A Change of Heart: Self-Reflection in Jane Austen's Novels

A Change of Heart: Self-Reflection in Jane Austen's Novels

Master's Dissertation Literary Studies Programme English Literature and Culture

Table of Contents

Introduction 3

Chapter One: The Vocabulary and Conditions of Self-Reflection 10

Chapter Two: Self-Reflection and Self-Knowledge 18

Chapter Three: Self-Reflection and Others 28

Chapter Four: Lack of Self-Reflection 40

Conclusion 52

Works Cited 55

Introduction

Self-reflection and self-examination have been discussed in great detail by scholars of psychology and literature. The mechanisms of the mind are difficult to explain, and in order to gain a clear sense of people's nature introspection is of the greatest importance. In her novels, Austen provides her audiences with access to the consciousnesses of the heroines, which allows them to examine the process of self-reflection in her characters. Introspection is closely related to judgment, which is a vital part of Austen's six major novels (Nazar 119). In these novels, the young heroines discover that through self-reflection they gain more knowledge of themselves, as well as of others. I have chosen to examine Sense and Sensibility, Pride and Prejudice, and Persuasion, and discuss the consequences of introspection (as well as the lack of it). Sense and Sensibility and Persuasion are interesting because they are Austen's first and last novels, respectively, and it is interesting to see that her ideas about self-reflection have not changed. The difference between these novels is the phase of self-reflection that the heroine is in. Anne Elliot has learned to examine her mind and feelings after her rejection of Wentworth, and the benefits of this introspection are clear throughout the novel. Elinor and Marianne Dashwood both have different views of self-reflection, and the results of these views are noteworthy. In Pride and Prejudice self-reflection is interesting because the narrative provides access to a great deal of Elizabeth Bennet's consciousness and thoughts, and consequently the gradual change in her mind becomes visible. I will mainly look at Austen's novels from a historical point of view, and examine how she has a different view on introspection than others during her time.

actions, motives", as well as "censure or reproof of oneself". These aspects complement each other, since reflection can result in censure as long as the person is willing to and capable of change. The Dictionary provides a series of quotations in which self-reflection is mentioned, starting in the seventeenth century. These citations are mainly from religious sources, such as from books by clergymen Oliver Heywood (c.1670): "How usefull is this self-reflexion in order to a fast", and John Hartcliffe (c.1691): "Self-Reflection, the best means to an impartial judgment of things, will take place, and the true voice of Conscience will be heard". In its description to self-examination, the OED emphasises the relationship to the church: "examination of oneself with regard to one's conduct, motives, etc., esp. as a religious duty". When, for example, preparing for Holy Communion, it was vital that people would reflect on their sins and confess these, after which a change in behaviour had to take place. The focus on the individual in the church had become more important with the rise of Protestantism in the sixteenth century. The objective was having a personal connection with God, alongside having a shared faith: it was no longer only the clergy that told the community how to behave, but it was through self-examination that people had to come to repentance. Throughout the Enlightenment self-reflection became increasingly significant. Philosophers such as René Descartes (1596-1650), with his well-known statement cogito ergo sum - I think, therefore I am - displayed a move towards the individual instead of the communal. Roger Smith states that

In the eighteenth century the higher classes enjoyed their wealth and were particularly concerned about what others thought of them, instead of focussing their attentions on gaining more knowledge (Tomaselli 87). They were obsessed with external appearance, and experienced difficulties with examining their minds. This resulted in the necessity of self-reflection, which the clergy continued to insist on in their sermons. The rise of the novel was a logical reaction to this movement, as suggested by Mullan::

[the] Enlightenment did not have room for 'the novel', yet the novel was its true imaginative enactment. In the eighteenth century, it was in novels that the individual self - the experience of the self as individual - was most affectingly represented. ("Feelings and Novels" 127)

By showing emotions as well as reason, the novel was able to represent the feelings and the development of the self. Throughout the novel, the actions as well as the thoughts of an individual could be observed; motives and mistakes were no longer hidden behind outward appearance. People were able to identify with the characters and could be moved to self-reflection by the examples of others. This was the situation in which Jane Austen found herself when starting to write her novels, and it is clear that she built on that foundation.

The Examination of ourselves supposes an authentick Standard to which we are to apply, and by which we are to judge of ourselves: And this is the Holy Scripture…'Tis a compleat Rule, without any Defect. (567)

People had to imitate the manners and way of life encouraged by the Bible and the clergy. Austen's father, being an Anglican clergyman, might have adopted this view, but he also provided her with access to his large library containing a great deal of books (Stabler 41-2). Throughout her novels it is clear that Austen adopts Christian values - note the devout heroine in Mansfield Park - and these values remained important during all her life. In Persuasion, even before she discovers the truth about her cousin Mr Elliot, Anne Elliot knows there is a fault in his character. Lady Russell tries to convince her that they would be very well suited, but Anne is unsure: "She saw that there had been bad habits; that Sunday-travelling had been a common thing" (174). The editors of the novel, Janet Todd and Antje Blank, explain in a note that "attendance at Sunday church services was both a moral and a social obligation in the early nineteenth century" (379n11). The fact that Mr Elliot does not (always) attend church is a valid reason for Anne to distrust him, which might be a sign that Austen still highly valued her Christian beliefs. On the area of self-reflection, however, it is not clear whether she adopted the view of the church that examination of the self had to lead people to mirror themselves to God. Michael Wheeler mentions that Austen had a favourite book of devotions, namely William Vickers's A Companion to the Altar (1766), who discusses what is necessary before Holy Communion:

of our Examination… this Method, no doubt, is an admirable Means to approve us in Virtue, and the most effectual Way to keep our Consciences awake. (8,9)

Christ or the Holy Scripture. Her reflection is an individual act, but instigated by the behaviour of others. In this work I argue that Austen diverts from the religious perspective on self-reflection and instead her characters apply it to change in order to cope with secular situations.

