of LGBT individuals. Additionally, we want to understand how these individuals perceived their media entertainment choices, from their
childhood to their adult life. On one hand, research on LGBT individuals will help on the development of research on the role of entertainment media in the formation of gender and sexual identities. On the other hand, it will benefit the entertainment media industry on comprehending how to bring more relatable content for non-heteronormative
audiences. Consequently, we propose the following research questions: What are the entertainment media-related experiences of LGBT individuals that were crucial in their gender and sexual identity development and expression? How do LGBT individuals perceive entertainment media, from their childhood to their adulthood and in the present media landscape?
Theoretical background Sex versus gender role
Sex is the biological factor that is defined by our sex chromosome pair. The current definition of sex is classified into two dichotomous categories: male and female (Broughton, Branning, and Omurtag, 2017). However, it is argued in the medical and LGBT academia the existence of an umbrella category, defined as intersex, that includes individuals that are born with different biological variations that not fit the binary notion of male and female (United Nations, 2015).
The concept of gender role was established by Money, Hampson, and
Hampson (1957) when studying the sexual psychology of hermaphroditic patients. In their work, it was found that gender was something that patients started building from
adornments. According to Money et. al (1957), gender role was something that the patients acquired in an early developmental stage. The rise of feminism studies in the ‘80s helped the current conceptualization of gender studies, converging the contrast between socially constructed gender roles and the biologically determined sex of the individuals (Haig, 2003). Gender studies found that gender role was, in fact, more environmental than mere individual characteristics that we acquire when we are children, and something that we learn or achieve throughout our life (Ingraham, 1994). To sum up, in this study it is important to understand that gender role is the socially constructed behavior or appearance that a society considers appropriate for males and females (Broughton et al., 2017), while sex is purely biological.
Gender identity and construction
Gender role socialization is a major component of overall socialization. Furthermore, it is the process through which individuals learn to perform certain roles that are considered appropriate for each sex (Erden, 2009). The gender schema theory posits that children, from a very early developmental age, are expected to have or to acquire culturally established sex-specific self-concepts and personality attributes (Bem, 1981; Trepanier-Street, Romatowski, and Mcnair, 1990). The cognitive-developmental theory explains that gender identity is formed from the stereotypic conceptions of gender roles that children learn in the society they are born. It is important to make a distinction between gender role socialization, which is how we disclose our status of being a male or a female to other people (Haig, 2003), and gender identity, the ability of children to label themselves and others as males or females (Bussey & Bandura, 1999). In general, gender roles vary among individuals and their cultural identity, while gender identities are influenced by different sociological factors such as family, peers, cultural frameworks, or countries (Almy & Sanatullova-Allison, 2016; Goldberg, 2017).
Gender stereotypes are the key elements of this gender role socialization process. People are producers as well as products of these stereotypes (Bussey & Bandura, 1999). Gender role stereotypes help shape the perception, evaluation, and treatment of males and females. Hypergender theories operationalize these concepts. On one hand, hypermasculinity is defined as a set of stereotypical behaviors such as “aggressiveness, power or dominance” (Mosher & Sirkin, 1984, p.151) that conform the macho personality constellation scale. On the other hand, hyperfemininity is the
exaggerated adherence to stereotypic feminine gender roles, such as girls having to be “sexually available for men” (Murnen & Byrne, 1991, p.488). Masculine gender roles in Western society include traits such as being “dominant, assertive, and strong”
(Weisgram, Dinella, and Fulcher, 2011, p.2444). In the case of women, some
examples can be being “warm, sympathetic, sensitive, and soft-spoken” (Weisgram, et al., 2011, p. 245).
Children reinforce the above-mentioned attributes because of the pressure of the society on dichotomizing masculine and feminine gender roles. As a consequence, LGBT individuals might be left apart from these society standards. Firstly, because dichotomous gender roles leave little room for other gender identities such as transgender individuals. Secondly, because of our gender system that privileges masculinity, it also privileges heterosexuality, considering femininity or homosexuality as a deviant (Schilt & Westbrook, 2009). Moreover, a major component of hypergender ideologies is the influence of homophobia on beliefs about how men and women should interact in relationships (Hamburger, et al., 1996). Consequently, research has shown an elevated rate of victimization and bullying in school environments towards the LGBT youth (Palmer, Kosciw, Greytak, Boesen, 2017). In conclusion, the
maintenance of heterosexuality as a core value, and these stereotypical gender roles serve as a mechanism that enlarges the exclusion of LGBT individuals.
Sexual identity
Society constructs strict categories where individuals have to adhere depending on how they express their sexuality (Samelius & Wagberg, 2005). It is essential to understand that gender identity and sexual identity are separated, but related aspects of one’s identity. Similar to gender identity, sexual identity possibilities are diverse and fluctuate across the lifespan of an individual. For instance, a person that identifies with the female gender can be heterosexual, homosexual, or bisexual.
Sexual orientation is a feature of human sexuality, and it dictates our sexual behavior. Sexual behavior is composed of different categories such as sexual attraction, desires, and fantasies, but also feelings of love. Sexual identity, however, refers to a much wider concept, which is how individuals build and define their own sexual ego, including their sexual orientation, but also their role-play identity (Mindru & Nastasa, 2017). Heterosexuality is considered as the normative sexual orientation in our society. Morandini, Blaszczynski, Ross, Costa, and Dar-Nimrod (2015) argue that most lesbian, gay, and bisexual individuals are socialized with the assumption of heterosexuality, and such, the emergence of same-sex attraction leads to attempts of understanding their own sexuality and why they are different. For the longest time, being attracted to your opposite sex has been the norm, but little research has been made on how homosexuals, lesbians, or bisexuals construct their sexual identity, or the vast range of sexual identities that are available outside the heteronormative patterns of our society.
Entertainment media as a crucial socialization factor
At this point, we are positive that the construction of a specific gender and sexual identity can be influenced by different societal factors such as family or peers. Media is commonly cited among scholars as one of the important factors that can also affect our perception of gender roles. From the early preschool years to adulthood, individuals are continually exposed to models of gender-linked behaviors in books,
video games, or television (Bussey & Bandura, 1999). Media seems to be a fueling force that maintains gender stereotypes as a norm in our society, making it an important part of gender socialization of audiences (Wong & Chan, 2006).
Consequently, studies have found that young people use media to learn how to behave and to look in line with their gender or sexual identity (van Oosten, 2017; Chan, Tufte, Cappello, and Williams, 2011).
