White Ash and Black Coal: The Perception of Race in Modern China 1793-1949.

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WHITE ASH AND BLACK COAL THE PERCEPTION OF RACE

IN MODERN CHINA (1793-1949)

Frank Dikotter

P h D in M o d e r n C h i n e s e H i s t o r y

iOftDiN.

V UNIV.

School of Oriental and A f r i c a n Studies U n i v e r s i t y of L o n d o n

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A B S T R A C T

R a c e r e l a t i o n s h a v e o f t e n b e e n c o n s i d e r e d a m a j o r p r o b l e m of m o d e r n s o c i et i e s . In h i s t o r y , h o w e v e r , r e s e a r c h on rac e r e l a t i o n s and r a c i a l t h e o r i e s has be e n a l m o s t e x c l u s i v e l y c e n t r e d u p o n the W e s t e r n - r e l a t e d f a c e t s of the p r o b l e m : it is a s s u m e d that r a c i s m can onl y be a w h i t e p h e n o m e n o n u n d e r w h i c h o t h e r p e o p l e , lumped t o g e t h e r u n d e r the h e a d i n g " c o l o u r e d " , h a d to suffer. The n a r r o w foc u s of s u c h h i s t o r i c a l r e s e a r c h , w h i c h can be e x p l a i n e d by the v i v i d s e n s e of g u i l t of m o d e r n W e s t e r n s o c i e t y and by a still d o m i n a n t f e e l i n g of e u r o c e n t r i s m , has d i s t o r t e d our c o m p r e h e n s i o n of racial m a t t e r s in non- W e s t e r n c o u n t r i e s . In Chi n a, the n o t i o n of "race"

a p p e a r e d at the end of the n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y a n d was c o n s i d e r e d a vital p r o b l e m by m o s t i n t e l l e c t u a l s . T h o u g h the i m p o r t a n c e of s u c h c o n c e r n has b e e n r e c o g n i z e d by sev e r a l h i s t o r i a n s , it h a s b e e n h a s t i l y a s c r i b e d to ei t h e r C h i n e s e " x e n o p h o b i a " , a c o n c e p t r a r e l y d e f i n e d , or to the e f f e c t s of "soc i a l D a r w i n i s m " , an e q u a l l y v a g ue term. T h e first c h a p t e r of this thesis p r e s e n t s the h i s t o r i c a l b a c k g r o u n d of C h i n e s e racial t h eories. It i n t r o d u c e s a b r o a d s p e c t r u m of m a t e r i a l p e r t a i n i n g to the t r a d i t i o n a l a t t i t u d e s t o w a r d s k i n colour, the social p e r c e p t i o n of p h y s i c a l d i f f e r e n c e s , the con c e p t of the

" b a r b a r i a n s " , e n v i r o n m e n t a l d e t e r m i n i s m , a nd g e o g r a p h i c a l

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n o t i o n s . It a l s o r e v i e w s the m a i n e t h n o c e n t r i c theor i e s , i n c l u d i n g a n t i - B u d d h i s m of the f o u r t h an d fifth c e n t ur i e s , S o n g loyal ism an d a n t i - M a n c h u t hought. The s e c o n d c h a p t e r c o v e r s the p e r i o d r a n g i n g f r o m 1793 to the S i n o - J a p a n e s e W a r of 1895. It b r i e f l y a n a l y z e s the f o r m a t i o n a n d c o m p o s i t i o n of rac i a l s t e r e o t y p e s , w h i c h a r o s e as a r e s u l t of e t h n i c c o n t a c t s in the p o r t s o p e n to f o r e i g n e r s . T h e n e x t c h a p t e r d i s c u s s e s the reformers' p e r c e p t i o n of r a c e ( 1 8 9 5 -1 9 0 2 ) . It f o c u s e s m a i n l y on the w o r k s of L i a n g Q i c h a o , T a n g C a i c h a n g an d K a n g Y o u w e i , but als o c o n s i d e r s o t h e r w r i t e r s w h o w e r e p r e o c c u p i e d w i t h the idea of race. C h a p t e r four is c o n s t r u c t e d a r o u n d the idea of rac e as n a t i o n , w h i c h a p p e a r e d in C h i n a a r o u n d 1902. It s t u d i e s the c o n c e p t u a l link b e t w e e n racial t h e o r i e s an d the e m e r g e n c e of the n a t i o n - s t a t e concept.