The first chapter will describe the way Austen provides opportunities for her characters to reflect, such as silences or solitary walks. In addition, I will elaborate on the specific terminology Austen uses to signify self-reflection and on how this is different from recollection. Subsequently, chapter two discusses how self-reflection leads to self-knowledge, and how this information assists the character in making choices and in changing opinions. The third chapter illustrates the relevance of other people in self-reflection: the change the characters experience influences the heroines' relationships with friends, family, as well as admirers. I argue that it is not only the women that are in need of self-examination: the men have to reflect and change as well in order to create an equal marriage. After discussing the benefits of self-reflection, the final chapter illustrates the consequences of the lack of introspection. For example, as a result of not knowing themselves, these characters are unable to make well-considered decisions concerning their lifestyles and behave inappropriately.

Chapter One: The Vocabulary and Conditions of Self-Reflection

As explained before, Austen moves away from the clerical tradition of applying self-reflection in religious contexts. Alternatively, Austen's characters use introspection in secular situations: through self-reflection they gain more knowledge of themselves and their capabilities, and as a result they change. The alteration first occurs in the mind, and manifests itself through changed opinions and behaviour towards others. There are several aspects in which the significance of reflection is revealed. The titles of the novels demonstrate the balance between the mind and feeling, which might be a sign that this was of the utmost importance to Austen. Additionally, there is particular vocabulary in the novels to signify reflection as opposed to mere thoughts. The characters that reflect employ their surroundings in their meditations: silence is a priority and often solitude is preferred as well. All in all, these elements provide the characters with the best conditions to reflect and change.

Examining the titles of the novels under consideration, it is clear that Austen emphasises the importance of the mind and reason. Although often used in connection with "the five senses", the word "sense" rather meant "natural understanding, intelligence, esp. as bearing on action or behaviour; practical soundness of judgement" (OED). It is closely related to "perception", to knowing and being able to judge how to react and behave in various situations. "Sensibility", however, is described as "quickness and acuteness of apprehension or feeling; the quality of being easily and strongly affected by emotional influences; sensitiveness" and

After reading the latter Marianne Dashwood immediately comes to mind. She not only possesses the capability to feel compassion for dead leaves, but also becomes ill after the emotional revelation of Willoughby's actions. According to Mullan, this sensibility was unpopular during Austen's life, as people suspected it to be feigned and insincere ("Psychology" 381). Furthermore, Butler argues that "Jane Austen's version of 'sensibility' - that is, individualism, or the worship of self, in various familiar guises - is as harshly dealt with here as anywhere in the anti-jacobin tradition" (194). Austen depicts the consequences of sensibility, and by juxtaposing it to the more reasonable "sense" of Elinor she is able to encourage readers to act similarly to the latter. Marianne's move from being sensible to having sense through reflection is clear throughout the book, especially when she resolves to acquire more knowledge. This might be a sign that sense is something that, according to Austen, could be developed.

With Persuasion Jane Austen particularly focuses on reason. Being persuaded means to alter perceptions or ideas that are in the mind, and it relates to beliefs and opinions. Captain Wentworth is appalled that Anne could have been persuaded from such a connection as they had, and clearly wishes his future wife to be different. Throughout the novel, it is evident through Anne's reflections and consciousness that she has changed and is now perfectly capable of reasoning and making her own decisions. Wentworth's feelings did not change - "I have loved none but you" (258) - but through introspection his reasoning had to: afterwards he no longer proudly ignores his feelings. Evidently the use of reason is a relevant issue for Jane Austen, which she continues throughout her novels with particular terminology.

Two words that Austen frequently uses for something deeper than merely "thinking" are "recollection" and "reflection". Though used in similar instances, there is a noticeable difference between them. "Recollection", firstly, is not only used by Austen as thinking back to or remembering occurrences in the past, but also as recovering from, for example, painful assumptions made by others. Recollection often coincides with reflection, and the following quotation from Pride and Prejudice (the moment after Elizabeth reads Darcy's letter) clarifies the difference:

After wandering along the lane for two hours, giving way to every variety of thought—re-considering events, determining probabilities, and reconciling herself, as well as she could, to a change so sudden and so important, fatigue, and a recollection of her long absence, made her at length return home; and she entered the house with the wish of appearing cheerful as usual, and the resolution of repressing such reflections as must make her unfit for conversation. (231-2, my italics)

"When I see him again," said Elinor to herself, as the door shut him out, "I shall see him the husband of Lucy."

And with this pleasing anticipation, she sat down to reconsider the past, recall the words and endeavour to comprehend all the feelings of Edward; and, of course, to reflect on her own with discontent. (329-30)

their surroundings as they look for the right situations and places in which they can indulge in introspection.

Jane Austen's focus on and promotion of self-reflection is evident because she makes the characters benefit from it. Again the move from the communal to the individual is very clear in her way of using the scenery and habits to create opportunities for the heroines to reflect. Firstly, silence is very important for a suitable situation for self-examination. In Sense and Sensibility, for example, Elinor uses the moments that she is able to be silent - instead of having to converse out of politeness - for introspection:

An intimate acquaintance of Mrs. Jennings joined them soon after they entered the Gardens, and Elinor was not sorry that by her continuing with them, and engaging all Mrs. Jennings's conversation, she was herself left to quiet reflection. (307)

Similarly, in Pride and Prejudice, when Elizabeth is with Lady Catherine for the last time and tries to avert her mind from thinking about Darcy's proposal and his intense letter afterwards, she forces herself to stay focussed. There was no possibility for her to consider the implications of the letter while Lady Catherine asked her many questions, and therefore she resolves to think about it later:

[reflection] must be reserved for solitary hours; whenever she was alone, she gave way to it as the greatest relief; and not a day went by without a solitary walk, in which she might indulge in all the delight of unpleasant recollections. (235)

(59). The characters find silence in chambers or in solitary walks to a shrubbery or another private area. The search for silence is facilitated by chambers or by taking solitary walks to a shrubbery or another private area. In both occasions they are shielded from having to interact with others, and it is in these moments that Austen lets her characters discover who they are (Wenner 9). When reading the letter from Mrs Gardiner, Elizabeth retreats to the copse near her house, "where she was least likely to be interrupted" (355), and after Darcy visits the Bennet family again and is very silent, she goes outside in order to "dwell without interruption" (375) on what has happened. Furthermore, in Persuasion, when Anne receives Mary's letter informing her about Louisa's engagement to Captain Benwick, she is astonished, and thinks it over "in her own room" (181). These characters very much desire this solitude and opportunity to reflect, in order to control themselves and their feelings. This is evident from Anne's reaction to Wentworth's letter, in which he declares his unchanged love for her:

Such a letter was not to be soon recovered from. Half an hour's solitude and reflection might have tranquillized her; but the ten minutes only, which now passed before she was interrupted, with all the restraints of her situation, could do nothing towards tranquillity. (258)

Because of not being alone in the room and being unable to express her emotions, Anne cannot contain herself and it soon becomes obvious to her companions that she experiences difficulties. This leads Anne into a tricky situation where she must act like all is well, without giving away her secret. For her, as well as for Elinor, reflection is a way of coping with her circumstances.

Chapter Two: Self-Reflection and Self-Knowledge

As discussed in chapter one, Austen focuses on the individual in her novels, and shows how people function in their social environments. Her narrative records in great detail the thoughts and reflections of her heroes and heroines as they find a way to cope in daily life. Austen provides ample opportunity for her characters to reflect, during, for example, silences or solitude, but sometimes other people function as an incentive for self-examination. Regardless, the characters who commit to introspection are changing visibly - not only in character but also in behaviour. One of the benefits of self-reflection is self-knowledge, but according to J.A. Kearney:

[the] habit of self-examination, involving reflection upon one's motives and conduct (as recommended especially by writers such as Butler, Law and Johnson) does not, of itself, guarantee self-knowledge for Jane Austen's characters, though it does help to provide a mode of introspection which promotes and sustains the crucial process of self-insight when that becomes possible. (113)

The characters, by knowing their own minds, are more capable of deciding what is best for them, and the influence of outsiders diminishes. The characters become more acquainted with themselves and many of them visibly change their opinions, because they have to admit that their initial assumptions were incorrect. Consequently, they are increasingly capable of convincing others what is good for them. In all three novels at issue the characters use self-reflection to derive knowledge of themselves, which then helps them to make well-considered decisions as well as change opinions when necessary.

places in order to be free from the obligation of conversing with others, and to reflect in silence. It is in these moments that the characters reach a certain degree of self-knowledge, which can be defined as having "a good sense of [one's] own character, capabilities, talents, limitations, and worldly situation" (Cavell 374). This can be very useful when having to make decisions or when choosing between right and wrong. A dangerous consequence of a deficiency of self-knowledge is self-deception. Edward Ferrars, for example, does know part of his character, as is evident when conversing with Elinor and Marianne Dashwood:

I never wish to offend, but I am so foolishly shy, that I often seem negligent, when I am only kept back by my natural aukwardness [sic]… Shyness is only the effect of a sense of inferiority in some way or other. If I could persuade myself that my manners were perfectly easy and graceful, I should not be shy. (109)

Even though he knows his character, he does deceive himself in thinking there is no risk in visiting the Dashwood family. He does not yet know the consequences of his actions, which he learns through reflecting on his behaviour and that of others (see chapter three). Many main characters mislead themselves, and it is through introspection that they gain more knowledge of who they are, and consequently become more able to judge others. In fact, in order to reach this state of self-awareness, the help of others is often needed. Cavell argues that other people can function as incentives to question your beliefs (359), which can be seen with Elizabeth Bennet and Darcy as well as with Anne Elliot and Frederick Wentworth.

who would make you so" (120). She is not afraid to speak her mind and does not shy away from an argument. Her knowledge of herself is already quite extensive, and she does not hesitate to criticise her own sex: "I never saw such a woman" (43). Compared to other characters, Elizabeth is quite aware of who she is and what is good for her, but she also misleads herself. According to Peter L. De Rose, "[intellectually] proud, she deceives herself by confidently over-estimating her ability to judge with ease and accuracy the character and behaviour of others" (202). Elizabeth thinks she is right about Darcy and Wickham, but her opinions are based on prejudices. In retrospect, she admits that Wickham's account of his past was too forward, and that it was inappropriate for him to discuss those matters with her. It is not until Elizabeth reflects and examines herself that she is able to see what misled her (De Rose 210). After reading Mr Darcy's letter, and being forced to admit her and her family's mistakes, Elizabeth gradually increases her knowledge of herself and her behaviour:

"How despicably have I acted!" she cried. "I, who have prided myself on my discernment!I, who have valued myself on my abilities! who have often disdained the generous candour of my sister, and gratified my vanity, in useless or blameable distrust.How humiliating is this discovery!Yet, how just a humiliation!Had I been in love, I could not have been more wretchedly blind. But vanity, not love, has been my folly.Pleased with the preference of one, and offended by the neglect of the other, on the very beginning of our acquaintance, I have courted prepossession and ignorance, and driven reason away, where either were concerned. Till this moment, I never knew myself." (231)

realises how wrong she had been in trusting her prejudice, which resulted in her erroneous belief in Wickham's innocence. According to Jane Spencer, "[the] moment of self-knowledge, revealed by narrative access to the heroine's consciousness, is the turning point of Pride and Prejudice" (153). After this moment, Elizabeth changes her behaviour towards Mr Darcy, as well as towards Wickham. She is ashamed of her conduct and of how easily she believed him. Before, Elizabeth was convinced that she could marry neither Mr Collins nor Mr Darcy, but now that she knows herself better, she is also competent enough to see who is suitable for her, and will not let herself be persuaded to refuse someone.