Two theories might help to explain the influence of media in gender
socialization. Firstly, the social cognitive theory of gender development explains how exposure to gender-stereotyped behavior in the media and playing with gendered toys might have an influence on the development of gender stereotypes and gendered behavior in young children (Bussey & Bandura, 1999). Social cognitive theory also states that gender-typed behavior and attitudes result from observing and imitating others, including television characters (Bandura, 1986). Secondly, the cultivation theory poses that frequent exposure to certain images and ideas in the media can cultivate similar beliefs about the real world (Gerbner, Gross, Morgan, and Signorielli, 1994). Longitudinal studies have proven a positive association between engagement with Disney Princess content and female gender-stereotypical behaviors one year later (Coyne et al., 2016). Interestingly, it has also been found that girls can learn from hypermasculine stereotypes observed in media and vice versa. Therefore, boys that identify with leading female characters may engage in less gender-stereotypical boy attitudes (Bussey & Bandura, 1999). Regarding LGBT individuals, they also turn to media resources to help them understand their gender and sexual identity (Bond, 2014). For young LGBT individuals, the process of defining their own gender and sexual identity is confusing. In the first place, because they have limited interpersonal resources from which they can gather this information. Additionally, because media depicts heterosexual stereotypes and relationships as the social norm, causing LGBT individuals a problem of identification, validation, or solidification of their gender and
These gender-stereotyped behaviors are dichotomized into two categories in entertainment media. Firstly, regarding hyperfeminine gender stereotypes, female roles are usually depicted in ways that include the sexualization and objectification of these characters (Valkenburg & Piotrowski, 2017). In a qualitative study with tween girls from Hong Kong, Chan et al. (2011) found that girls were looking for content that presented physical beauty stereotypes in their media consumption patterns. Secondly,
hypermasculine gender roles on media have shown to portray the Alpha male construction, with characters reproducing violence, stoicism, or physical strength characteristics (Connell & Messerschmidt, 2005). To conclude, Bussey and Bandura (1999, p. 687) argue that this sharp differentiation of stereotypes among genders tends to be “more traditional than is actually the case”, with television being one of the factors that replicates standards considering few variations of these gender roles.
The portrayal of the LGBT collective in media
Nearly absent for the past decades, LGBT portrayals are starting to become more common. This increased visibility is probably due to the new climate of social and sexual equality (Alberti, 2013), and it has made a significant change in how
entertainment media depicts non-heterosexual characters through the popularization of queer content (Symes, 2017). Gay characters are especially gaining quite a great amount of visibility in traditional media or in LGBT related shows such as “Queer Eye”. As a result of this gay predominance, LGBT shows seem to often invisibilize other sexual identities such as bisexual or transgender characters (Westerfelhaus & Lacroix, 2006). Moreover, when represented in media, lesbian characters are often portrayed as tomboys featuring strong masculine characteristics (McCreary, 1994). Similarly, gays are usually depicted as funny and effeminate characters (Westerfelhaus & Lacroix, 2006). To conclude, rare is the case when entertainment media shows a diverse rainbow of gender and sexual identities, and not the stereotyped media
follow the pattern of the heteronormative notion that, if one is attracted to a man, that person is expected to be feminine.
Research shows that the portrayal of LGBT characters can have a positive influence on changing attitudes towards gay men and lesbians (Bonds-Raacke, Cady, Schlegel, Harris, and Firebaugh, 2007). However, a content analysis conducted by Bond (2014) found that, when sexual LGB talks were depicted in media, it was often a talk about stereotypes or insults related to sexuality. As we argued before, younger heterosexual audiences will seek in media how to behave or act according to their gender or sexual identity (van Oosten, 2017). Consequently, LGBT individuals might encounter a bigger obstacle when they are unable to see themselves represented in media; and these negative connotations can be especially damaging for young individuals that are still in the process of understanding their identity.
Nevertheless, the breakthrough of the smartphone has provided newer generations the access to a more diverse and individualized content by the use of social media, defined as “media with which users share information with one another through text, audio, photos, video, or blogs” (Valkenburg & Piotrowski, 2017, p.219). Social media has become a very helpful tool to explore sexuality, as it gives, especially to adolescents, the possibility of presenting and sharing intimate aspects of themselves online (Valkenburg & Piotrowski, 2017). Among the different social media platforms that youngsters use, YouTube has been a particularly outstanding platform for self-expression and self-exploration (O’Neill, 2012). YouTube video creators are making different sexual identities more visible and facilitate the formation of a safe community where they can connect with other peers that are experiencing similar problems. For instance, transgender teenagers might seek for content that will help them overcome the transition, or gay adolescents can reach other people with their same doubts and interests.
Methods
This study aimed to develop a broad exploratory analysis to understand how LGBT individuals constructed their gender and sexual identity development through entertainment media. And, moreover, to get an in-depth set of insights on what their personal experiences related to this identity development were (Starr, 2012).
Qualitative methods were the most suitable option to access to people’s subjective worlds and meanings, especially marginalized groups by their gender or sexuality (Braun & Clarke, 2013). By using semi-structured interviews, we were able to gather insights on how they constructed their gender and sexual identity, identifying differences and similarities across individuals and cultures. Lastly, this research put an additional focus on understanding how entertainment media helped them in this identity development process. Thanks to this approach, future research on this matter can work on identifying more suitable content for this collective. Additionally, entertainment media companies can tackle some of the concerns that participants mentioned in the current entertainment media landscape.
Participants
Since the criteria for this study were LGBT individuals, purposive sampling was used to ensure a sample segmentation of different spectrums of sexual identities. The participants self-identified as gay (N = 6), lesbian (N = 2), bisexual (N = 2), pansexual (N = 1), and one transgender participant identified as heterosexual (N = 1).
Furthermore, we were also interested in seeing how this development differed across cultures or sociodemographic backgrounds. To ensure this variety, we recruited
participants from various nationalities: Spanish (N = 3), Brazilian (N = 3), Dutch (N = 1), German (N = 1), Canadian (N = 1), Chinese (N = 1), Austrian (N = 1), and Croatian (N = 1). Most of the sample held a bachelor’s degree (N = 7), while the remaining
participants held a master’s degree (N = 5). In total, the sample consisted of 7 men and 5 women, with an average age of 26.16 years old.
Participant
Participant’s
alias Age Nationality
Highest Educational Level Man/Woman/ Other Sexual Orientation
R. Ramon 27 Canadian Bachelor Man Gay
L. Lisa 25 Spanish Bachelor Woman Lesbian
G. Gina 30 Brazilian Bachelor Woman Lesbian
S. Simon 26 Chinese Master Man Gay
R. Roberto 33 Brazilian Master Man Gay
P. Philipp 27 Austrian Master Man Gay
G. Gijs 24 Dutch Master Man Gay
N. Norman 26 Croatian Master Man Bisexual
M. Michel 26 Spanish Bachelor Man Gay
A. Alessandra 23 Brazilian Bachelor Woman Bisexual
M. Marie 26 German Bachelor Woman Heterosexual
E. Elisa 24 Spanish Bachelor Woman Pansexual
* In grey pre-test participants.