C h a p t e r fi v e is c e n t r e d on the p e r c e p t i o n of race as sp e c ie s : h o w d i d the C h i n e s e e x p l a i n the o r i g i n of their o w n "race"; h o w was the idea of racial e v o l u t i o n h a n d l e d ; h o w w e r e f o r e i g n r a c es t r e a t e d in a n t h r o p o l o g i c a l works;

h o w w e r e racial d i f f e r e n c e s e x p l a i n e d ? T h e last c h a p t e r c o v e r s the sam e p e r i o d as c h a p t e r five ( 1 9 1 5 - 1 9 4 9 ) , but is d e v o t e d e x c l u s i v e l y to eu g e n i c s , the p s e u d o - s c i e n c e of r a c e i m p r o v e m e n t . T h e p o p u l a r i t y of e u g e n i c s in the 1930s r e f l e c t e d a n x i e t y a b ou t the n a t i o n ' s racial health:

i n t e l l e c t u a l s w e r e t o r m e n t e d b y the idea of racial d e g e n e r a t i o n in the face of f o r e i g n a g g r e s s i o n . An e p i l o g u e b r i e f l y d i s c u s s e s the p e r c e p t i o n of rac e after 1949.

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R a d i c a l s t u d e n t s a n d the p r e s e r v a t i o n of the r a c e 170 T h e d e s c e n d a n t s of the Y e l l o w E m p e r o r 181 T h e N a t i o n a l E s s e n c e G r o u p and the idea of race 186 S un Y a t s e n a n d the p r i n c i p l e of n a t i o n a l i s m 192

C o n c l u s i o n 196

P A R T T H R E E 198

5. R a c e as S p e c i e s ( 1 9 1 5 - 1 9 4 9 ) 199

I n t r o d u c t i o n 199

T h e e v o l u t i o n of b a r b a r i a n s p e c i e s 200

In s e a r c h of o r i g i n s 203

S ki n c o l o u r a n d p h y s i c a l a n t h r o p o l o g y 209 H a i r a nd p h y s i c a l a n t h r o p o l o g y 211

R a c e a n d o d o u r 217

C r a n i o l o g y 218

T h e d a r k e r r a c e s 223

R a c i a l t a x o n o m y 229

T r a n s l a t i o n s 232

I n t e r r a c i a l s t r u g g l e 235

R a c e in t e x t b o o k s 239

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T h e s u p e r i o r i t y - i n f e r i o r i t y c o m p l e x C o n c l u s ion

242 249

6. R a c e as G e n e s ( 1 9 1 5 - 1 9 4 9 ) 251

I n t r o d u c t i o n 251

T a i j i a o or p r e n a t a l e d u c a t i o n 252

Y u a n H u a n g a n d b l o o d p u r i t y 255

T h e o r i e s on p o p u l a t i o n q u a l i t y 257 T h e i n c i p i e n t s t a g e of m o d e r n e u g e n i c s 260

T h e f l o u r i s h i n g of e u g e n i c s 263

P a n G u a n g d a n a n d the p o p u l a r i z a t i o n of e u g e n i c s 271

N a t u r e v e r s u s n u r t u r e 277

E u g e n i c e n t h u s i a s m 284

C o n c l u s i o n 295

7. E p i l o g u e : R a c e as C l a s s (194 9 - ? ) 298

A f t e r t h o u g h t 304

B i b l i o g r a p h y 306

p r i m a r y s o u r c e s 306

s e c o n d a r y s o u r c e s 325

C h i n e s e c h a r a c t e r s a p p e a r i n g in the b i b l i o g r a p h y 345

G l o s s a r y 353

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A C K N O W L E D G E M E N T S

I am v e r y f o r t u n a t e to h a v e w r i t t e n m y the s i s u n d e r the s u p e r v i s i o n of P r o f e s s o r T.H. B a r r e t t , School of O r i e n t a l and A f r i c a n S t u d i e s , U n i v e r s i t y of Lond o n . I w o u l d like to e x p r e s s m y p r o f o u n d g r a t i t u d e for his e n t h u s i a s m , g u i d a n c e and supp o r t . I w i s h to t h a n k R.G.