Anne Elliot, like Elizabeth Bennet, suffers from the pressure of persuasion. After engaging herself to Frederick Wentworth she is discouraged by her friend Lady Russell, and consequently breaks off the attachment. This rejection resulted in much suffering for Anne, and it "clouded every enjoyment of youth" (30). However, Anne has learned to reflect, has become acquainted with herself and now makes her own decisions. Now that Anne is older and knows Wentworth's sister and her husband will be renting Kellynch, she reflects on her engagement that happened more than eight years ago:

Russell's approval of him. She knows he is not the right man for her, and acts contrary to the wishes of her (outward) superiors. In fact, Anne becomes morally superior through her ability to know her status and the way of life that is accompanies it. In contrast, Sir Walter and Elizabeth are not able to reduce their expenses (see chapter four) in order to lessen their debts. K.K. Collins argues that

Anne's self-knowledge is energetic, not static: it is quickened by her ability to question and to explicate her motives, which is the reflex of her knowing how far the self can extend… Persuasion records Anne's continual self-examination as sharply as it exposes Wentworth's long self-deception. (388)

In the case of Persuasion, it is Wentworth that tells himself there is someone better than Anne, and because of this attitude his friends expect him to marry someone else. It is not until Wentworth has time to reflect, that he is able to see that Anne was really the one he wanted. In order to create an equal marriage (see chapter three) Wentworth has to follow Anne in her habits of introspection; it is not until he knows who he is himself that he is able to be equal in their relationship. Levy argues that they have to rediscover their relationship, because it cannot be the same as it was before: "[it] is a new relationship, unfolding in a present in which the past is incorporated as an old knowing" (257). Both characters grow and change through self-reflection and therefore certain elements of the past have to be relinquished in order to know each other again.

Elinor, this eldest daughter whose advice was so effectual, possessed a strength of understanding, and coolness of judgment, which qualified her, though only nineteen, to be the counsellor of her mother… she had an excellent heart;her disposition was affectionate, and her feelings were strong; but she knew how to govern them: it was a knowledge which her mother had yet to learn, and which one of her sisters had resolved never to be taught. (7)

In a conversation with Marianne and Edward about people's characters Elinor promotes reflection in order to come to the right opinion:

"I have frequently detected myself in such kind of mistakes," said Elinor, "in a total misapprehension of character in some point or other: fancying people so much more gay or grave, or ingenious or stupid than they really are, and I can hardly tell why, or in what the deception originated. Sometimes one is guided by what they say of themselves, and very frequently by what other people say of them, without giving oneself time to deliberate and judge." (108)

Her character is very much the opposite of that of her sister Marianne, who is faster in judging and in her responses. Elinor, however, shows that through introspection she is able to develop a well-considered opinion, and she does not share her judgment of others until she is able to reflect on them (Nazar 130). As a result, her ideas about Edward, for example, are very different from Marianne's, because her opinion of Edward, as well as her love for him, are created by more than just an initial impression (Nazar 131). Elinor's system is looking at the person itself, instead of listening to others, and as a result she is able to gain a clear sense of who people really are.

novel it is clear that Elizabeth easily judges people, and more than once on first impressions. As a result, she is unable to assess Mr Darcy correctly, and her bias towards him causes her to believe Wickham instead. The letter and the reflection that follows lead Elizabeth to a clearer sense of what is probable in this situation, and consequently she is able to change not only her beliefs but also her behaviour. Compared to her sister, Jane Bennet is more cautious in her judgment of people. The sisters meet Mr Bingley along with his sisters, and immediately they disagree about the nature of the latter. According to Jane, "they are very pleasing women", but Elizabeth "was not convinced" (16). Once Mr Bingley has left Netherfield Elizabeth is certain that his sisters have taken him away in order to keep him from Jane. The latter, however, is sure that there is a more civil reason and refuses to see fault in them. When she is in London, Jane calls on Miss Bingley, but it takes a long while for her to repay the kindness, and Jane writes to Elizabeth: "I confess myself to have been entirely deceived in Miss Bingley's regard for me" (167), though still believes her to want the best for her brother, instead of acting from jealousy - which Elizabeth already suspects. In the end, however, Jane does see clearly. Bingley has told her that he was unaware that she was in London, and therefore did not visit her. Jane argues:

It must have been his sisters' doing. They were certainly no friends to his acquaintance with me, which I cannot wonder at, since he might have chosen so much more advantageously in many respects. But when they see, as I trust they will, that their brother is happy with me, they will learn to be contented, and we shall be on good terms again; though we can never be what we once were to each other. (387)

conclusions and changes her opinion about Bingley's sisters. She knows now that she was not wrong in believing him to be still in love with her, but her kind nature prevents her from being vindictive.

In Sense and Sensibility, Elinor is the one that reflects and gains a great deal of self-knowledge, and as a result she is able to make independent choices and to convince her mother and sister. As evident from chapter one, Elinor uses silent or solitary moments to reflect on herself, her family, or Edward. She is the only one in her family that regularly examines her mind and character, and is often relied on to make decisions. Moreover, she even induces her mother to reflect on her reaction to John and Fanny Dashwood (7), and encourages her sister to reflect about her behaviour towards Willoughby. According to Kearney, however, "[the] kind of reflection that Jane Austen has in mind is voluntarily chosen by the individual in order to achieve self-understanding and greater awareness of the feelings of others" (114). Consequently, the reflection that Elinor encourages Marianne to do does not have the desired result (see chapter four). Easily persuaded into giving merely moral instead of financial support, John Dashwood does not create an easy situation for Mrs Dashwood and her daughters, and as a result they have to find another suitable place to live. Despite the attempts of Mrs Dashwood and Marianne to move to large houses in the neighbourhood, it is Elinor's advice that enables them to save money. Like Anne Elliot, she knows the status of her family and is able to make allowances, because she knows what they need (30-1).

choose Darcy because she knows he is right for her (see chapter three). This even results in comical situations, as Mrs Bennet - not knowing they are already engaged - asks Elizabeth to "walk out with him again, that he may not be in Bingley's way" (415). Despite these moments, Elizabeth does regret her former attitude towards Darcy, often seen by her family, especially when discussing her engagement with her father: "[how] earnestly did she then wish that her former opinions had been more reasonable, her expressions more moderated" (417). It is clear, however, that she is now acquainted with her own mind and is able to substantiate her opinion:

At length, by repeated assurances that Mr. Darcy was really the object of her choice, by explaining the gradual change which her estimation of him had undergone, relating her absolute certainty that his affection was not the work of a day, but had stood the test of many months suspense, and enumerating with energy all his good qualities, she did conquer her father's incredulity, and reconcile him to the match. (418)

It is not even necessary for Elizabeth to mention what he has done for Lydia and Wickham because her account of her own feelings and mind are enough for her father to be persuaded. It is only through self-reflection that Elizabeth gained this knowledge of herself, and she is now able to exercise it and use it to change the opinion of others.

from perception instead of from prejudice. Elinor Dashwood is able to judge people correctly because she first takes time to reflect on their behaviour, before making assumptions about their character. Because of this habit, she is capable of making intelligent choices for her family. Finally, Anne Elliot has learned to reflect after her rejection of Wentworth and as a result she makes her own choices. It is Frederick Wentworth that, through introspection, finally knows his own mind and is able to see his mistakes.