Data collection
As the interviews were focused on a narrow topic with quite in-depth questions, we limited the sample in order to generate richer data with the use of fewer participants (Braun & Clarke, 2013). For this research, we decided to conduct ten interviews. Additionally, two initial interviews that served as pre-tests were used to test the interview guide and make revisions based on the answers of these participants. The interview guide was modified, adding probe questions. Specifically, we decided to add more questions related to the hobbies and personal interests of the participants. Additionally, the pre-test showed that most of the participants also perceived
These changes facilitated an understanding of how individuals perceived stereotypes of LGBT characters depicted in entertainment media.
With regard to our participants, we had the aim of generating “insight in-depth understanding” (Patton, 2002) of the LGBT community, focusing on the diversity of the different sexual identities. We recruited our first round of individuals via social media (N = 7). Additionally, we asked our participants if they had other LGBT acquaintances interested in participating in our study. Snowball sampling allowed us to reach a more varied sample of LGBT individuals (N = 5). Furthermore, convenience sampling helped to ensure that there was a similar distribution of women and men, and of the various spectrums of sexual identities.
Data procedure
In order to maximize the ecological validity of the study, and taking into
consideration that the topic of this research might be sensitive for some individuals, we decided to interview our participants in an environment where they felt comfortable. Moreover, due to the various nationalities present in this research, some participants decided to realize their interviews online. Most of the interviews were held in private rooms at the University of Amsterdam (N = 6), while others were held in a café (N = 3) or via Skype (N = 3).
Before initiating the interview, a short form asking for their gender, age, nationality, highest educational level achieved, and sexual orientation was given to them. This form provided a solid description of the participants’ socioeconomic background and helped us comprehend the individual differences of each case in the analysis phase of this research.
The interview guide (as shown in Appendix A) consisted of three different key developmental stages that matched the gender and sexual identity construction process mentioned in the theoretical framework of this study. Firstly, participants were asked what kind of entertainment media choices they liked as a child, what were their
favorite characters, what did they like about them, and how would they describe their gender and sexual identity at that age. Secondly, similar questions were asked
regarding the entertainment media choices and characters they enjoyed as teenagers, and how did they perceive stereotypes back then. As research shows, most of
stereotypes and gender and sexual identity constructions happen during this
developmental stage (Valkenburg & Piotrowski, 2017). This is why greater focus was put on understanding how they felt in this period. Thirdly, the last part of the interview aimed to understand how participants would evaluate their gender and sexual identity construction in retrospect. Furthermore, we asked them what kind of entertainment content they consumed nowadays. Lastly, we found interesting to gather insights on what kind of shows or movies they would consider useful for future LGBT generations. The interview ended by asking them if they had anything else to add to the research. On average, the interviews’ duration was of 37.9 minutes, and data saturation was considered reached when interviewees provided similar experiences regarding their gender and sexual identity development and similar entertainment media consuming patterns.
Ethical considerations
At the beginning of the interview, the researcher explained the purpose of the study, the structure of the interview, and its duration. Participants were informed that the interview was going to be recorded for research purposes. Furthermore, they were asked to read and sign the Ethical Consent Form. In the Ethical Consent Form, more information about how the data was going to be gathered was provided. We made clear that anonymity will be safeguarded, and their real name will not appear in the study, it was also stated that they could withdraw from participating in the research at any time during the interview and their data will be erased after the conclusion of the study.
Data analysis
Transcriptions of the interviews were made using the recordings and additional notes (memo-writing) that were taken during the interview (see Appendix C). This process helped to enhance the reliability of the study and improved the trustworthiness of the transcriptions. Additionally, the transcriptions were imported and analyzed through CAQDAS, in this case, Atlas.ti.
The first step of the analysis was open coding, this process helped us categorize quotes of the interview into small individual codes (see Appendix B). For instance, when a participant said, “I didn’t go out that much, it was mostly indoor activities”, the code “stay inside” was assigned. The second step was the identification of patterns in the data (axial coding). Meaningful codes were put together into groups, creating a total of 29 different categories that touched upon different themes.
Moreover, according to the grounded theory, we used selective coding to build theories from the data we gathered (Braun & Clarke, 2013). Thus, we generated a relationship among valuable codes to create two Concept Indicator Models showing the patterns between themes and subthemes that will answer our research questions. Thanks to this analysis, two themes emerged: the socialization factors that influence gender and sexual identity, and the perception of entertainment media for LGBT individuals.
Results
Socialization factors that influence gender and sexual identity
Gender and sexual identity were found to be influenced by different
socialization factors such as household, school, place of residence, and ultimately, media. Moreover, the gender and sexual identity process of the participants fluctuated across their different developmental stages.
Figure 1: Concept Indicator Model of the themes and sub-themes that were found to influence gender and sexual identity across developmental stages.
Theme 1. Socialization agents. Throughout the interviews, participants mentioned household, school or place of origin as crucial factors in their gender and sexual identity development. These factors shaped their personal experiences on this matter. Society standards seemed to change across cultures and periods of time. For instance, participants said that growing up in a more open country would have made this process easier. Also, they argued that society standards are more open nowadays, which might make this process easier for newer generations. Lastly, participants
agreed that society was the primary factor that influenced their identity construction, and media served as a replication tool that supported society’s standards.
Restrictive or supportive household. Participants marked out the importance of the family in the construction of their identity. Those who grew up in supportive
households were able to experiment with their gender and sexual identity in early developmental stages and felt comfortable disclosing their identity with their family.
“Also playing with clothes […] but my parents let me do it, so you know, I used to wear my mum’s clothes, heels, makeup...That was super funny. Besides that,
I also think that my parents, they kind of realized very quick that I was different, so they promoted that a lot for me.”
For the participants that grew in restrictive households, expressing their identity was not an option back then. For some of them, this is still a problem nowadays, as they are still hiding their identity with their family.
“During your adolescence deeper questions arise and you start to analyze and raise the idea, and question yourself and also feel shameful with yourself, because apparently if people show you that your existence is something to be shameful about, so you just internalize your behavior and, that was a really tough part for my teenage years, also because it never felt like I could be my own self. I was always a version of myself that others wanted to have. My hair, because my mum wanted me to be more manly, I got rid of it, which was a very important thing for me. Because I felt the need to live a life that it’s more
accepted for my parents.”