T i e d e m a n n , of the sa m e i n s t i t u t i o n , w h o was also m o s t g e n e r o u s w i t h his ti m e a nd k n o w l e d g e . To m y t e a c h e r P r o f e s s o r L a d i s l a s M y s y r o w i c z , U n i v e r s i t y of G e n e v a , I am d e e p l y g r a t e f u l for i n t e l l e c t u a l g u i d a n c e and e n c o u r a g e m e n t . W i t h o u t his u n f a i l i n g s u p p o r t , this thesis w o u l d not h av e b e e n p o s s i b l e .

I a c k n o w l e d g e w i t h g r a t i t u d e a two y e a r ' s s c h o l a r s h i p of the F o n d s N a t i o n a l S u i s s e de la R e c h e r c h e S c i e n t i f i q u e , g e n e r o u s l y g r a n t e d b y the C o m m i s s i o n de R e c h e r c h e of the U n i v e r s i t y of G en e v a . A g r a n t f r o m the B r i t i s h C o u n c i l C e n t r a l R e s e a r c h F u n d and an A d d i t i o n a l A w a r d for F i e l d w o r k of the School of O r i e n t a l a n d A f r i c a n S t u d i e s e n a b l e d f i e l d w o r k in H o n g K o n g an d T a i w a n d u r i n g the s u m m e r of 1988.

I w i s h to e x p r e s s m y g r a t i t u d e to P r o f e s s o r J e r o m e C h ’en, Y o r k U n i v e r s i t y , P r o f e s s o r F r e d e r i c W a k e m a n , U n i v e r s i t y of C a l i f o r n i a , P r o f e s s o r E r i k Ziircher, U n i v e r s i t y of L e i d e n , an d E r i k M a e d e r for their e n c o u r a g i n g and h e l p f u l r e s p o n s e s to an e a r l y r e s e a r c h

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plan. P r o f e s s o r C h ' e n , w h o s e C h i n a an d the West g r e a t l y c o n t r i b u t e d to s t i m u l a t e m y i n t e r es t in m o d e r n C h i n e s e h i s t o r y , k i n d l y c o m m e n t e d on s u b s e q u e n t r e s e a r c h o u t l i n e s . I w o u l d a l s o like to c o n v e y m y a p p r e c i a t i o n to P r o f e s s o r J e a n - C l a u d e Fav e z , U n i v e r s i t y of G e n e v a , Dr.

A . H . Y . Lin, U n i v e r s i t y of H o n g K o n g , P r o f e s s o r H e r m a n M a s t III, U n i v e r s i t y of C o n n e c t i c u t , an d C h a r l e s d ’Orba n , L i b r a r i a n at the Sch o o l of O r i e n t a l a n d A f r i c a n Stud i e s . M a n y t h a n k s to Dr. P.M. T h o m p s o n a nd to L i l l i a n Chia, S O A S , for h a v i n g a s s i s t e d m e so k i n d l y w i t h the C h i n e s e c h a r a c t e r p r o c e s s i n g .

I owe a p a r t i c u l a r debt of g r a t i t u d e to m y friends.