Chapter Three: Self-Reflection and Others

As discussed in chapter two, through self-reflection people gain a great deal of knowledge of themselves, and as a result they are able to change their mind and behaviour. This change of the mind has its consequences for the way the characters interact with other people, such as family and friends. This reflection is an individual act, but is sometimes encouraged by others and it certainly has its effects on others. As explained earlier, because of her self-knowledge Elizabeth Bennet is able to convince her father of what is right for her. Through self-reflection the heroines compare themselves with members of their family and are able to see the effect they have on others. Not only family, but also friendships are important in Austen's works. Anne Elliot's close relationship to Lady Russell and Elizabeth Bennet's friendship with Charlotte Lucas provide the reader with an insight into the characters' minds, as they convey what they feel in conversation. In addition, Austen's characters often reflect on love, and on the feelings of their admirers. Furthermore, even though Austen's novels conventionally end in marriage, this is not her primary objective. Throughout the narrative it is evident that, through self-reflection, the characters gain a clearer sense of themselves and others, and consequently they are more capable of participating as equals (in a marriage).

in Anne Elliot's opposition to her father. As evident from chapter two, the characters gain a great deal of knowledge of themselves through self-reflection. Knowing themselves also leads to the ability of reflecting on, for instance, family and friends. The heroines reflect on their family in order to gain perspective of their place in society, as well as their own. Before Darcy's letter, Elizabeth does try to soften some of her mother's bluntness, but it is not until after the letter and her extensive reflection - resulting in self-knowledge - that she sees her family and their conduct truthfully:

Similarly to family, friendships are also an important part of these novels, as well as a part of self-reflection. The connections that start within the family are extended to the realm of friendships, and reflecting on these friendships was something Anne loved to do, perhaps more than she cared to admit:

Anne would have been ashamed to have it known, how much more she was thinking of Lyme, and Louisa Musgrove, and all her acquaintance there; how much more interesting to her was the home and the friendship of the Harvilles and Captain Benwick, than her own father's house in Camden-place. (134)

Anne enjoys the company of her friends, but this does result in her having to be in Wentworth's company again, which is difficult given their history together. Anne reflects on this, and she finds herself "by this time growing so much hardened to being in Captain Wentworth's company" (107) that she can feel comfortable in his presence. In order for the couple to rekindle their previous attachment, there is the need for friendship first. Anne recognises this connection when Wentworth helps her when she is tired, which "was an impulse of pure, though unacknowledged friendship" (98). Similarly, Wentworth has to become friends with Mrs. Smith and Lady Russell because they are important to Anne (274). Reflection results in their acceptance of others and it changes - or rather improves - their relationships. The same is equally true for characters who endeavour to cope with relationships of an even more personal kind.

The move towards this equality is evident in all three novels. First, in Persuasion, the final chapters reveal the conversation between Captain Wentworth and Anne Elliot, in which they tell each other what has happened in their lives and minds during recent events. Anne shows throughout the novel that she knows her own mind and is able to make well-considered decisions. According to William H. Magee, "Anne Elliot matures over the years by rejecting socially desirable matches in favor of one based firmly on reciprocal and durable love" (207). Having regretted her decision to reject Wentworth, she also rejects Charles Musgrove, knowing that they are not suited for each other. Anne constantly reflects on Wentworth's behaviour, as well as on her own: "Now, how were his sentiments to be read?" (65). The insight into Anne's mind shows a struggling woman, trying to cope with the loss of this attachment:

Once so much to each other! Now nothing! There had been a time, when of all the large party now filling the drawing-room at Uppercross, they would have found it most difficult to cease to speak to one another… there could have been no hearts so open, no tastes so similar, no feelings so in unison, no countenances so beloved. Now they were as strangers; nay, worse than strangers, for they could never become acquainted. It was a perpetual estrangement. (68-9)

again. For Wentworth, self-reflection resulted in a clearer sense of the consequences of his actions: he made Louisa Musgrove fall in love with him. Through seeing how Anne behaved in Lyme - taking charge of the situation - he realises his mistakes and this is an incentive to reflect on his behaviour. He argues that

till that day, till the leisure for reflection which followed it, he had not understood the perfect excellence of the mind with which Louisa's could so ill bear a comparison… and there [he] begun to deplore the pride, the folly, the madness of resentment, which had kept him from trying to regain her when thrown in his way. (263)

This self-reflection enables Wentworth to enter into a renewed relationship with Anne, because now he knows his mistakes, and is able to confess to her that he misjudged her as a result of his remaining anger (Butler 276). Both he and Anne admit their mistakes, which creates equality in their relationship and causing them (and particularly Anne) to be certain about their choices this time.

[Elizabeth's] power was sinking; every thing must sink under such a proof of family weakness, such an assurance of the deepest disgrace. She could neither wonder nor condemn, but the belief of his self-conquest brought nothing consolatory to her bosom, afforded no palliation of her distress. It was, on the contrary, exactly calculated to make her understand her own wishes; and never had she so honestly felt that she could have loved him, as now, when all love must be vain. (306)

different view of others. Austen places emphasis on internal change by giving a detailed insight into the heroine's mind, instead of merely having the expected wedding at the end. The result of introspection is the capability to control feelings and the change of opinions. Spencer argues:

Witty Elizabeth, deceived by appearances and unwary in conversation, has learned to weigh things in her mind, and as a result she improves not only in judgment but in feeling, learning not only to be fair to Darcy but to love him. (171)

When comparing Elizabeth to Marianne Dashwood, the latter places a great deal more emphasis on feeling and intuition, which does not lead to the desired results. However, it is evident in Elizabeth's emotional growth that by first reflecting on aspects of her life she is able to allow herself to feel as well - first she knows she is happy, and later on also feels it.