School environment. In general, participants found hard to express their gender and sexual identity at school or with their peers. This feeling is exemplified in the bullying that some participants admitted suffering during their childhood and adolescence. Some participants also saw a lack of education of students on LGBT inclusivity, and they felt that school administrations did very little on helping them.
“I was being told that I was weird, at least, from kindergarten. Because, for example, we had toys day, toys day for me it was bringing my favorite Barbie for school. So, you know, I was super happy about it […], but you realize that people around you don’t see it the same way, and that affects you a lot. […] It was just a mess, in so many ways, specifically with the society part. But also, at school, the bullying, it was the norm for everyone that was gay and growing up. Being bullied, it was normal.”
Place of residence. Moving away from their hometown was also an important factor for starting to publicly express their gender and sexual identity.
“When I moved from my hometown, which was kind of a small village, and I moved to Vienna […] so people are definitely more open there. […] And I think that was also usually the time when you choose your own friends, because you only have family and school and when you live in a small village you kind of know everyone. But then you really decided, okay, who do I really see as friends.”
Theme 2. Entertainment media. Entertainment media was mentioned as another factor that influenced gender and sexual identity construction. Participants often related to role models or learned from characters how to behave in certain social situations. However, others were not able to feel related, as they did not feel
represented in the media they consumed. With regards to how helpful entertainment media was for them, mixed answers were found. Some interviewees agreed that entertainment media helped them on finding their identity, while some others thought that it was limited back then. However, all participants agreed on how entertainment media could be a powerful tool to educate society and future generations.
Role models shaping one’s identity. Especially during adolescence, some participants found entertainment media helpful because they could feel identified with role models that helped them through the process of defining their identity.
Learning from entertainment media gender expressions. Also during
adolescence, some participants admitted to copy the appearance or attitudes of their favorite characters.
“I somehow practice what I learn, on media products. If they behave bravely, I try to behave also bravely, if the world, the people around me can accept me,
they can see what I learnt from the media, so I am braver and maybe watch more that kind of media content.”
Identification with characters. The majority of the participants felt identified with characters during their adolescence. For some interviewees, this identification was rather aspirational, they admired characters that showed strength or were successful. For others, they preferred to identify with characters that had similar problems to them. Apart from characters, popstar idols were highly mentioned by gay participants (e.g., Brittney Spears, Lady Gaga).
“I really felt sorry for her when she had the breakdown in 2007. That made her so mysterious and special for me, and I really wanted to know more about the person. I felt so sorry for her. That everyone was picking on her and saying shit about her […] And yeah, I could also kind of identify with her, I felt a little bit lost at that time.”
However, some participants argued that they could not identify themselves with characters or idols. The first reason was that their idols lived very different lifestyles than what the participants had back then. Other participants did not feel identified with heterosexual characters. Finally, some gay participants found it hard to accept their feminine side during their adolescence, and the cliché stereotypes that LGBT characters represented did not help either.
Limitations of traditional entertainment media. Participants found entertainment media was limited back in their time and did not consider it exciting to watch. Most of the participants that consumed television during their childhood and adolescence did it because they did not have access to alternative media such as the Internet.
Crucial roles of entertainment media. Interviewees agreed that, if done
correctly, entertainment media could have helped them understand that what they were experiencing was normal.
“Having entertainment education, something that tells me that it’s okay to feel like I was feeling maybe I would have had a better view of it. So maybe could have played a big role on educating me because I didn’t have anyone to talk with or to understand that. I could not even talk with my psychologist, so it was just me and myself, kind of thing.”
Finally, participants disclosed entertainment shows that they would have enjoyed watching when they were in the process of finding their gender and sexual identity. The most cited shows were RuPaul’s Drag Race (because of the variety of gay characters), Pose (it depicts the transgender community struggles), and The L World (a showed focused on lesbian relationships). Other series mentioned were Orange is The New Black, Sex Education, and Euphoria.
Theme 3. Gender and sexual identity development. Lastly, gender and sexual identity fluctuated among the different developmental stages of our participants’ lives. As we mentioned before, especially during childhood and adolescence, this
development was very much influenced by different socialization agents. As they grew older, individuals achieved a bigger sense of independence and autonomy.
Uncertainties about one’s gender. Gender and sexual identity were not defined in childhood. However, some interviewees had the idea that they were somehow different from their peers. Looking retrospectively, most of the participants recalled having an affectionate relationship with another female friend or being curious about different gender expressions. However, due to the lack of knowledge in society and representation in media, most of them did not realize that they could be anything
“I never really knew that there was a thing like being trans. So, at the time, I was a very feminine gay boy, I wore makeup, had long hair. So, it was also a really tough time […] So it had like a negative connotation with it. I also felt a lot of shame to be true to myself and to research what I am feeling and why I’m feeling the way I’m feeling.”
Curiosity about gender and sexual identity. During their early adolescence, the majority of the interviewees started being curious about their gender and sexual identity and experimenting with different identity expressions. However, in most of the cases, these identity expressions were hidden because of family pressures or bullying environments.
“Well, I started to question myself about it. But every time I thought about being maybe...trying to define myself as non-binary, every time I tried to do it, I think it constantly came back to being a cis male. So yeah, I did sort of experiments with that, but they just never went everywhere.”
Negative experiences of gender and sexual identity development. In all cases except from one, participants defined their gender and sexual identify process as a negative experience. This process was cataloged as a struggle, long, and difficult. Moreover, for some of them, it was also a dramatic, confusing, shameful, and depressive. Despite these negative connotations, a sense of excitement was also predominant during this period.
“Well, it was long, definitely long. It was also difficult and very confusing in general […] And besides that, I think it was really hard. Because when you’re a kid, kids can be very mean, but when you’re a teenager, you’re more aware of it, so when people keep attacking you on a daily basis, you know they want to hurt you, that’s their whole purpose, so that’s very painful. You know, this is difficult for me already, and society is bringing more and more pressure.”
Self-acceptance. Some participants recalled accepting their gender and sexual identity in their late adolescence. But for the majority of them, it was not until adulthood when they finally understood and accepted themselves. All participants stated that they felt completely comfortable disclosing their identity nowadays.
Gender and sexual identity as a continuous process. Individuals considered their gender and sexual identity as a continuous process. For gay participants, accepting and embracing their femininity was a constant challenge. For bisexuals, sexual preferences shuffled across different stages of their lives.
