The “
Green-Washing Phenomenon
” in the Humanitarian Logistics System:
Identifying challenges and practicalities of a greener humanitarian supply chain
cycle.
Author: Ambar Zaira Atta
Supervisor: Dr. Steven Van Bockstael, University of Groningen
Master Thesis 30 ECTS
NOHA Master Program in International Humanitarian Action University of Groningen
This thesis is submitted for obtaining the Master’s Degree in International Humanitarian Action. By submitting the thesis, the author certifies that the text is from his/her hand, does not include the work of someone else unless clearly indicated, and that the thesis has been produced in accordance with proper academic practices.
Acknowledgments
I would like to extend my gratitude to all the professors I have had the honor of studying with at the University of Groningen, University of Deusto, and Gadjah Mada University. Their support
and guidance over the past 2.5 years have helped deepen my understanding and shape my knowledge of this field. Most importantly, thank you to my supervisor, Dr. Steven Van Bockstael and the Groningen NOHA team, Dr. Clara Egger and Ingrid Sennema for their
patience during this time.
I would like to thank my amazing friends from all over the world for supporting me and keeping me motivated during these extenuating circumstances. I would like to thank my sister, Najam Atta for her brutal honesty and determination for keeping me on track. I would thirdly like to thank my beautiful editors and friends, Sam Slattery and Sarah Arnold for helping me through
the last push. I also would like to thank my incredible Vietnam family for their support and helping to create a safe and loving environment to be able to write in. Finally, I would like to thank the entire NOHA family for this incredible journey and looking forward to what is yet to
come. And finally, this is dedicated to all the generations of girls before me who couldn’t achieve any of this and never dreamt of this journey in their education nor their careers.
Acknowledgments Table of Contents 2 Definitions 3 Acronyms 4 Abstract 5 1. Introduction 6 Background and Problem Statement 6 1.2 Organization of thesis 7 1.3 The motivation of the researcher on the topic 7 1.4 Research questions 8 1.5 Research aims 8 2. Methodology 9 2.1 Design and Data Collection 12 2.3 Scope And Limitations 14 2.4 Background and Concepts 15 2.4.1 The History of Humanitarian Aid 15 2.4.2 Disasters and Vulnerability 18 2.5 Influence of Natural Disasters in Today’s Humanitarian Field 19 2.5.1 Background & Environmental Impact of Haiti Earthquake 19 3. Literature Review 25 3.1 Relevance/ Relationship Between Humanitarian Organizations and the Environment 25 3.2 Current environmental considerations within humanitarian organizations 28 3.3 Humanitarian Logistics/Humanitarian Supply Chain Sector 33 3.4 Case Study: Humanitarian Organization IFRC 40 3.4.2 IFRC Green Response 41 3.4.3 IFRC & Humanitarian Logistics 42 4. Theoretical Framework and Concepts 44 4.1 Green-washing Phenomenon 44 4.2 The concept of Lampshade Hanging 46 4.3 Environmental Mainstreaming 47
5. Discussion 48 6. Conclusion 53 References 55
Definitions
Disaster – an abrupt event that genuinely upsets the working of a network or society or supply chain system and causes human, material, and monetary or ecological misfortunes that surpass the network's or society's capacity to adapt utilizing its own assets (IFRC)
Environment/Climate – the physical and natural surroundings in which local communities and networks live and build up their jobs. It gives the regular assets that support people, and decides the nature of the environmental factors wherein they live. (The Sphere Project, 2011)
Environmental mainstreaming - the dynamic, opportune and orderly consideration of ecological worries as a between sectoral issue at all phases of philanthropic activity with the plan to ensure lives, vocations, and supportable assets to the board. (UN Environment and United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs, 2014)
Greenwashing - is defined as the act or concept of passing on a false impression about how an organization's items or process are all the more ecologically or environmentally solid (Dahl, 2010).
IFRC Green Response - seeks to improve the environmental outcomes of their emergency response activities by extending the ‘Do No Harm’ principle to the environment and ecosystems. The movement also works to influence the global humanitarian agenda with regards to
sustainability and environmental considerations within their programming (IFRC).
Greening – is an approach of incorporating ecological or environmental contemplations inside a program and its cycles (Sarkis, Spens, and Kovács, 2012)
Humanitarian Logistics - is the way of arranging, executing and controlling the productive, savvy stream of and capacity of supplies and materials just as related data, from purpose of source to purpose of utilization to meet the end recipient's necessities. (Van Wassenhove, 2016) Procurement - the acquisition of products, administrations and capital things, just as the
contracting (employing or leasing) of hardware, offices, experts or administrations. Note: The focal point of this exploration will restrict itself to the exercises of determining and buying merchandise just as provider choice. (IFRC)
Humanitarian Principles - These principles were formally established by the UN General Assembly in 1991 (humanity, impartiality and neutrality), in 2004 (independence).
Principle of ‘Do No Harm’ - is defined to avoid exposing people to additional risks through any humanitarian action or taking a step back from an intervention to look at the broader context and mitigate potential negative effects on the social fabric, the economy and the environment
(ALNAP, 2018).
ACRONYMS
ICRC International Committee of the Red Cross
IFRC International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies NGO Non-governmental organization
Abstract
Catastrophic events such as natural disasters impact a growing number of people each year, which implies a continuous increase in the need for humanitarian aid. As a result, logistics and supply chain management is a crucial compenant in delivering this life saving aid to affected populations in these times of disaster. However, as the number of humanitarian missions grow, the environmental impacts associated with goods and products used in humanitarian missions include hazardous waste, water pollution, biodiversity loss, deforestation, ecosystem damage, hazardous air emissions, greenhouse gas emissions and energy use (EHA Connect, 2019). This paper will explore the importance of integrating a ‘greener’ approach to the humanitarian supply chain and then apply it to a case study against the IFRC and whether or not the organization ‘greenwashes’ their campaigns.
Keywords
Green-washing, disaster, emergency, environmental mainstreaming, humanitarian logistics, environmental impact, humanitarian supply chain, humanitarian principles, greening.
1. Introduction
Background and Problem Statement
Greta Thunberg, a prominent Swedish environmental activist credited with bringing today's climate emergency to the forefront of global news, has stated that 'this above all is an emergency and not just any emergency. This is the biggest crisis humanity has ever faced“ (Greta Thunberg at the National Assembly in Paris on July 23, 2019). Today’s climate and drastic temperature changes have caused more devastating natural disasters than in recorded history. The number of mudslides, earthquakes, tsunamis, droughts, floods, wildfires, and tropical storms are more frequent and are more powerful than in the past. For example, in 2010, 207 million people suffered immensely from environmental disasters worldwide, causing 296,800 deaths and losses in the order of 109 billion dollars (Sapir, 2011). As countries attempt to prepare and manage for coming disasters, with some more successful than others, vulnerable community members still remain at the highest risk.