Despite focusing primarily on the development of the heroine's mind, Austen is also concerned with that of the male counterpart. In all these novels it is not only Elizabeth, Elinor, Marianne and Anne who need to reform, but also (most of) the men that they eventually marry. Austen provides the reader with access to the heroine's consciousness, but through conversations the thoughts and reflections of the hero become known as well. The relationship between the men and women in Austen's novels has been discussed thoroughly, and Patrick Fessenbecker states that

This assertion that it is only the girl who has a faulty nature, and that the man is her teacher, is certainly irrelevant in Pride and Prejudice and Persuasion, and even in Sense and Sensibility this does not seem right when looking at Elinor and Edward. The attachment between Colonel Brandon and Marianne might be labelled as an unbalanced relationship - but even in this case it is not the man that brings the girl to self-reflection and reason. On the contrary, it is her illness and the conduct of her sister that make Marianne commit to self-reflection and change. In all three novels the man has as much need of introspection as the woman, in order for them to gain "mutual recognition" (Fessenbecker 761), and to become equals.

Edward Ferrars, in Sense and Sensibility, must first gain a clear sense of his own self-deception in order to become an equal for Elinor. He is facing difficult circumstances and has to manage the complex situation he finds himself in. Being secretly engaged to Lucy Steele, Edward tries to deceive himself that he does not have feelings for Elinor, even though she already guesses the true nature of his regard. She tells Marianne: "In my heart I feel little  scarcely any doubt of his preference" (25), but her confidence is shaken by Edward's behaviour. At the end of the novel Edward explains his feelings to Elinor:

I was simple enough to think, that because my faith was plighted to another, there could be no danger in my being with you; and that the consciousness of my engagement was to keep my heart as safe and sacred as my honour. I felt that I admired you, but I told myself it was only friendship; and till I began to make comparisons between yourself and Lucy, I did not know how far I was got. After that, I suppose, I was wrong in remaining so much in Sussex, and the arguments with which I reconciled myself to the expediency of it, were no better than these:

Edward's ignorance about the consequences of his actions results in a great deal of pain with Elinor, because she is aware of what he really feels. The variation in the way he behaves towards her confuses her, and sometimes she even thinks it is no more than friendship. Consequently Edward's self-deception has a great deal more victims than just himself, and it is only through remaining himself - such as honouring his engagement to Lucy - that he eventually frees himself. Additionally, it is not until he recognises his self-deception and reflects on his behaviour that he is able to apologise to Elinor. Edward is now free and capable of being an equal to Elinor, and able to acknowledge her superiority compared to Lucy.

Mr Darcy is brought to self-reflection by Elizabeth's accusations, and consequently changes into someone more suitable for an equal marriage. For both Darcy and Elizabeth the first proposal is an incentive for self-reflection, after which a period of gradual change follows. According to Butler,

[the] confrontation between these two central characters naturally brings about mutual illumination, not because one has opposite qualities which the other must learn to adopt, but because each discovers the other to be worthy of respect: the very admission of the value of an opponent forces both Elizabeth and Darcy to be more humble about themselves. (208)

After his second proposal and Elizabeth's acceptance, Darcy relates to her the impact of her words:

Darcy explains he has always been proud and independent, because his parents raised him that way. His over-valuation of himself made sure that there was no doubt in his mind about Elizabeth's reply to his first proposal, but here he is taught a lesson. He states: "By you, I was properly humbled" (410); Elizabeth is the one that teaches him to review his own conduct. During and after Elizabeth's visit to Pemberley, it had been Darcy's object to show her how much he had changed - and this is what Elizabeth recognises in their conversation: "think no more of the letter. The feelings of the person who wrote, and the person who received it, are now so widely different from what they were then" (409, my italics). Again, self-reflection results in change, because now that both characters have a clearer sense of what they are themselves, they also know more of what they need and what they can give the other. At the first proposal, Elizabeth famously told Darcy that he was "the last man in the world whom [she] could ever be prevailed on to marry" (215), but now that she knows her own faults, she can see that "he was exactly the man, who, in disposition and talents, would most suit her" (344). Darcy already loved Elizabeth, but by changing his manner towards her and her family he is able to show Elizabeth their compatibility.

become suitable for marriage - or rather an equal relationship - both men and women need to reflect on themselves first in order to change.

Chapter Four: Lack of Self-Reflection

Considering the positive effects of introspection, it is not difficult to assume there are negative consequences for people that lack introspection. Austen provides an abundance of superficial characters who do not seem to analyse themselves or others. As argued in chapter one, self-reflection takes place during silences; solitary walks or shrubberies can be used by the characters to examine themselves. Therefore, when the narrator describes that Sir John and Lady Middleton desperately desire their meetings to be full of card games or eating, "or any other game that was sufficiently noisy" (163), Edward Copeland argues in his notes to Sense and Sensibility that this is a "signal of vacancy of mind" (468n4). On the other hand, more intelligent characters, such as Mrs Smith in Persuasion, are described as having "elasticity of mind, that disposition to be comforted, that power of turning readily from evil to good" (167). This is the opposite of Anne's sister Mary, who is more than ready to find fault in anything and anyone but herself. Sometimes Austen describes characters as people who lack self-knowledge, which can be a result of a lack of self-reflection. In Pride and Prejudice, Mr Collins cannot believe Elizabeth rejects him, because "he thought too well of himself to comprehend on what motive his cousin could refuse him" (125). Mr Collins' high regard of himself causes him to be blind to the feelings of others, as well as ignorant about their characters. The inability to change, to control money, or behaving inappropriately are all typical attributes for people that do not examine themselves, and Austen introduces these characters in order to distinguish the ones that do. By doing so, she is able to emphasise the worth of self-reflection and to promote it.