A focus on entertainment media for LGBT individuals
LGBT individuals’ consuming patterns changed across their developmental stages, and so did their perceptions of entertainment media. Thus, we grouped their perception of entertainment media into four main themes: entertainment media perceptions’ during childhood and adolescence, views on current mainstream media, future steps for entertainment media nowadays, and taking action.
Figure 2: Concept Indicator Model of the themes and sub-themes of the perception of entertainment media from LGBT individuals.
Theme 4. Childhood and adolescence. The perception of the entertainment media during childhood and adolescence was a recurring theme in the interview. These perceptions were classified into different categories such as the characters, the content, or the stereotypes they were exposed to.
Entertainment media characters. Strikingly, across all groups, participants said that their favorite characters were strong female leaders. The most cited characters were Lara Croft, Xena, or Sailor Moon. The main reason why they liked those
characters was because they were powerful, strong, attractive, cool, and independent. Many interviewees also enjoyed entertainment media content that depicted more than one lead character, so they had the option to identify with various characters’
personality traits.
Media entertainment content. Participants mainly watched television during their childhood. Especially shows such as Nickelodeon, Cartoon Network or anime. The most consumed movies were Disney movies. Roleplay videogames were also highly used during their childhood and adolescence. Music started to become a popular entertainment media choice only during adolescence. In this phase, teenagers started having idols such as Lady Gaga or Spice Girls. Regarding television, teenagers
enjoyed consuming popular shows such as MTV programs (Pimp My ride, Simple Life), teenage soap opera (Rebelde, Física o Química) or romantic series from their country. But most importantly, many participants started having access to the Internet.
Participants agreed that the Internet introduced them to a more diverse and
international content that could not have been accessed through regular television, and also served as a tool to connect with other LGBT peers.
“I did use the Internet to...put out, or just live some of my deepest desires […] That made me have more contact with that sexuality that I never explored. And also going to gay chat whenever I could, I wouldn’t meet people, but I would get
very excited to talk with people. So yeah media for sure, the Internet kind of allowed me.”
Stereotypes in media. Interviewees agreed on the prevalence of stereotypes in the mainstream entertainment media available in their times. However, most of them did not notice these stereotypes at the moment. Participants that noticed these stereotypes decided to switch from television to other types of entertainment choices, such as Rock music or reading books. These stereotypes can be categorized into heterosexual gender stereotypes or LGBT stereotypes. LGBT stereotypes were found to depict damaging clichés such as the representation of gay characters as effeminate, quirky, sassy, or loud individuals; or lesbians being portrayed as tomboy girls.
Strikingly, no stereotypes of bisexual or transgender people were mentioned. “At that time there was the one gay character that was very...normative, just very effeminate and I think that was something that I really struggled with in my teenage years. That watching movies like normative, or sexually normative, people on the television...that was the standard for being gay.”
Theme 5. Views on current mainstream media. The interviewees also shared the problems they perceived in traditional media and some insights on alternative sources of media.
The problems of traditional media. It seems that traditional media still lacks a good representation of LGBT characters. Participants agreed that especially television, was still replicating damaging stereotypes of LGBT individuals.
“I still feel like, even if we live in 2019, it’s still an issue, portraying LGBTQ people even if they try to...I don’t know, portray them in a more real way. There’s now a Bachelor...a German version of The Bachelor on TV, and it’s really stereotyped. It’s a bit sad.”
Availability of alternative entertainment media. Therefore, interviewees admitted not consuming traditional media anymore, and only watching content that was
available on streaming-on-demand platforms such as Netflix or HBO. Participants agreed that these platforms have changed the entertainment media landscape
nowadays, providing a great variety of entertainment products where they can choose what to consume based on their identity and personal preferences.
“There is still a lot to be done on TV. And yeah, things like Netflix, online broadcasters, they’re great, because at the end of the day, you’re able to choose what you want to watch, and there are options for anything and everything.”
Exposure to alternative content via the Internet. This type of entertainment media was seen a very important tool to connect with the LGBT community and search for alternative content that was not available in traditional media. Nowadays, young adults still seek in the Internet inspiration, LGBT tailored content, and an open and safe place for discussing LGBT issues.
“You can be more unique and by yourself […] Maybe media like that would be the friend that I didn’t have. […] In the new media I would find a counselor, whatever. And I would be able to talk to another people also. So, the Internet gives you the privacy related to the possibility of being open, which is really helpful for children, and I didn’t have that.”
Social media platforms as sources of identity validation and threat. Participants agreed on the importance of social media sites such as Instagram, Facebook, or YouTube, where children and teenagers can seek for content that will help them with the crucial developmental stages of their gender and sexual identity. Additionally, social media was argued to bring the possibility to connect with LGBT role models or other peers. However, some participants also pointed out the inconveniences of social
media, such as being exposed to cyber-bullying or harmful content that can especially affect younger target groups.
“You have social media and you can connect with a lot of people […] But on the other hand, of course you have the risk of you know, people making fun of you and bullying, I think that was not an issue at my time. Because I also
experienced it at school, but when I got home, I could, I lived my life, I wasn’t online with social media in that time.”
Theme 6. Future steps for entertainment media. Throughout the interviews, the participants highlighted some of the present problems of entertainment media and provided suggestions to solve them.
Greater representation in LGBT characters. The lack of representation of the different LGBT communities caused many young adults to think that what they were experiencing was incorrect. Similarly, bisexual and transgender participants decided to ignore their internal thoughts as they did not see these possibilities depicted in
entertainment media.
More diversity in LGBT characters. For most of the gay participants, effeminate gay characters did not represent their identity. Accordingly, lesbian participants argued that they did not feel related to tomboy stereotypes.
“We still sometimes look down upon a feminine man, or if a gay is really active sexually, we look down upon them and we find them as stereotypical gay. And I don’t see that as well, because sometimes your heart is more feminine, or sometimes […] You can be either very cis-man or very hypermasculine and at the same time be very effeminate.”
Normalization of LGBT characters. Participants agreed that LGBT characters are usually depicted in funny situations or as secondary characters. For them, it is essential to normalize LGBT characters and put them in real life environments.
“I think that’s very important also for non-binary trans kids because seeing themselves represented and part of the community, of the world, being normal, eventually, and seen as valid and you know, it’s completely okay to be like that. That, nowadays, I think it could help, I still think it’s not enough, it should be more.”
Theme 7. Taking action to promote greater representation. Finally, some participants highlighted the importance of supporting shows that included LGBT individuals or marginalized collectives. For them, supporting these shows could
potentially help change the entertainment media landscape and make it more inclusive for the future.
Supporting causes that they feel related to. LGBT people seemed to be more cautious about what they consume and how can they support the LGBT community. Many participants admitted preferring shows played by transgender actors or
actresses, or consuming shows directed by LGBT directors.