Today, disasters affect countries, societies, and communities in different ways, which in turn and influence their livelihoods, customs, and cultures. As a result, governments, communities, and humanitarian organizations attempt to manage disasters to the best of their abilities with modern scientific technology that tracks movements of different types of disasters to reduce loss and damage (Rahman, 2019). It is now increasingly apparent that without a sustainable response, some of the current solutions continue to exacerbate climate change and violate ‘do no harm’ and humanitarian principles. As the number of disasters and emergencies increase, the focus is
shifted to the humanitarian logistics section of humanitarian organizations due to its importance. As more emergencies and disasters occur, there is more of an emphasis on the need for good logistics coordination to provide an expedient aid. Currently, the price for climate-related humanitarian response is estimated to reach $20 billion annually by 2030 (IFRC, 2019). This paper will explore the humanitarian logistics sector in relation to the environment.
1.2 Organization of thesis
This literature review consists of six sections. The first section is an introduction to this paper’s topic and helps to break down the importance of this research and work. The following section will cover the paper’s research approach and methodology as well as provide limitations due to the current global pandemic. The third and fourth sections will include the literature review in which humanitarian logistics will be defined as it relates to supply chain problems and
organizational issues in the environmental context. This will be followed by the theoretical framework in section five that will guide the paper's discussion and analysis. This section will explore how humanitarian organizations utilize a green approach to humanitarian logistics and the success and failures of these practices in real life. The paper is then concluded with a brief summary and recommendations for humanitarian organizations to improve or implement a more green approach to their programming.
1.3 The motivation of the researcher on the topic
This research was inspired by a recent episode of the Patriot Act by comedian and writer Hasan Minhaj called, “The Ugly Truth of Fast Fashion”. In the episode, Hasan Minhaj focuses mainly on Zara and H&M; the two main culprits in the fast fashion world. He examines these companies and the environmental impact their rapid production has. Findings included, in 2015, textile production created more greenhouse gases than international flights and maritime shipping combined. He then conducts a brilliant experiment of the companies’ greenwashing tactics. Greenwashing is defined as the act or concept of passing on a false impression about how an organization's items or process are all the more ecologically or environmentally solid. Hasan’s experiment shows that fast fashion attempts to appear more eco-friendly, by filling their stores with advertisements full of vague terminology with no clear definition. For example, a product like a sweater can be labeled as “eco-friendly” but the only portion of the product that is “eco-friendly” might just be the paper price tag attached to the product. In this paper, the
researcher explores whether or not the same phenomenon is occurring within the humanitarian supply chain cycle- Are humanitarian organizations greenwashing their advertised green responses?
1.4 Research questions
This thesis investigates the implementation of a more green approach within the humanitarian supply chain system. Are humanitarian organizations greenwashing their green response? This paper seeks to answer the following subquestions along with the primary question:
A. Do humanitarian organizations currently consider environmental factors in their relief efforts?
B. How does the principle of ‘do no harm’ relate to the current environmental context? C. To what extent do humanitarian organizations include environmental considerations at a logistical level?
D. How can the humanitarian organizations effectively implement a green approach to their logistics programs?
1.5 Research aims
The aim of this thesis is to explore the challenges and practicalities of implementing more environmentally sustainable practices in the humanitarian supply chain system and to further examine whether or not a greener approach can be applied effectively in relation to humanitarian disasters and emergencies. There is a vast amount of research available on topics related to sustainability of humanitarian logistics and more specifically, a greener supply chain and its challenges, risks and vulnerabilities. However, there is limited research on how and what humanitarian organizations are doing to adopt a greener approach. Therefore, to better understand the situation, it is essential to identify what approaches organizations are taking through secondary sources.
2. Methodology
This next section will discuss how this paper was written, the format in which it was organized, and how current circumstances impacted the researcher's chosen methodology. Due to the COVID-19 pandemic, this thesis was conducted through a literature review that utilizes secondary sources. There are different aims and situations in which scholars write a literature review and are considered to be an important research tool. A literature review surveys books, scholarly articles, and any other sources including annual reports, relevant to a particular
problem, area of research, or theory. A literature review first provides a summary of the specific topic and then a critical evaluation of these works in relation to the research problem being investigated. In addition, literature reviews are designed to provide an overview of sources the researcher explored while researching a particular topic and to demonstrate to readers how research fits within a larger field of study (Farlene, 2014). According to the University of Southern California (USC) Libraries, the purpose of a literature review is to place each work or related source in the context of its contribution, reveal or search for any gaps that exist in the literature, resolve conflicts amongst seemingly contradictory previous studies if any exist, point out the gaps in the existing research or what is needed for additional research, and most
importantly, locate the research question at hand within the context of the existing literature (Fink, 2014).
A literature review consists of a summary of key sources, with some sort of an organizational pattern and combines both summary and synthesis, often within the specific conceptual
categories of the research topic. A summary is defined as a recap of the important information of the source (Ridley, 2012). While, a synthesis is a reorganization, or a reshuffling, of that
information in a way that informs how you are planning to investigate a research problem (Ridley, 2012). It is important to provide a summary because it allows the reader to gain knowledge quickly through carefully selected sources which help to set up the problem formation of the research question. While, then it is important to follow up and provide a synthesis of those selected sources and its summaries because its key analysis will be the tool in
understanding the research question better. The analytical features of this literature review will hopefully provide the reader with a progression of the humanitarian field and evaluate the sources to advise the reader on the most relevant research. And, most importantly, identify the literature gaps that exist in how the research problem has been researched to date.
The situations where literature reviews are written and used are independent from the authors that deal with the topic. In broad terms, there are three main situations for writing a literature review, one of which includes bigger research projects such as a masters level thesis. In an attempt to answer the questions and subquestions this thesis has proposed, the researcher has adopted a theoretical review approach to this literature. A theoretical review approach is designed to examine the core ideas of a theory in regard to a specific issue or problem. The theoretical literature review helps to establish what theories already exist, the relationships between them, to what degree the existing theories have been investigated, and to develop new hypotheses to be tested or draw upon a conclusion based on what is out there currently. This type of literature review or approach is used to help establish a lack of appropriate theories or reveal that current theories are inadequate for explaining new or emerging research problems. This approach’s analysis can be used to focus on one theoretical concept or a whole theory or framework. The basic foundations of this approach is to make sure everything is analytical, logical and transparent to the audience.