(10). It is not until Sir Walter is convinced that moving to Bath and letting his house will not damage his reputation, that is he able to accept and move away. The lack of self-reflection leads to an incapability to change, and as a result Sir Walter needs to be 'forced' into a different lifestyle. There is a similar situation in Sense and Sensibility, where Mrs Dashwood is forced to listen to Elinor's counsel. Since Mrs Dashwood cannot judge her own changed situation, she is unable to change along with it, resulting in awful situations if it were not for the counsel and intervention of Elinor (16).

Mr Bennet has difficulties controlling the expenses of his family, and due to mismanagement he faces troubles when Lydia elopes with Mr Wickham. Despite a reasonable annual income of £2,000 he fails to save money for dowries. After receiving Mr Gardiner's letter about the solution he suggests to Lydia's situation, it is revealed that Mr and Mrs Bennet never economised because they expected to have a son. Since that did not happen, he regrets his former expenses: "Mr Bennet had very often wished, before this period of his life, that, instead of spending his whole income, he had laid by an annual sum… He now wished it more than ever" (340). The fact that even with the arrangement he will still have around the same amount of money left - note Lydia's expenses (341) - implies the lack of economy in the Bennet household. Even though it was Mrs Bennet who used to spoil her favourite, it was Mr Bennet's lack of authority that created this situation. Robert D. Hume argues that, instead of the lovable character many people consider him to be, Mr Bennet was actually a very irresponsible man. He was the one to blame for this situation, not Mrs Bennet's expenses. Hume states that:

with a wife (and perhaps children) had to be aware of survivorship issues and the urgent need for savings that would provide for a widow and orphans. (307, 308) After the change of his future as he expected it - the birth of a son - Mr Bennet fails to reflect and take precautions for his progeny. He is unsuccessful in altering his expenses and cannot start saving, resulting in a possible tragedy after Lydia's elopement. Still, after he hears about Darcy's involvement, he does not appear to be remorseful, but rather happy that his daughter's lover paid the money. Knowing Mr Darcy will deny his request to pay him back, on account of his love for Elizabeth, Mr Bennet feels content that there is no more need for economy or change. This irresponsibility is also clear for his daughters to see, as Jane says that: "Imprudence or thoughtlessness in money matters, would be unpardonable in me" (386). Seeing the results of the lack of self-reflection in these matters evidently encourages the more clever daughters to resolve on a different lifestyle in the future. Ignorant daughters, such as for instance Lydia herself, rather rely on their wealthier sisters in order to maintain their way of life, instead of reflecting and changing their inappropriate behaviour.

example of someone displaying inappropriate behaviour is Lydia Bennet, who lacks the judgment of propriety. Even her (irresponsible) father is desperate and allows her to go away with Colonel Forster and his wife. After her elopement with Mr Wickham, Lydia and her husband visits Longbourn before moving to the north. She boasts about her marriage and shows no remorse, even when Elizabeth remarks "I do not particularly like your way of getting husbands" (351). There is no sign of shame in her conduct, which might occur if she would submit her mind to serious reflection. On the other hand there is also the conduct of Lydia's sister Mary; she gains her knowledge from conduct books and is not afraid to tell her family what she has learned. Mary seems unaware of the impropriety of her remarks; she even seems proud to contribute to the conversation with a wise lesson:

"Pride," observed Mary, who piqued herself upon the solidity of her reflections, "is a very common failing I believe. By all that I have ever read, I am convinced that it is very common indeed, that human nature is particularly prone to it." (21) These observations, however, do not contribute to the conversation, but instead are ignored by her company. Mary might appear clever, but she only derives her knowledge from books about morality, and as a result she is unaware of herself and the inappropriateness of her remarks with which she shields herself from actually deliberating her own feelings (Price 268). By focussing on the manners of others, she neglects herself, and is consequently neglected by others.

(225). Despite coming from the upper classes in society, all three men act the same and have their own interest at heart. Byrne argues that for Austen "true good breeding comes not from birth, station or social nuance, but from the heart" (304). These men do not reflect on themselves and on the consequences their behaviour might have - Mr Collins is even persistent in believing that Elizabeth refuses him in order to tease him. Because there is no reflection, there is no change in behaviour; Marianne Dashwood is perhaps the best example of this. Once her illness forces her to reflect, she realises that her behaviour caused a great deal of trouble to her family. The reflection is the defining moment of change, and once the characters see themselves more clearly, they are able to judge others as well.

By cautiously stating that this union would be more desirable than another one - that of Edward and Elinor - John hurts Elinor's feelings. His lack of judgment becomes increasingly clear in another conversation with Elinor about the living Colonel Brandon has given Edward. Elinor argues that it does not matter whether Mrs Ferrars takes notion of this since she has already disowned Edward. John, however, disagrees:

"Ah! Elinor," said John, "your reasoning is very good, but it is founded on ignorance of human nature. When Edward's unhappy match takes place, depend on it his mother will feel as much as if she had never discarded him… Mrs. Ferrars can never forget that Edward is her son."

"You surprise me; I should think it must nearly have escaped her memory by this time."

"You wrong her exceedingly. Mrs. Ferrars is one of the most affectionate mothers in the world."

Elinor was silent. (335-6)

My dear Charlotte and I have but one mind and one way of thinking. There is in every thing a most remarkable resemblance of character and ideas between us. We seem to have been designed for each other. (239)

This comment seems out of place when keeping in mind Charlotte's comfort with not seeing him for a whole day. This extra information, gained through intelligent conversation and reflection by people such as Elizabeth and Elinor, results in adding more comical effect to these characters who lack introspection. Furthermore, they emphasise the judgment of those who do reflect, revealing them to be wiser and better.

instance, Marianne is forced into recollection - note the difference with reflection explained in chapter one - and after "a ten minutes' interval of earnest thought" she admits that she was wrong: "perhaps, Elinor, it was rather ill-judged in me to go to Allenham" (80). Despite acknowledging her mistake, Marianne is not inspired to change her behaviour or even her opinions; on the contrary, she continues her confession by describing every delightful detail of the house. Despite being able to reflect on herself and her actions, Marianne still decides not to act appropriately. Willoughby has the same kind of temper; he knows himself very well - as evident through his confession to Elinor - but refuses to act correctly, and exposes Marianne to unsuitable behaviour.