“I try to avoid that and watch more inclusive TV shows […] I’m more aware of shows where LGBTIQ+ people actually take part and actors that are LGBTIQ+ and identify with that […] and there are lots of spaces to be filled with trans actors, but because they are excluded from society, those places were fulfilled by more famous actors.”
Raising the voice of marginalized collectives. Lastly, a big focus was put on showcasing marginalized collectives such as people of color or LGBT individuals with disabilities. For some participants, there is still work to be done on representing other realities in entertainment media.
Conclusion and discussion
This study explored what were the entertainment media-related experiences of LGBT individuals that were crucial in their gender and sexual identity development and expression. Moreover, it also examined LGBT individuals’ perception of entertainment media, from their childhood to their adulthood and in the present media landscape.
In line with gender research (Almy & Sanatullova-Allison, 2016; Goldberg, 2017), it was found that gender and sexual identity were influenced by various
socialization agents. For instance, living in a restrictive household affected their identity expression. The school environment was also a substantial problem, especially when taking into consideration that LGBT youngsters have higher odds of being bullied (Palmer et al., 2017). Some participants, as argued in the gender schema theory (Berm, 1981), endorsed gender-stereotypic patterns from the early stages. On the contrary, a great number of LGBT individuals reinforced more flexible gender identities (e.g., dressing up, playing with make-up or doing more “girly” activities). For most of the participants, their gender and sexual identity started developing in their early
adolescence, as it is the moment when they started being curious about their sexual identity or gender expression. According to Valkenburg and Piotrowski (2017, p.90), one of the main developmental tasks during adolescence is to begin to “understand and become comfortable with one’s sexuality”. Participants agreed that reaching adulthood was the key moment for accepting and understanding their identity. This gender and identity development was mostly defined as a negative experience due to various reasons. Firstly, until adulthood, some LGBT individuals were experiencing restrictive households and bullying school environments. Secondly, although identity exploration starts in adolescence, this process is still under development until their twenties (Arnett, 2004). As we could see, reaching adulthood implied changing their place of residence, being able to finally understand their gender and sexual identity, and also feeling comfortable disclosing it with their peers and, sometimes, also with
their family. Finally, this gender and sexual identity construction was considered a continuous process for many participants.
For the majority of the participants, entertainment media was not an element that helped them during their gender and sexual identity development. In general, it was hard to identify themselves with characters that were mainly portraying gender stereotypes. As theory argues, media is a replicating factor of heteronormative society standards (Bussey & Bandura, 1999). Bussey and Bandura (1999) argued that boys that identified with leading female characters may engage in less gender-stereotypical boy attitudes. In this study, it was found that the majority of the participants looked upon non gendered stereotyped patterns, preferring strong female leaders’ characters during their childhood. This lack of representation and diversity was seen as a
limitation of entertainment media back then. However, participants agreed that media could have played a crucial role in this identity development. For example, with the creation of educational shows or with LGBT characters that represented different identities and could serve as role models.
Participants’ perception of entertainment media gradually changed as they were growing older. During their childhood and early adolescence, similar consumption patterns were found across cultures (e.g., television, music or videogames). Television was found to portray hypergender character stereotypes that were not much taken into consideration, as they could not see themselves represented in them. Strikingly, it was also mentioned the existence of LGBT characters that reinforced negative stereotypes of primarily gay people (such as being quirky, effeminate or loud). In line with their developmental stage, many participants started exercising greater autonomy in their media consumption during their adolescence. This crucial change was facilitated by the popularization of other mediums such as the Internet (Valkenburg & Piotrowski, 2017). Thanks to this, participants were able to have access international content, look for more personalized media products that matched their identity, and discover their sexuality and other people that were experiencing the same issues as them through
online platforms (Valkenburg & Piotrowski, 2017; O’Neill, 2012). The media practice model posited by Steele and Brown (1995) argues that adolescents select among media-related alternatives what might be appropriate to help them make sense of their lives. This might help explain why participants decided to leave mainstream media as a secondary choice for them.
Accordingly, young adults’ media patterns are mainly focused on non-traditional media choices such as Internet streaming-on-demand platforms (Netflix, HBO), or the use of social media platforms (Instagram, YouTube). Moreover, it was discussed that younger generations also have access to a more diverse and individualized content thanks to the accessibility of smartphones and the Internet. The irruption of these alternatives also changed the kind of content that LGBT individuals consume nowadays. Moreover, most of the participants admitted being conscious about their media choices, and preferring watching shows that supported the LGBT community or depicted marginalized collectives. LGBT individuals realized that they had the power to take action and promote a greater representation, more diversity, and the normalization of different spectrums of LGBT identities in entertainment media. Furthermore, this change can also help future generations of LGBT individuals on having a more positive media-related experience that can help them with their gender and sexual identity development process. However, the present entertainment media landscape, especially television, was still found to portray stereotypes of LGBT characters. For instance, it is still hard to find a show where an LGBT character is the protagonist, or a more diverse representation of the different gender and sexual identities. Many
traditional television shows still perpetuate negative stereotypes and harmful clichés (Jenner, 2012, p. 137).
To sum up, this research found that the gender and sexual identity construction of LGBT individuals was a very unpleasant and tough process for them. Additionally, at key periods of development, socialization factors were found to be not helpful in this
entertainment media served as a replication tool of these standards. Consequently, children and early adolescents felt marginalized and could not understand if what they were feeling was normal. However, with the development of their autonomy during adolescence, and the availability of new sources of information, LGBT individuals were able to finally consume new types of media such as the Internet. From then on,
entertainment media started playing an active role in helping LGBT individuals discover their gender and sexual identity, and social media platforms served as sources of identity for this collective. It is important to take into consideration that, although the entertainment media landscape has made big improvements with regards to
representation and diversity of LGBT individuals thanks to platforms such as Netflix or HBO, there is still a big room for improvements, especially for mainstream media like television.