As only secondary sources will be used, it is important to note for how these sources will be selected. The researcher will be using a method of document analysis to select which published articles will be included in this literature review. Now, document analysis is a systematic
procedure for reviewing or evaluating documents—both printed and electronic (computer-based and Internet-transmitted) material (Bowen, 2009). Document analysis requires that data be examined and interpreted in order to elicit meaning, gain understanding, and develop empirical knowledge (Corbin & Strauss, 2008). Documents of any type can help the researcher to gain knowledge, develop understanding, and uncover any insights of the specific research topic. Documents provide the context in which the problem or research question is formulated, and it
might contain information in suggesting gaps in literature or what observations might still need to be explored (Bowen, 2009). More importantly, documents provide background and context, what additional questions that might need to be asked, supplementary data, is a means of tracking change and development, and it is a verification of findings from other sources. Now, document analysis itself involves skimming, reading, and interpreting the information. It is the process of both organizing information into the central research question and recognizing any patterns that might occur throughout the research process.
It is important to also discuss the validity of secondary data analysis for academic research. Melissa Johnston at the University of Alabama argues that secondary data analysis is a viable method of research when a systematic procedure is followed. Secondary data analysis is defined as the analysis of data that was collected by someone else for another primary purpose (Johnston, 2014). For this specific research, secondary sources were utilized and then summarized for the reader’s sake to gain important background information and finally the researcher will draw conclusions and provide an analysis based upon the available sources. The key to a successful secondary data analysis is to apply theoretical knowledge and conceptual skills to utilize existing data to address the research questions (Johnston, 2014). The utilization of this existing data provides a viable option for researchers who may have limited time and resources. It is important to note that the chosen data must come from consistent and reliable sources to avoid any dubious data.
This section defined what a literature review is and the validity of applying it towards a masters level research thesis. This section also defined what secondary sources are and how they are selected for this particular research using a document analysis approach by skimming and summarizing texts significant to this field. And finally defining what a theoretical review is within a research context and how it helps to guide this literature review.
2.1 Design and Data Collection
This next section will quickly cover the design of this literature review and how the data was collected for this research. The research design for this thesis was constructed through the compilation and analysis of secondary data sources, which were collected through desk based research. Desk based research is a term that is used to refer to the collection of secondary data sources. The study has been carried out in Hanoi, Vietnam. The location of the research has been of no significance for the outcome of the collected data or the influence of this thesis. There are no required research authorisations within Vietnam due to the type of research this thesis is based on. This study was conducted at the researcher’s temporary home residence due to the current COVID global pandemic.
The data was collected through online sources, through Google Scholar, online databases and the library of the Rijksuniversiteit Groningen. Academic articles collected for this study have been systematically retrieved from search engines that are directly connected to academia, such as SmartCat (online library of the Rijksuniversiteit Groningen), ScienceDirect and Google Scholar. The articles were retrieved by use of controlled keywords or a combination of it, the keywords include: ‘humanitarian logistics’, ‘humanitarian supply chain’, ‘humanitarian green supply chain’, ‘humanitarian aid’, ‘humanitarian action’, ‘green-washing’, “green supply chain’, ‘environment’, ‘environmental impact’ and ‘challenges of humanitarian logistics’. For the sake of this paper, ‘humanitarian logistics’ and ‘humanitarian supply chain’ will be used
interchangeably.
Originally, searches were conducted using the keywords in selected databases or search bars, if the searches consisted of several words together, quotation marks were put to be able to search for the exact order of words, e.g. “humanitarian aid in Haiti” or “humanitarian logistics in Indonesia''. Furthermore, when single keywords did not lead to appropriate articles a
combination of keywords were used in the search bar. A combination of keywords were used in the search bar, this was done by using ‘AND’ in between, e.g. ‘humanitarian logistics’ AND ‘environment’. This will result in an article showing up that included both keywords.
While selecting which articles and secondary sources to continue to read and include in this research it was important to note the publication date. The humanitarian sector is fairly new. Only in the last twenty years has the sector become more professionalized and begun to produce research that is more apparent, transparent and visible. Furthermore, the research focused
exclusively on the humanitarian logistics sector is even newer. As a result, the majority of articles that were used for this thesis were published from 2000 and onwards. The publication date is important because research pre 2000 might be void in their concepts or arguments due to the transformative nature of this field. For example, common practice within the humanitarian sector during the 1990's may not be common in today's context, where humanitarian
professionals have begun to question the ethical nature of the practice.. Any articles that were published pre 2000 and used for this thesis are in context of explaining the historical context behind this research. While selecting articles, Stewart and Kamins propose the following evaluative steps should be followed in order to select an appropriate match of a dataset to a research question. These questions help to ensure the quality of the study and help the researcher to determine the final results. Additional questions were asked alongside where the articles were published and within which year; (a) what was the purpose of this study; (b) who was
responsible for collecting the information; (c) what information was actually collected; (d) when was the information collected; (e) how was the information obtained; and (f) how consistent is the information obtained from one source with information available from other sources (Stewart & Kamins, 1993).
Besides academic journals, the paper also references numerous times to data collected from government agencies, the UN and NGOs. These articles have been collected through the official channels of said organisation, and throughout the paper it will be referred to when statements are being made by organisations themselves. The IFRC website and its published news alerts, reports, and overall information was a necessary part of this research. While these sources are not to be considered as academic, they still provide an essential framework for understanding the standpoint of this thesis.
This section determined how data was collected for this paper and how articles included in this paper were selected. Overall there was limited data within this sector of research. There are gaps in the research pertaining to academic papers on humanitarian logistics in relation to its greening practices. Much of what has been published requests humanitarian organizations to implement environmental mainstreaming into their programming but there is limited research on concrete proof of what is being done. This will be further explored in section six in the discussion/analysis portion of this paper.
2.3 Scope And Limitations
The scope of this thesis had to be revised multiple times due to the effects of the COVID-19 global pandemic. Due to mandatory quarantine and border closures, conducting primary research was impossible. As a result, the NOHA Groningen team supported the use of solely secondary sources to conduct this continued research. For this reason, this thesis will have a wide scope focused solely through secondary sources found through different databases online to include facts, definitions, and theories behind this thesis direction. Additional challenges and limitations when conducting this research include the gaps in available scholarly articles that explore the connection between humanitarian logistics and environmental practices. The number of papers on the subject has significantly increased within the humanitarian logistics sector since previous literature reviews in this research area were published. However, the main conclusions of these papers are that there is a need for more studies into greenwashing and greening of humanitarian logistics systems. There is a need for closer relationships between academia and humanitarian organizations to generate more applied research. Another limitation here would be that this topic is very new and thus the gaps exist in scholarly articles because of the existing time length.
2.4 Background and Concepts
The next portion of this thesis will provide the foundation in which this paper will be written. This section will cover the history of humanitarian work, define key concepts in the realm of the humanitarian sector, cover key events significant to this context, and finally lead to the
importance of this work.