Marianne's determination to feel miserable after her discovery of Willoughby's conduct - "I must be wretched" (216) - results in her sickness, which eventually induces her serious self-reflection and with that, a change in her behaviour and opinions. In the past she was convinced that Mrs Jennings and Mr and Mrs John Dashwood were not worth talking to, and her opinion of Colonel Brandon was that he was an old man, without significance. The result of her illness, however, is that she dedicated herself to reflection about her former behaviour:

Elinor… now saw with a joy, which no other could equally share, an apparent composure of mind, which, in being the result as she trusted of serious reflection, must eventually lead her to contentment and cheerfulness. (387)

Marianne's previous 'earnest thought' and recollection are not sufficient; it is serious reflection that makes her committed to change. She alters her behaviour towards her family and their company; she is now kind to Mrs Jennings (386) and, having "[discovered] the falsehood of her own opinions" (429), she is capable of marrying the man whom she once thought too old and unsuitable for her. Marianne now despises her previous character and conduct, and is able to examine herself without prejudice (Haggerty 227). This objectivity results in Marianne resolving to be friendly and polite to the people around her and to study hard in order to improve herself. After devoting herself to serious introspection Marianne changed into a person capable of making coherent and rational choices.

The purpose of representing these characters who lack self-reflection in several ways is twofold: firstly to emphasise the worth of those that do reflect, and secondly to teach introspection to the audience. The emphasis on the worth of others is evident throughout Persuasion, in the comparison of the three sisters. When reflecting on the behaviour of Henrietta and Louisa Musgrove, Anne

envied them nothing but that seemingly perfect good understanding and agreement together, that good-humoured mutual affection, of which she had known so little herself with either of her sisters. (43-4)

Anne's sisters do not care for her, and merely use her - note Mary's dependence on Anne during her sickness, as well as Elizabeth's feigned happiness upon Anne's arrival to Bath - but Anne herself is happy to be of use. The comparison between her and her sisters is noteworthy; and Austen explicitly mentions the difference with Mary:

By stating that Elizabeth is very similar to Sir Walter (5), Austen conveys that she is also vain, and poor at economising. She did not contribute to the conversation about letting the house as Anne did, or at least not as realistically. Throughout the novel and Elizabeth's preference for Mrs Clay it is evident that Elizabeth is not fond of Anne, especially when Mr Elliot's interest goes out to the latter. As argued, Mary behaves inappropriately and by making a scene when someone has to accompany Wentworth and Henrietta to the Musgroves, it is Anne's forbearance that is most admirable. Consequently, through the failure of both sisters, it is Anne's success that becomes apparent. It shows not only Wentworth that she is changed into a strong and confident woman, but also the audience that her judgment is the one to be trusted.

By comparing these non-reflecting characters with those that do reflect, shows the audience the worth of reflection. It is evident that through thorough introspection Marianne gains knowledge about herself and her conduct, is able to compare herself to others, as well as make a plan for the future. Looking at John Dashwood's character might encourage readers to think before they speak; observing Sir Walter or Wickham might increase the reader's awareness of how to - or rather how not to - manage money problems. This didactical element is enforced by the comical elements that John's ignorance enhances. By ridiculing the narrow-minded characters, Austen emphasises and promotes the individuals that submit themselves to introspection.

Conclusion

During the eighteenth and nineteenth century, the Anglican Church encouraged people to reflect in order to be able to repent. The soul and the mind had to be examined so that people could attend Holy Communion without objection. Mooneyham White even argues that "serious reflection or meditation in Austen thus means prayer" (60). She bases this on the use of the word 'serious', which, according to her, is used mainly in religious contexts. This, however, is not what I found when closely examining these novels. For Austen's characters, self-reflection constitutes change, and especially in secular situations. For instance, when Marianne Dashwood reconsiders her choices and behaviour, she does not examine the Bible in order to find an example (as promoted by Austen's church), but rather looks to her sister Elinor. The fact that characters change is vital: it is not until they have a clear sense of their own identity that they can also alter their behaviour and opinions. Once they are aware of their personality, the change becomes a necessity. Self-knowledge implies that the character knows the impact his or her conduct has had on others, which enables that person to adjust and reconcile.

for self-reflection, and Austen provides these in shrubberies or solitary walks, and not in religious situations such as churches. I argued that Elizabeth often walks outside in order to gain more insight into her own mind, and it is in these walks that she discovers who she is.

In chapter two I have argued that the knowledge that derives from self-reflection can be used in various situations. Anne Elliot chooses her own friends, instead of listening to her father's wishes. Austen values this independence in her heroines: Elinor Dashwood saves her family from ruin on several occasions. It is also evident that the heroines, by knowing their own minds, are able to admit their mistakes and change opinions about friends or family. Elinor, for example, knows the true nature of Edward Ferrars because she did not base her opinion of him on first impressions.

The knowledge that the characters have of themselves changes their interaction with others, as discussed in chapter three. Elizabeth Bennet, for example, led to self-reflection by Darcy's letter, changes her attitude towards him because she understands herself as well as his actions better. In addition, whereas some scholars have argued that Austen's novels often involve a superior man and an inferior woman who has to be taught to behave correctly, I conclude that the men have to reflect and change as well. As a result, an attachment of equals is created, with marriage as its outcome.

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Appendix

The table above provides a word frequency analysis of certain words in the novels. I obtained the digital versions of the novels from the Project Gutenberg Corpus, and looked at the important words in both religious and secular contexts. The outcomes contain the varying forms of the words: "prayer" also includes "pray", except the instances where it is used for "please". The results for "recollection" include "recollect", "recollection(s)", "recollecting", as well as "recollected". Similarly for "reflection": "reflect", "reflection(s)", "reflecting", and "reflected" are included in the results.

Word Sense and Sensibility Pride and Prejudice Persuasion Total