G i l l i a n M a c r a e a n d Lar s L a a m a n n not o n l y re a d the w h o l e of the t h e s i s and m a d e m a n y c o r r e c t i o n s and p e r t i n e n t c o m m e n t s , but a l s o g a v e m e the b e n e f i t of m a n y h o u r s of d i s c u s s i o n . For s u g g e s t i o n s , i n s p i r a t i o n and d r i n k s , I am i n d e b t e d to m a n y o t h e r f r i e n d s w h o s e i n f l u e n c e is r e f l e c t e d in t h es e pages. 1 p a r t i c u l a r l y w i s h to thank Fethi A y a c h e , C l a u d e B o u g u e t , M a r t i n J e l e n i c , P a t r i c k M c G i n n and X i o n g M e i .

As a m a t t e r of fact, the r e s p o n s i b i l i t y for the v i e w s e x p r e s s e d in this thesis, as for e r ro r s and o m i s s i o n s , is m i n e alone.

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"Do y o u k n o w the s t o r y about the o r i g i n of the w o r l d ’s h u m a n r a c e s ? T h i s is a v e r s i o n u n i q u e

to us H a k k a p e o p l e . B e f o r e , w h e n t h e r e was no trace of m a n b n earth, Tai B a i x i a n d e c i d e d to c r e a t e m a n k i n d . H e u s e d clay, just like w e m a k e p o t t e r y or p o r c e l a i n , a n d a f t e r h a v i n g m o l d e d it into a h u m a n figure, he e n t e r e d it into the k i l n to bake.

T h e fir s t o n e b a k e d for too long, and was b a d l y bur n t : he w as all bla c k ! T h i s was not so good, an d Tai B a i x i a n t h r e w h i m away, p u t t i n g f o r t h all hi s s t r e n g t h , t h r o w i n g h i m r e a l l y far. He t hr e w h i m to A f r i c a , h e n c e a f t e r w a r d s all the p e o p l e in A f r i c a w e r e black.

As a r es u l t of the first f ai l u r e , the s e c o n d one w a s b a k e d m o r e c a r e f u l l y . He was a l l o w e d to b a k e o n l y for a l i t t l e w h i l e a nd tak en out of the kiln. Look: too white! T hi s w a s n ' t too g o o d e ither, a n d Tai B a i x i a n a g a i n t h r e w h i m away.

T h i s time, he thr e w h i m a l i t t l e closer. He t h r e w h i m to E u r o p e , h e n c e a f t e r w a r d s all the p e o p l e in E u r o p e w e r e white.

E x p e r i e n c e n o w a l l o w e d the t h i r d one to be b a k e d to p e r f e c t i o n : not too long, not too short. P r e t t y good! N e i t h e r b l a c k nor whit e, but all y e l l o w . Tai B a i x i a n was v e r y s a t i s f i e d , a nd put h i m on the grou n d . H e n c e a f t e r w a r d s all the p e o p l e in A s i a w e r e y e l l o w . "

T a i w a n K e j i a s u w e n x u e (Folk l i t e r a t u r e of the H a k k a in T a i w a n ) , r e t o l d by Z h o u Q i n g h u a , T ai p e i : D o n g f a n g w e n h u a

shuju, 1971, pp. 1 4 9 - 1 5 0 .

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INTRODUCTION

"We are s h a m e f u l l y h u m i l i a t e d by the four [W estern] n a t i o n s , not b e c a u s e our c limate, soil, or p r o d u c t s are i nferior, but a c t u a l l y b e c a u s e our p e o p l e are i n f e r i o r (...) Ou r

i n f e r i o r i t y is not d u e to n a t u r e , it is i n f e r i o r i t y d u e to o u r s e l v e s . If it w er e inborn, it w o u l d be a shame, but a s h a m e we c o u l d not do a n y t h i n g about. S i n c e the i n f e r i o r i t y is du e to o u r s e l v e s , it is still a g r e a t e r shame, but a s h a m e w e can do s o m e t h i n g a b o u t ."1