2.4.1 The History of Humanitarian Aid
Humanitarian aid has been a long standing act of humanity throughout history, but it’s origin story can be formally traced back to the famous battle of Solferino, Italy in June, 1859. At this battle, Henry Dunant, a young Swiss man, came upon a gruesome scene: the bloody aftermath of a destructive battle where some 40,000 men from all sides lay dead or dying, and the wounded lacked medical attention. He immediately canceled his plans and began a relief response providing assistance to Austrian, Italian and French soldiers. From Dunant’s selfless actions began the long journey of international humanitarian aid and future humanitarian organizations being born.
Dunant organized local people of that area to attend to the soldiers’ wounds from both sides and to feed and provide some sort of psychological assistance to them. Upon his return, he knew he had to use his experience to continue to assist others experiencing the effects of conflict. He called for the creation of national relief societies to assist those wounded in war, and pointed the way to the future Geneva Conventions. Stemming from these foundational efforts, the Red Cross was born in 1863 when five Geneva men, including Dunant, set up the International Committee for Relief to the Wounded, later to become the International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC). The International Committee of the Red Cross exists to this day as the guardian of
International Humanitarian Law and as one of the largest providers of humanitarian aid in the world.
Dunant later published A Souvenir of Solferino, a memoir based on what he had seen in the battlefield., This book inspired the vital conceptual pillars of what would later become part of International Humanitarian Law: impartiality and neutrality, as well as the first Geneva
Convention. The first Geneva Convention was a milestone in the history of humanity. It focused on offering care for the wounded, as well as defining medical services as neutral actors on the battlefield that would encompass ambulances, hospitals, medical personnel and even the
wounded themselves. It also included improvements in better hygiene, nutrition and clean water for the wounded or what later would be defined as “beneficiaries.” Much of what was defined at the first Geneva Convention became the foundational pillars of modern humanitarian
intervention.
Over the following 50 years, the ICRC expanded its work while at the same time establishing national societies across the world. The Geneva Convention was also adapted to include warfare at sea. The ICRC persuaded governments to adopt a new Geneva Convention in 1929 to provide greater protection for prisoners of war but it was unable to have them agree on new laws to protect civilians in time to prevent the atrocities of World War II. During and after the Second World War, there was a huge expansion of activities as the organisation tried to work to assist and protect victims of conflict on all sides. The ICRC has continued to urge governments to strengthen international humanitarian law – and to respect it and attempt to enforce it.
Fortunately, states agreed on the revision of the existing three Geneva Conventions. However, after the outbreak of the First World War, many national societies felt that the role of the Red Cross had to change. As a result, the International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies was born soon after.
The International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies (IFRC) was founded in 1919 in Paris in the aftermath of World War I. The war had shown a need for closer cooperation
between the different Red Cross Societies all over the area. Henry Davison, president of the American Red Cross War Committee proposed forming a federation of these National Societies. An international medical conference initiated by Davison resulted in the birth of the League of Red Cross Societies, which was renamed in October 1983 to the League of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies, and then in November 1991 to become the International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies. The five founding member Societies were Britain, France, Italy, Japan and the United States and now there 190 recognized National Societies - one in almost every country in the world.
The first objective of the IFRC was to improve the health of people in countries that had suffered greatly during the First World War. Its goals were "to strengthen and unite, for health activities, already-existing Red Cross Societies and to promote the creation of new Societies." Today, the purpose of the IFRC is to continue to help people in need, without fear or favour in situations of disaster while ICRC purpose is more focused on helping those in need in conflicts. Since then, the IFRC continued to respond to and prepare for disasters, and bring health services to local communities, lobby for better humanitarian practice, and most importantly, ensure the dignity of people on the move.
The history of humanitarian aid and its origin is important to point out for the sake of this paper to show the dynamic and transformative nature of this field. Originally, it started with a man who saw unspeakable violence and brutality who wanted to assist the wounded of all sides in a battle. The history and growth of the Red Cross from ICRC to IFRC and into other humanitarian organizations is important to note because the IFRC is selected later as a case study within this paper and helps to establish the researcher’s arguments in applying the humanitarian principles in relation to the environment.
As a result, many humanitarian organizations exist with legal and moral and ethical backing and continue to question what to do best in order to help the most vulnerable which includes the ever changing dynamic of today’s environment and the number of disasters in which humanitarian
organizations must assist in. The origin is important because it shows that through perseverance, the humanitarian sector and states have to be adaptable and cooperative in order to match the humanitarian principles and assist the most vulnerable. This is important due to the recent increase of natural disasters and the impact the world, let alone humanitarian organizations, are having on the environment. As humanitarian organizations such as the IFRC continue to grow and analyze how to better in all scopes; they look within and come to the conclusion that the humanitarian logistics sector is one of the more important ones to explore in depth.
2.4.2 Disasters and Vulnerability
This next portion of this paper will help in defining important concepts to better understand what factors determine the disaster aftermath and its devastation level. According to the World Health Organization, a disaster can be natural, or man-made and causes damage, ecological disruption, loss of human life, deterioration of health and health services on a scale sufficient to warrant an extraordinary response. who states that disasters can be classified into four types: (i) natural sudden-onset: such as earthquakes, tornadoes, hurricanes; (ii) natural slow-onset, like famine, drought and poverty: (iii) the result of man-made sudden-onset, such as terrorist attack, Coup d’Etat and Chemical leak; (iv) and the result man-made slow-onset, as the political crises and refugee crisis (Van Wassenhove, 2006). Disaster can have a variety of impacts. The impact of a disaster depends on both the classification of the disaster itself, as well as the state of the population affected by the disaster, or the state of the environment in which the disaster strikes. For example, elderly people and young children are considered more “vulnerable” if there is not a system in place to assist them in evacuating a disaster prone area. Vulnerability can be defined as ‘characteristics of a person or group in terms of their capacity to anticipate, cope with, resist and recover from the impact of a natural hazard’ (IFRC, 2009). It is especially important for humanitarian aid workers to recognize disaster prone areas and the vulnerability levels. This will be further discussed in the next section and applied to a specific example of how natural disasters impact the vulnerability of an impacted population in relation to the environment.
2.5 Influence of Natural Disasters in Today’s Humanitarian Field
One of the biggest humanitarian crises to shape today’s humanitarian field in so many different ways was the Haiti Earthquake of 2010. It was due to the aftermath of humanitarian
organizations’ and their actions which lead to discussions of incorporating environmental mainstreaming within their programming. Haiti was selected as a case study for this thesis to show as an example of an humanitarian crisis based on its widely documented environmental degradation, high vulnerability to geophysical and environmental hazards, as well as the
presence of a wide range of humanitarian actors and donors who have been responding to floods, tropical storms hurricanes and earthquakes (UNEP/OCHA Environment Unit, 2016). The Haiti Earthquake was a natural disaster that hit the most vulnerable population, and the aftermath of assistance rippled into chaos.