Practical implications
Entertainment media companies can benefit from the insights generated in this research. Firstly, it is important to take into consideration that gender and sexual identities are very fluid constructs. Being lesbian does not necessarily mean that you will showcase masculine characteristics. Falling into these dichotomous
categorizations of the gender and sexual identities might provoke viewers not feeling connected with those characters and will also replicate damaging stereotypes to society. Secondly, entertainment media should aim for normalizing LGBT characters and representing them in a real-life environment. Gay characters should not be only the funny secondary characters, but indeed they should also be taken into
consideration for more well-thought roles. Thirdly, apart from creating LGBT
characters, it is also important to include LGBT individuals in the production process. Many transgender actors and actresses are still excluded in the industry, and we often see cis-gender individuals depicting transgender roles in movies or shows. Lastly, in such an individualized and personalized media panorama, it is necessary to include, if
possible, different types of identities. For bisexual adolescents, it is important to see that what they are experiencing is normal. For the transgender community,
entertainment media can act as a force that educates society in the normalization of this collective, and to show the struggle that this community had to experience. However, many good examples of these practices can already be found in
entertainment media. Participants especially pointed out series such as Pose, The L World, RuPaul’s Drag Race or Sex Education. Finally, it is important to address that most of the shows mentioned can only be consumed exclusively through the Internet or streaming-on-demand platforms, favoring the intersectionality of oppression of
individuals with low resources that are not able to afford these alternative forms of media. Thus, for mainstream media, it is also important to work on reducing stereotypes and creating a more diverse and representative entertainment media landscape for the future.
Limitations
To our knowledge, this is one of the few qualitative studies that look at how LGBT individuals developed and experienced their gender and sexual identity through entertainment media. Future studies could build upon the results. How different LGBT individuals expressed their gender identity during their childhood could be investigated more thoroughly, as interesting results arose during the interviews. Moreover,
quantitative research could examine how entertainment media choices especially affect LGBT adolescents, as entertainment media seems to be an important factor during this concrete developmental age. Finally, further studies could aim to investigate what are the entertainment media preferences of LGBT individuals, as most of the research is focused on heterosexual populations.
Lastly, it is important to take into account that qualitative studies tend to be more subjective than other types of research. There is a possibility that the analysis of
by my own perspective and beliefs (Braun & Clarke, 2013). Moreover, although we tried to cover the rainbow of LGBT identities, in this study we depended on a very limited sample of transgender and people of color populations, which might cause a problem on the generalization of this study for these particular communities.
References
Alberti, J. (2013): “I Love You, Man”: Bromances, the Construction of Masculinity, and the Continuing Evolution of the Romantic Comedy. Quarterly Review of Film and Video, 30:2, 159-172. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10509208.2011.575658 Almy, A., & Sanatullova-Allison, E. (2016). Women Are the Breadwinners and Men are
the Homemakers: Gender Socialization in Culture, Society, and Education. IAFOR Journal of Cultural Studies, 1(1). doi:
https://doi.org/10.22492/ijcs.1.1.03
Arnett, J. (2004): A longer road to adulthood. In: Emerging adulthood: The winding road from late teens through the twenties (chapter 1). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Bandura, A. (1986). Social foundations of thought and action: A social cognitive theory. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
Bem, S. L. (1981a). Gender schema theory: a cognitive account of sex
typing.Psychological Review, 88, 354–364. doi:10.1037/0033- 295X.88.4.354 Bond, B. (2014). Sex and Sexuality in Entertainment Media Popular With Lesbian, Gay,
and Bisexual Adolescents. Mass Communication and Society, 17(1), 98–120. https://doi.org/10.1080/15205436.2013.816739
Bonds-Raacke, J., Cady, E., Schlegel, R., Harris, R., & Firebaugh, L. (2007). Remembering Gay/Lesbian Media Characters: Can Ellen and Will Improve Attitudes Toward Homosexuals? Journal of Homosexuality, 53(3), 19–34. https://doi.org/10.1300/J082v53n03_03
Braun, V., & Clarke, V. (2013). Successful qualitative research: a practical guide for beginners. London: SAGE
Broughton, D., Brannigan, R., & Omurtag, K. (2017). Sex and gender: you should know the difference. Fertility and Sterility, 107(6), 1294–1295. doi:
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fertnstert.2017.04.012
Bussey, K., & Bandura, A. (1999). Social Cognitive Theory of Gender Development and Differentiation. Psychological Review, 106(4), 676–713. doi:
https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-295X.106.4.676
Chan, K., Tufte, B., Cappello, G., & Williams, R. (2011). Tween girls’ perception of gender roles and gender identities: a qualitative study. Young
Consumers, 12(1), 66–81. doi: https://doi.org/10.1108/17473611111114795 Connell, R., & Messerschmidt, J. (2005). Hegemonic masculinity: Rethinking the
concept. Gender and Society, 19(6), 829-859. doi: https://doi.org/10.1177/0891243205278639
Coyne, S., Linder, J., Rasmussen, E., Nelson, D., & Birkbeck, V. (2016). Pretty as a Princess: Longitudinal Effects of Engagement With Disney Princesses on Gender Stereotypes, Body Esteem, and Prosocial Behavior in Children. Child Development, 87(6), 1909–1925. doi: https://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.12569 Dunlap, R., & Johnson, C. (2013) Consuming contradiction: media, masculinity and
(hetero) sexual identity. Leisure/Loisir, 37:1, 69-84, doi: 10.1080/14927713.2013.783728
Erden, F. (2009). A course on gender equity in education: Does it affect gender role attitudes of preservice teachers? Teaching and Teacher Education, 25(3), 409– 414. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tate.2008.11.001
Gerbner, G., Gross, L., Morgan, M., & Signorielli, N. (1994). Growing up with television: The cultivation perspective. In Bryant, J., and Zillman, D. (Eds.), Media effects: Advances in theory and research (pp. 17–41). Erlbaum, Hillsdale, NJ. doi:
Goldberg, A. (2017). LGB-Parent Families and the School Context. In Oxford
University Press (Ed.), Sexual Orientation, Gender Identity, and Schooling. (pp. 99-113). New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
Hamburger, M. E., Hogben, M., McGowan, S., & Dawson, L. J. (1996). Assessing hypergender ideologies: Development and initial validation of a gender-neutral measure of adherence to extreme gender-role beliefs. Journal of Research in Personality, 30, 157–178. doi: https://doi.org/10.1006/jrpe.1996.0011
Ingraham, C. (1994). The Heterosexual Imaginary: Feminist Sociology and Theories of Gender. Sociological Theory, 12(2), 203–219. doi:
https://doi.org/10.2307/201865
Jenner, M. (2012). We Need to Talk about Jack! On the Representation of Make Homosexuality in American Teen Soaps. In C. Pullen, Queer Youth and Media Cultures (pp. 131-144). London, United Kingdom: Palgrave Macmillan.