F e n g G u i f e n ( 1 8 0 9 - 1 8 7 4 ) p r o p o s e d the a d o p t i o n of W e s t e r n m i l i t a r y t e c h n o l o g y as a m e a n s of d e f e n d i n g C h i n a and s t r e n g t h e n i n g the t r a d i t i o n a l C h i n e s e c i v i l i z a t i o n a g a i n s t the W e s t . T h o u g h F e n g ' s r e c o g n i t i o n of W e s t e r n m i l i t a r y s u p e r i o r i t y wa s q u i t e o u t s t a n d i n g for his days, his d i s t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n i n na t e ( t i a n f u ) i n f e r i o r i t y and a c q u i r e d (renzi) i n f e r i o r i t y was r a t h e r t r a d i t i o n a l . H o n g L i a n g j i ( 1 7 4 6 - 1 8 0 9 ) , for i n stance, h a d u n d e r l i n e d that the i n b o r n n a t u r e of l i v i n g o r g a n i s m s h a d a b i g g e r impact u p o n their l o n g e v i t y than their e n v i r o n m e n t :

"T h e l o n g e v i t y of a m a n is d e t e r m i n e d by his i n n a t e w e a k n e s s or s t r e n g t h . . . Let us e x a m i n e the leaves of a flower. W h e n the leaf is on the tree, it will d r o p s o o n e r or later. S o m e leaves

1 F e n g G u i f e n , "Zhi y a n g q i yi" (Views c o n c e r n i n g the m a n u f a c t u r e of f o r e i g n i n s t r u m e n t s ) in J i a o b i n l u kangyi ( P r o t e s t s f r o m the J i a o b i n s t u d i o ) , T a i p e i : W e n h a i c h u b a n s h e , 1971, pp. 5 8 b - 59 a .

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will go b e y o n d their tim e an d fall later. If i r r i g a t e d p r o p e r l y , it will be like the [ a r t i f i c i a l ] c o n s e r v a t i o n of man . But w h e t h e r a leaf will fall s o o n e r or later is like the i n n a t e w e a k n e s s or s t r e n g t h of man. All the leaves c a n n o t but fall. W h a t e v e r their innate s t r e n g t h or w e a k n e s s , all wil l e q u a l l y end...

N o r is t h e r e a n y e t e r n i t y for man. T h e d e s t i n y of m a n can b e long or short, a nd this will d e p e n d u p o n h is i n n a t e w e a k n e s s or s t r e n g t h . " 1

By d i s t i n g u i s h i n g b e t w e e n n a t u r e a n d n u r t u r e in their d i s c u s s i o n of the M i d d l e K i n g d o m ' s s h o r t c o m i n g s , F e n g G u i f e n and o t h e r p r o p o n e n t s of r e f o r m c o u l d m a i n t a i n intact a vital pa r t of the t r a d i t i o n a l C h i n e s e w o r l d view: the u n s h a k a b l e b e l i e f in C h i n e s e s u p e r i o r i t y over a n y t h i n g fore i g n . If F e n g c o n c e d e d that C h i n a was i n f e r i o r to the W e s t w i t h r e s p e c t to s c i e n t i f i c k n o w l e d g e an d t e c h n o l o g i c a l d e v e l o p m e n t , it was o n l y to r e a s s e r t the i n n a t e s u p e r i o r i t y of C h i n e s e t ra d i t i o n : "The i n t e l l i g e n c e and r e s o u r c e f u l n e s s of C h i n a are c e r t a i n l y s u p e r i o r to t h o s e of the v a r i o u s b a r b a r i a n s . " 3

C o n s i s t e n t f a i l u r e to s t r e n g t h e n the c o u n t r y in the fa c e of f o r e i g n e n c r o a c h m e n t s , h o w e v e r , led some C h i n e s e i n t e l l e c t u a l s to q u e s t i o n the p r e s u m e d i nherent s u p e r i o r i t y of their p e o p l e . F r o m the end of the n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y o n w ar d s , an i n c r e a s i n g n u m b e r of s c h o l a r s b e c a m e c o n c e r n e d w i t h the c o m p a r a t i v e b i o l o g i c a l f o u n d a t i o n s of C h i n e s e an d W e s t e r n e r s : "race" m a d e its a p p e a r a n c e on the i n t e l l e c t u a l scene. Thi s thesis is

2 H o n g L i a n g j i , " Y a o s h o u p i a n " (On l o n g e v i t y ) in H o n g B e i j i a n g s h i w e n ji ( L i t e r a r y w o r k s of H o n g Liangji), T a i p e i : S h i j i e shuju, 1964, p. 37.