2.5.1 Background & Environmental Impact of Haiti Earthquake
A massive and severe 7.3 magnitude earthquake occurred in Haiti on January 12, 2010.
According to the Government of Haiti, the natural disaster resulted in the loss of 316,000 lives and displaced over 1.5 million people (DesRoches, 2011). The damage to the infrastructure from the earthquake in Haiti was enormous. More than 300,000 homes collapsed or were critically damaged. It is estimated that 60% of the nation’s administrative and economic infrastructure collapsed, 80% of the schools, and more than 50% of the hospitals were destroyed or damaged (DesRoches, 2011). Haiti is especially vulnerable to natural crises. Its location puts it at risk for hurricanes and earthquakes, and a lack of adequate infrastructure amplifies the effects of such disasters.
The earthquake in Haiti was classified as a major catastrophe, because not only were the physical and social impacts extremely large relative to the population of the affected areas, but also relative to the entirety of the country (DesRoches, 2011). The government was paralyzed and did
not have the capacity to meet the urgent needs of the populations and as a result the international response faced massive challenges—with limited access to the damaged port and airport, and uncertainty about who could or should lead the response. Even before the earthquake hit, Haiti already had a poor socioeconomic standing leaving many people unprepared and even more vulnerable when disasters do arise. Haiti is the poorest country in the Western Hemisphere, ranking 145 out of 169 on the UN Human Development Index (UNDP). More than half of Haiti’s population lives on less than US$1.25 per day, and more than three- quarters live on less than US$2 per day. Haiti has the highest rate of mortality among infants, children under 5, and during maternity of any country in the Western Hemisphere (UNSD).
In the immediate aftermath of the earthquake, national and international aid agencies as well as non-governmental organizations rushed in to establish necessary emergency services such as field hospitals and clinics to provide emergency treatment and surgery for injured survivors (Dubique, 2014). The organizations also delivered water, food, shelter, and protection to the internally displaced persons (IDPs). This international response worked in coordination with the Haitian government to provide necessary supplies and equipment. However, there were many challenges that organizations faced after the disaster struck and caused the response procedure to slow down.
Over 900 NGOs responded to the Haiti earthquake, each with its own priorities, suppliers, and work style (Beiser, 2018). These organizations were competing with each other for the same resources, duplicating projects and interfering with each others’ work (Beiser, 2018). This caused the United Nations to form the cluster system. Coordinating and communicating with one another was slow moving and unfortunately affected the people of Haiti as well as its response and recovery time. A new epoch in international humanitarian action began with the adoption by the United Nations General Assembly of Resolution 46/182 to strengthen coordination of
humanitarian emergency assistance. The resolution provides that “humanitarian assistance should be provided with the consent of the affected country and in principle on the basis of an appeal by the affected country” and that “[i]nter- governmental and non-governmental
organizations working impartially and with strictly humanitarian motives should continue to make a significant contribution in supplementing national efforts” (Tellier, 2018). Unfortunately, the aid world failed the people of Haiti and the humanitarian principles were not upheld.
The largest camp in Port-au-Prince, Park Jean Marie Vincent (PJMV) was located in the commune of Cité Soleil; a slum in Haiti labeled as a red zone. A red zone is an area that is characterized to have serious security concerns and inhabitants that are living in extreme poverty with scarce basic services and few opportunities for employment (Dubique, 2014). The
classification of an area as a red zone makes it difficult for aid groups to establish activitie within that area. As a result, the camp residents were left to survive on their own and initially did not receive aid after the earthquake.
The principles of humanity and impartiality were violated in relation to PJMV. PJMV was located in the red zone of Cité Soleil, an area most NGOs felt was too dangerous to enter and as a result this vulnerable group were left to fend for themselves (Dubique, 2014). The principle of humanity was violated because human suffering needed to be addressed where found and aid organizations found this particular area to be complex and did not work with one another to address the issues at hand. The principle of impartiality was violated because humanitarian action must be carried on the basis of need, giving priority to the most urgent cases of distress which was not done.
The situation in Haiti went from bad to worse when cholera broke out occuring only two days after Hurricane Tomas hit and further worsened the sanitary condition in PJMV camp, there were seven clinical cases of cholera within the camp and was initially contained (Walton and Ivers, 2011). However, another cholera epidemic broke out in 2014 and was widely believed that U.N. peacekeepers introduced cholera to Haiti cholera to Haiti after a deployment from Nepal, where cholera is a perennial threat (Knox, 2016). Approximately 770,000 Haitians died from cholera since late 2010 — almost 8 percent of the population. In addition, more than 9,200 have died of cholera as of 2016 and more than 800,000 people have been infected, making it the largest and
most explosive cholera epidemic in modern times (Knox, 2016). Today, Haiti continues to suffer with crisis after crisis. As of September 2017, nearly 38,000 individuals are still living in
displacement camps since the 2010 earthquake (hrw.org). More than 175,000 individuals remained displaced in the aftermath of October 2016’s Hurricane Matthew (hrw.org). Many vulnerable communities continue to face environmental risks, such as widespread deforestation, pollution from industry, and limited access to safe water and sanitation. Almost one-third of people live with food insecurity due to widespread damage to crops and livestock. More than 500,000 children and youth remain out of primary and secondary school. Previous damage from the 2010 earthquake and Hurricane Matthew significantly impacted access to education,
damaging 1,633 out of 1,991 schools in the most impacted areas (hrw.org). Unless aid organizations and the government steps up and works together, many of these red zone
vulnerable communities will continue to suffer and continue to be unprepared for an upcoming natural or man-made disaster. All of these disasters have made Haiti a compounded crisis and will continue to be unstable unless addressed.
The humanitarian principles continued to be disregarded and the lack of action and coordination impacted the environment and therefore contributed to more destruction. Immediately after the earthquake disaster, the environment was under stress due to the procurement of material to construct emergency shelter, which exacerbated ongoing deforestation in Haiti (UNEP/OCHA Environment Unit, 2016). For example, there was a need for transitional shelter post-earthquake and as a result, there was an increase of topsoil and riverbank erosion. This inturn increased the likelihood of landslides because humanitarian organizations did not consider where gravel and sand would be displaced from in order to build these transitional homes. Local Haitian
authorities stated there was a “second disaster” caused by the generation of waste from relief operations, with the main issues being caused by plastic water bottles (US military reporting the distribution of 2.6 million bottles) and styrofoam (polystyrene) food packaging (UNEP, 2016). Activities to address the environmental consequences of the earthquake and potential negative impacts of humanitarian operations have received little financial support to this day, prompting this study 6 years later.