McCreary, D. R. (1994). The male role and avoiding femininity. Sex Roles, 31, 517– 531. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF01544277
Millington, B., & Wilson, B. (2010). Context Masculinities: Media Consumption,
Physical Education, and Youth Identities. American Behavioral Scientist, 53(11), 1669–1688. doi: https://doi.org/10.1177/0002764210368091
Mîndru, M.A., & Năstasă. L.E. (2017). The relation between emotional intelligence, sexual identity and sexual orientation. Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Braşov: Series VII: Social Sciences, Law, 10(59) (Special Issue), 155–164. Money, G., Hampson, L., & Hampson, L. (1958). Imprinting and the establishment of
gender role. Obstetrical & Gynecological Survey, 13(2), 293–294. doi: https://doi.org/10.1097/00006254-195804000-00050
Morandini, J., Blaszczynski, A., Ross, M., Costa, D., & Dar-Nimrod, I. (2015). Essentialist Beliefs, Sexual Identity Uncertainty, Internalized Homonegativity and Psychological Wellbeing in Gay Men. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 62(3), 413–424. doi: https://doi.org/10.1037/cou0000072
Mosher, D. L., & Sirkin, M. (1984). Measuring a macho personality constellation. Journal of Research in Personality, 18(2), 150– 163. https://doi.org/10.1016/0092-6566(84)90026-6
Murnen, S. K., & Byrne, D. (1991). The Hyperfemininity Scale: Measurement and initial validation of the construct. Journal of Sex Research, 28, 479–489. doi:
https://doi.org/10.1080/00224499109551620
O’Neill, M.G., (2012). Transgender Youth and YouTube Videos: Self-Representation and Five Identifiable Trans Youth Narratives. In C. Pullen, Queer Youth and Media Cultures (pp. 34-45). London, United Kingdom: Palgrave Macmillan. Page, A., & Peacock, J. (2013). Negotiating Identities in a Heteronormative Context.
Journal of Homosexuality, 60(4), 639–654. https://doi.org/10.1080/00918369.2012.724632
Palmer, N., Kosciw, J., Greytak, E., & Boesen, M. (2017). Disrupting Hetero-Gender- Normativity. In Oxford University Press (Ed.), Sexual Orientation, Gender Identity, and Schooling. (pp. 58-73). New York, NY: Oxford University Press. Patton, M.Q., (2002). Qualitative research & evaluation methods (3rd ed.). Thousand
Oaks, CA: Sage.
Samelius, L. & Wagberg, E. (2005). Sexual Orientation and Gender Identity Issues in Development. Swedish International Development Cooperation Agency, Sida. Retrieved from:
https://www.sida.se/contentassets/77a0ee7f307a4ff49fa0514d080748dc/sexual -orientation-and-gender-identity-issues-in-development_718.pdf
Schilt, K., & Westbrook, L. (2009). Doing Gender, Doing Heteronormativity: 'Gender Normals,' Transgender People, and the Social Maintenance of Heterosexuality. Gender & Society, 23, 440-464. doi: 10.1177/0891243209340034
Signorielli, N. (1989). Television and conceptions about sex roles: Maintaining conventionality and the status quo. Sex Roles, 21(5-6), 341–360. doi:
Starr, M. A. (2014). Qualitative and mixed-methods research in economics: Surprising growth, promising future. Journal of Economic Surveys, 28, 238-246. doi: https://doi.org/10.1111/joes.12004
Steele, J., & Brown, J. (1995). Adolescent Room Culture: Studying Media in the Context of Everyday Life. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 24(5), 551–576. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01537056
Symes, K. (2017). Orange Is the New Black: the popularization of lesbian sexuality and heterosexual modes of viewing. Feminist Media Studies, 17(1), 29–41. doi: https://doi.org/10.1080/14680777.2017.1261836
Trepanier-Street, M.L., Romatowski, J.A., & McNair, S. (1990). ‘‘Development of story characters in gender-therapeutic and non-therapeutic: occupational roles’’. Journal of Early Adolescence, Vol. 10, pp. 496-510. doi:
10.1177/0272431690104005
United Nations Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights (2015). Free & Equal Campaign Fact Sheet: Intersex. Retrieved from: https://www.unfe.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/05/UNFE-Intersex.pdf
Valkenburg, P., & Piotrowski, J. (2017). Plugged In - How Media Attract and Affect Youth. Yale University Press. doi: 10.12987/9780300228090
van Oosten, J. M. F. (2017). Macho boys and sexy babes on TV. How watching different types of television content is related to Dutch adolescents' hypergender orientations. In D. Lemish, & M. Goetz (Eds.), Beyond the
Stereotypes? Images of boys and girls, and their consequences (pp. 141-151). Göteborg, Sweden: Nordicom.
Weisgram, E., Dinella, L., & Fulcher, M. (2011). The Role of Masculinity/Femininity, Values, and Occupational Value Affordances in Shaping Young Men’s and Women’s Occupational Choices. Sex Roles, 65(3), 243–258.
Westerfelhaus, R., & Lacroix, C. (2006). Seeing “Straight” through Queer Eye: Exposing the Strategic Rhetoric of Heteronormativity in a Mediated Ritual of Gay Rebellion, Critical Studies in Media Communication, 23:5, 426-444, doi: 10.1080/07393180601046196
Wong, K. and Chan, K. (2006), ‘‘A gender portrayal of children’s television commercials in mainland China’’, in Diehl, S. and Terlutter, R. (Eds), International Advertising and Communication – New Insights and Empirical Findings, Deutscher
Universitats – Verlay, Weisbaden, pp. 319-41.
Yan, H. (2019). “The Rippled Perceptions”: The Effects of LGBT-Inclusive TV on Own Attitudes and Perceived Attitudes of Peers Toward Lesbians and Gays.
Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly, 96(3), 848–871. https://doi.org/10.1177/1077699018821327
Appendix A. Interview guide
Aim: To explore how the portrayal of gender on entertainment media has shaped the formation of gender and sexual identities of LGBT individuals. And to understand how these individuals perceived their media entertainment choices, from their childhood to their adult life.
Introduction: “I am Alexandra Cacovean, a Master student of Communication Science at the University of Amsterdam. For my master’s thesis I want to explore how LGBT individuals like you developed your gender and sexual identity. My goal with this research is to understand the various factors and experiences of this development, and how this had an impact in your life, from your childhood to your present. There is no wrong or good answer, I am mainly interested in your opinion.”
Recording: This interview will be recorded for research purposes, but the identity of the participants will remain anonymous.
Ethical Consent Form: Hand the Ethical Consent Form before starting the interviews.
Form1: Gender, Age, Nationality, Educational background, Sexual orientation.
Topic 1: Media choices as children.
Goal: To understand how individuals perceived the entertainment media they consumed as a child together with their gender and sexual identity.
Initial question:
• I would like to start this interview by asking you what kind of entertainment media you consumed as a child, it can be TV shows, films, videogames, music… Which ones