The environmental impact of humanitarian missions can be seen in the table above. These
findings were a summary of the biggest impact to the environment. It is important to note the logistical waste in medical supplies, sanitation and resettlement debris in the table above. The cluster approach was born in 2005 post the Pakistan earthquake to enhance and improve coordination between the organizations. However, no Cluster had dedicated any internal environmental support during the 2010 Haiti earthquake crisis. Some Clusters do not recognize the environment as a critical issue in their objective statements. There is no systematic screening of relief assistance for negative environmental impacts, even when such negative impacts are highly likely and have already begun to occur. There is a general lack of accessible information on environmental lessons learned and environmental good practice from previous disaster relief efforts (UNEP, 2016). The lack of systematic environmental mainstreaming – the integration of environment into all phases of humanitarian programme cycle especially in the humanitarian logistics sector- is due to the limited awareness of the importance of environment as a
cross-cutting issue, the lack of expertise in addressing environmental issues within the
humanitarian sector and to the lack of know- how and accountability of humanitarian partners to adhere to humanitarian principles (UNEP,2016).
This section discussed how Haiti became a compounded crisis that began from an earthquake hitting an already vulnerable population and the actions from the good intentions of the different humanitarian organizations caused a ripple effect and made it worse. None of these organizations considered integrating or considered the environmental impact of their programming and made a disaster ripple into an even worse disaster. As discussed earlier, much of the environmental impact can be seen through the humanitarian logistics sector. The next section will explore the humanitarian logistics sector.
3. Literature Review
This next section will help to provide the reader of an important foundation within the
humanitarian sector and relate its actions and impact to the environment. This section will also connect the humanitarian supply chain and the environment and the importance of including environmental considerations in it’s programming.
3.1 Relevance and Relationship Between Humanitarian Organizations and the Environment
The previous section emphasized the importance of the humanitarian logistics sector and the importance of implementing a greener approach to their programming in order to confront the environmental and sustainability issues. According to the Secretary-General for Humanitarian Affairs and Emergency Relief Coordinator, John Holmes, the global demand for humanitarian assistance is likely to increase in the coming decade. The biggest single cause of this will be climate change and the increased incidence and severity of extreme weather events associated with it. Alarmingly, the number of recorded disasters has doubled from approximately 200 to over 400 per year over the past two decades (Holmes, 2008). This was demonstrated while discussing the severity of the Haiti earthquake and then how some actions taken by the different humanitarian organizations exacerbated the situation. As a result, the humanitarian principles, especially the principle of ‘do no harm’ have been brought up in regards to the protection of the environment. This next section will discuss the principles further and what has been done to address the situation on hand.
It is important to note the humanitarian principles because they are essential to the mission statement of all humanitarian organizations. According to the Development Assistance Committee of the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECDDAC), “humanitarian aid is assistance designed to save lives, alleviate suffering and maintain and
protect human dignity during and in the aftermath of emergencies” (Salgado, 2017). However in order to accomplish this and to make sure all humanitarian organizations follow the same
standards; the humanitarian principles were founded. These principles were formally established by the UN General Assembly in 1991 (humanity, impartiality and neutrality), in 2004
(independence) and restated by the ICRC (Smith, 2015). The four principles are defined as:
Humanity: Human suffering must be addressed wherever it is found. The purpose of humanitarian action is to protect life and health and ensure respect for human beings (unocha.org).
Neutrality: Humanitarian actors must not take sides in hostilities or engage in controversies of a political, racial, religious or ideological nature (unocha.org).
Impartiality: Humanitarian action must be carried out on the basis of need alone, giving priority to the most urgent cases of distress and making no distinctions on the basis of nationality, race, gender, religious belief, class or political opinions (unocha.org).
Independence: Humanitarian action must be autonomous from the political, economic, military or other objectives that any actor may hold with regard to areas where humanitarian action is being implemented” (unocha.org).
Alongside with the humanitarian principles is the ‘Do No Harm’ principle which is just as
imperative for humanitarian organizations to follow. The ‘Do No Harm’ principle was developed in response to a growing recognition of the potential negative effects of humanitarian aid and action. It was this emerging “need" to identify and reduce the potential negative effects of its interventions (ALNAP, 2018). The potential negative effects of aid emerged as a subject of discussion during emergency situations including the 1994 Rwandan genocide and following the major natural disasters such as the 2010 Haiti earthquake. The "Do no Harm" concept was borrowed from medical practice and traces its origins to the medical Hippocratic Oath (ALNAP, 2018). Mary Anderson in the 1990s then developed it for humanitarian action to address
humanitarian organizations working in conflict-affected situations (ALNAP, 2018). The "Do No Harm" principle is defined to avoid exposing people to additional risks through any humanitarian
action or taking a step back from an intervention to look at the broader context and mitigate potential negative effects on the social fabric, the economy and the environment (ALNAP, 2018).
These principles are key for humanitarian agencies to establish and maintain access to affected populations as well as to execute successful implementation between all parties involved. The principles are key rules for all to follow to avoid any moral and ethical situations that may arise. However now, another moral and ethical issue has risen with the number of disasters increasing and the cause being linked to climate change. Humanitarian organizations have now begun to question what impact certain humanitarian missions have on the environment. This awareness led to an increased interest in preventing the negative effects of various types of intervention. This illustrates that failing to include environmental considerations in humanitarian response undermines the main purposes of humanitarian action: to save lives and reduce vulnerability to disasters and increase resilience. At a minimum, humanitarian response should not contribute to unsustainable management of natural resources or the occurrence of environmental emergencies or degradation. As a result, ‘do no harm’ principle and the humanitarian principles need to be applied to the environment and its ecosystems.
The humanitarian community is finally realizing that the environment and people, especially the most vulnerable population in any humanitarian context, are intertwined. As humanitarian organizations come to address disasters; the priority is still to provide life-saving missions but it is important to assign responsibility to humanitarian organizations to minimise environmental impact and, where possible, proactively protect and restore the environment. For example, a refugee settlement lasts on average for 26 years, and yet humanitarian missions tend to think in very short planning cycles, partially because it’s very difficult to get long-term funding (The Sphere Project, 2019). For example, the settlements set up after the 2010 Haiti earthquake, humanitarian organizations did not consider the context where vulnerable populations lacked proper housing, access to cooking facilities and exacerbated the situation where deforestation was already a critical issue, dramatically affecting water quality and worsening the flooding in
the area which led to the Cholera outbreak. Now, it is important to also consider the operation’s environmental impact if a refugee settlement is to be considered the best option for the disaster on hand.
In conclusion, the relationship between the environment and humanitarian response are intertwined in many ways. The environment impacts a humanitarian response while the
humanitarian response affects the environment. A degraded environment can trigger or worsen a humanitarian crisis such as what can be seen in the 2010 Haiti Earthquake. While a healthy environment can allow for a more effective humanitarian response (Sphere thematic sheet environment, 2019). With the correct considerations, humanitarian missions can maybe improve environmental conditions and reduce future damage and the risk of future crises (Sphere
thematic sheet environment, 2019).
3.2 Current environmental considerations within humanitarian organizations
This next section will quickly address what environmental considerations have been taken upon by humanitarian organizations in their programming. Policies have been born with the guidance of the UN and different humanitarian organizations. One of which is the Ten Principles of the UN Global Compact where a principles-based approach is applied to the business world. This means when operating companies and organizations should attempt to meet fundamental responsibilities in the areas of human rights, labour, environment and anti-corruption. By incorporating the Ten Principles of the UN Global Compact into strategies, policies and
procedures, and establishing a culture of integrity, companies are not only upholding their basic responsibilities to people and planet, but also setting the stage for long-term success (UN Global Compact, 2000). Out of the 10 principles, under the sectors of human rights, labor, environment, and anti-corruption; the 3 environment principles apply to this paper.
Principle 7 states that businesses should support a precautionary approach to environmental challenges; Principle 8 states that initiatives should try to promote greater environmental
responsibility; and Principle 9 states there should be more encouragement in the development and diffusion of environmentally friendly technologies (UN Global Compact, 2000). However, there has been more discussion in policies speciallfy applied to the humanitarin sector.
First it is important to note the foundation of the humanitarian standards were taken in the 1990s when the Sphere Project was established by NGOs, the ICRC and several UN-agencies. The purpose of the project was to set a list of minimal standards for humanitarian actors to comply with to improve the quality of their projects and to create some level of accountability for
humanitarian actors (The Sphere Project, 2011). The initial motivation behind the Sphere Project was to improve the poorly coordinated and badly executed humanitarian interventions. It now includes guidance on respecting and protecting the environment when running a humanitarian operation. Environmental degradation inhibits people’s capabilities and resilience in many ways, from incomes and livelihoods. The systematic integration of environmental recommendations throughout humanitarian operations makes recovery activities more effective, contributes positively to sustainable development, and lays a foundation for conflict resolution and peacebuilding (Sphere thematic sheet environment, 2019). Environmental considerations also help mitigate the impact of climate change and support climate change adaptation. The Sphere handbook has now included a thematic sheet on reducing environmental impact in humanitarian response (The Sphere Project, 2019). Thematic sheets provide more detailed guidance and reflections on themes relevant to the Sphere Handbook within the sector. It is very important not to think of the environment as a standalone issue, but rather as something that cuts across all technical areas of humanitarian work. A thematic sheet does precisely that, allowing
humanitarian actors to look more holistically at the topic.
Amanda George, a humanitarian who authored the Sphere’s books thematic sheets believes that the thematic sheet is a good place to start for all those practitioners who would like to take the environment into account throughout their work (The Sphere Project, 2019). For example, the sheet takes a practical approach by looking at the humanitarian programme cycle. For each programme phase, it suggests some important actions to minimise the operation’s environmental
impact and to make humanitarian programming more sustainable and accountable (The Sphere Project, 2019).
Some key recommendations from last year’s Sphere’s project’s thematic sheet on the environment are focused on environmental mainstreaming within the humanitarian
programs/missions. Humanitarian programmes should attempt to minimise their environmental impact and consider how procurement, transport and choice of materials, or land and natural resource use may protect or degrade the environment further (Sphere thematic sheet
environment, 2019).
The environment based thematic sheet highly recommended stronger communication and coordination for humanitarians and environmental professionals to work together in a
humanitarian response. This is highly benefical because if there is improved coordination then clearer solutions may arise and lead to improved lives and livelihoods for disaster-affected communities. This is particularly true in countries and regions with poverty levels that are at higher risk for natural disasters and instability, creating a vicious circle of social and
environmental degradation during the time of a disaster (Sphere thematic sheet environment, 2019). Improved communication by involving local environmental authorities and organisations can highlight key issues including environmental sensitivities, natural resources availability, environmental hazards and land tenure rights (Sphere thematic sheet environment, 2019).
Another environmental recommendation that the Sphere Project stated was to focus on the water supply not just to include how to provide water for the most vulnerable populations but to address the environmental impacts. For example, when identifying the most appropriate
groundwater or surface water sources; is it possible to also reuse greywater or harvest rainwater? The thematic sheet suggests minimising spill and use of spill water for irrigation in
gardening/planting systems within a specific region. It also includes minimising environmental impacts of excretation that might contaminate surface or groundwater sources. This was a lesson learned from the 2010 Haiti Earthquake as humanitarian organizations did not implement a
correct disposal or treatment of water with minimal environmental damage. So solid waste and water management standards need to incorporate reusing, repurposing, recycling goods within a humaniatiran mission (Sphere thematic sheet environment, 2019).
The next environmental recommendation set forth by the thematic sheet concerns food security. Within this sector it is recommended to protect, preserve and restore the natural environment from further degradation when delivering food assistance. This includes not only addressing the capable capacities of the affected population but also the humanitarian logistics portion of and impact on the environment. This can be addressed within the deliverance of food assistance and implementing the responsible use of food assistance packaging, including by minimusing waste, reusing and recycling (Sphere thematic sheet environment, 2019). By mainstreaming climate change adaptation in food security and livelihoods activities by considering the impacts of climate change on the different areas can go a long way in minimising long term degradation of the environment.
Another sector under humanitarian programming is the shelter and settlements programmes which carry one of the highest risks of negative environmental impacts in disaster management (Sphere thematic sheet environment, 2019). Under the humanitarian logistics unmbrella
delivering housing assistance through markets discuss the importance of ethical and
environmental sustainability in marketbased assistance. Furthermore the thematic sheet states it is important to understand the risk of markets overexploiting natural resources and ecosystems which might need further risks to people (Sphere thematic sheet environment, 2019). This can be addressed by providing training staff at all levels of the supply chain to observe ethical and environmentally sustainable practices and or by disposing of damaged commodities and prevent the re-entry of unfit commodities to the supply chain that may harm the environment or
contaminate water sources (Sphere thematic sheet environment, 2019).
One of the final recommendations the Sphere Project recommended was the importance of using environmental assessments as an integral component of the disaster assessment phase (Sphere
thematic sheet environment, 2019). By Investigating environmental drivers of the crisis and the main environmental impacts and risks to affected populations, it can help to avoid further destruction or future problems to the environment. It is also important to make sure that the humanitarian needs, vulnerabilities, and risks in which the humanitarian response plan seeks to address reflect how environmental issues exacerbate or contribute to the crisis Include
environmental considerations in objectives, outcomes, and activities to ensure they are addressed throughout the humanitarian response (Sphere thematic sheet environment, 2019). The Sphere project also questions whether or not incorporate planned humanitarian activities for their environmental impacts and risks and if these activities with negative environmental impacts are underway, how to priortize life-saving missions in regards to unacceptable environmental damage (Sphere thematic sheet environment, 2019). By accepting negative environmental impacts due to relief assistance as unavoidable and preferable to not providing assistance and balancing this with the humanitarian principles and the principle of ‘do no harm’.
As with all humanitarian missions and the importance of monitoring and evaluating; it is just imperative to monitor the environmental impact of humanitarian activities against baseline information from environmental assessments. This will take time because there is no baseline database to the researcher’s knowledge. By monitoring the three key environmental impacts: direct environmental consequences of the natural or technological hazard that caused the emergency, the environmental consequences of relief operations, and the environmental impact of unmet basic needs of affected population (Sphere thematic sheet environment, 2019). These results are invaluable and can be used as a learning tool to produce concrete recommendations to inform environmental mainstreaming in future programming.
Alongside the Sphere’s project’s thematic sheet guidance on environmental consideration in humanitarian action; some other organizations have also begun to implement their own toolkits and assessments to better bring about change. There is EHA Connect: an online toolkit bringing humanitarian and environmental communities together to support environmentally sustainable disaster management. The Green Recovery and Reconstruction: Training Toolkit for
Humanitarian Action (GRRT) led by WWF and American Red Cross. There is also the framework for Assessing, Monitoring and Evaluating the Environment in Refugee-Related Operations Toolkit led by UNHCR and CARE. The Rapid Environmental Impact Assessment (REA) tool uses simple methodology to identify, define, and prioritise potential environmental impacts in disaster situations, including those caused by humanitarian organisations.
The Flash Environmental Assessment Tool (FEAT) supports initial disaster responders to determine risks posed by hazardous substances. The Nexus Environmental Assessment Tool (NEAT+) is an environmental screening tool searching environmental sensitivity or gaps of the within the areas of shelter, WASH, and food security. And finally, Groupe URD now publishes reports and training materials around key environmental issues.
Slowly, as can be seen through the above thematic sheet and key humanitarian organizations, the mentality is changing. Agencies are recognising the importance of developing environmental policies within their operations. Hopefully, donors will also become more demanding to include more environmentally friendly policies within humanitarian missions and recognize the long term benefits. The Sphere project alongside other big organizations will continue to play an important key role in this process too. The next section will help define the different ways one of the most sectors in the humanitarian sector can do better in regards to its impact on the
environment.
3.3 Humanitarian Logistics/Humanitarian Supply Chain Sector
Humanitarian Logistics is the pinnacle of any successful humanitarian mission. When natural disasters occur, the main aim is to minimize the loss to human life, provide emergency response, execute a relief operation and restore the normal life cycle to its best ability. To successfully respond, logistics coordination is important and one of the most expensive sectors because without it nothing would be accomplished within humanitarian missions. This next section will explore the humanitarian logistics sector, the importance of its work, and the impact to the environment.
The field of humanitarian logistics and relief supply chain management is receiving increasing attention among academics, as well as practitioners in the field. The number of related
publications has been increasing steadily (Kovacs and Spens, 2008). Approximately 73% of humanitarian response spending is related to supply chain, (Stiftung, K, 2018) and with the price for climate-related humanitarian response estimated to reach $20 billion annually by 2030 (IFRC, 2019). Since about 70% of a humanitarian mission budget is used by the humanitarian logistics sector. The relief operations play a key role in providing the supplies such as food, water, medicines, evacuation plans to make people stay safe.. Other examples of logistical support done by humanitarian missions are providing pure drinking water, food, emergency response vehicles to send people who are injured or stuck in debris or other disaster affected areas.
Humanitarian Logistics examines challenges faced by those whose role is to organize and distribute resources in difficult situations. It examines the key issues, including warehousing, procurement and finance. It places special emphasis on pre-disaster preparedness rather than post-disaster assistance. “Humanitarian Logistics is described as the process of planning,
implementing and controlling efficiently, heavy focus on low cost flow and storage of goods and materials, as well as related information, from point of origin to point of consumption for the purpose of relieving the suffering of vulnerable people. Its role encompasses a range of activities, including the planning, preparation, transportation, and acquisition, storage, monitoring and tracking" (Kopczak & Thomas, 2005). While, a commercial supply chain is described as a system through which organizations deliver their products and services to their customers (Poirier & Reiter, 1996). Commercial supply chains are oriented around the concept of
manufacturing goods in demand, at the lowest unit cost, for movement (push/sales) toward the consumer (Poirier & Reiter, 1996). Commercial supply chains are focused on faster speeds, increasing capacity, causing more units to be produced at the lowest costs possible. Inventories that built up between manufacturing and consumption were conveniently stored in warehouses or distribution centers so that the sales push would be uninterrupted. Therefore, the main difference
to note between private/commercial supply chain systems and humanitarian supply chains are their strategic goals. The end goal for a commercial supply chain is to produce high quality products at low cost in order to maximize profitability and achieve high customer satisfaction (Beamon, 2004). The end goal for a humanitarian supply chain is to make sure the humanitarian principles are upheld as to minimize the loss of life and alleviate suffering.
3.3.2 Breakdown of a Humanitarian Supply Chain
Humanitarian supply chains are operating under intense and difficult conditions where there is an unpredictable demand in terms of timing, location, type and size; there is suddenly occurring demand in very large amounts and short lead times for a wide variety of supplies; very high stakes associated with adequate and timely delivery; and the lack of resources (supply, people, technology, transportation capacity and money) (Balcik and Beamon, 2008). Within the humanitarian supply chain, it is also important to note the roles of the suppliers, donors,
beneficiaries and distribution center in order to understand the critical factors of each link and its importance in case of environmental disasters. A disaster is the abrupt event that genuinely upsets the working of a network or society or supply chain system and causes human, material, and monetary or ecological misfortunes that surpass the network's or society's capacity to adapt utilizing its own assets (IFRC). This example can be seen above through the 2010 Haiti
Earthquake. All the roles listed above rely on each other for a succesful humanitarian logistics delivery of goods and services. While a commercial/private supply chain system comprises only the sectors procurement, operations, distribution, and integration.
Firstly, the role of suppliers within the humanitarian logistics cycle is very important in that relief organizations seek to acquire the provision of the necessary items from local sources or suppliers. If these suppliers fail to meet the need, they seek suppliers from other locations through a bidding process. The ability to attend to cases of environmental disasters creates a relationship of trust between relief organizations and suppliers. In order to improve this ratio and respond more quickly, the relief organizations have made long-term contracts with suppliers for