3 F e n g G u i f e n , J i a o b i n l u , p. 61a.

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a b o u t racial p e r c e p t i o n s in m o d e r n China.

2

R a c e r e l a t i o n s are c o n s i d e r e d a m a j o r p r o b l e m of m o d e r n W e s t e r n s o c i e t i e s . As a c o n s e q u e n c e , p r e c i o u s l i t t l e a t t e n t i o n has b e e n p a i d to h o w n o n - W e s t e r n p e o p l e p e r c e i v e W e s t e r n e r s . 4

R e s e a r c h on r a c e r e l a t i o n s and racial t h e o r i e s has f o c u s e d a l m o s t e x c l u s i v e l y u p o n the W e s t e r n a s p e c t s of the p r o b l e m : it a s s u m e s that " r a c i s m " can o n l y be a

" w h i t e " p h e n o m e n o n u n d e r w h i c h o t h e r p e o p l e , l u m p e d t o g e t h e r u n d e r the h e a d i n g " c o l o u r e d " , h a d to suffer. T h e n a r r o w foc u s of s u c h h i s t o r i c a l r e s e a r c h , w h i c h can be e x p l a i n e d by the v i v i d s e n s e of g ui l t of m o d e r n W e s t e r n s o c i e t y and by a still d o m i n a n t f e e l i n g of e u r o c e n t r i s m , h as d i s t o r t e d our c o m p r e h e n s i o n of racial m a t t e r s in n o n - W e s t e r n c o u n t r i e s .

4 S om e n o t a b l e e x c e p t i o n s i n c l u d e J. B l a c k b u r n , T h e w h i t e men. Th e f i r s t r e s p o n s e of a b o r i g i n a l p e o p l e s to the w h i t e man, L o n d o n : O r b i s , 1979; G. Jaho da , W h i t e m a n . A s t u d y of the a t t i t u d e s of A f r i c a n s to E u r o p e a n s in G h a n a b e f o r e i n d e p e n d e n c e , L o n d o n : O x f o r d U n i v e r s i t y Pres s , 1961, an a n t h r o p o l o g i c a l i n q u i r y b a s e d on i n t e r v i e w s ; V. G o r o g , " L ’o r i g i n e de l ' i n e g a l i t e des r aces. E t u d e de t r e n t e - s e p t c o n t e s a f r i c a i n s " in C a h i e r s d ' E t u d e s A f r i c a i n e s 8 (1968), pp. 290- 3 0 9 , an d No i r s et bl an c s : leur i m a g e d a n s la 1 i t t e r a t u r e o r a l e a f r i c a i n e , Par i s : SELAF, 1976, b a s e d on the t extual a n a l y s i s of 161 d o c u m e n t s of oral l i t e r a t u r e . O u t s i d e A f r i c a , see for

i n s t a n c e S. H u g h - J o n e s , "Wa r i b i an d the w h i t e man:

h i s t o r y and m y t h in n o r t h w e s t A m a z o n i a " in E. T onkin, M.

M c D o n a l d an d M. C h a p m a n , e d s ., H i s t o r y and eth nic ity , L o n d o n : R o u t l e d g e , 1989, pp. 53-70.

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3

In C h i n a , c o n c e r n abou t the b i o l o g i c a l a s p e c t s of m a n k i n d a p p e a r e d at the end of the 19th c e n t u r y . T h o u g h the i m p o r t a n c e of s uc h c o n c e r n has b e e n r e c o g n i z e d by s om e h i s t o r i a n s , 5 it has b e e n h a s t i l y a s c r i b e d to eit h e r C h i n e s e ” e t h n o c e n t r i s m " , a t er m r a r e l y d e f i n e d , or to

" s o c i a l D a r w i n i s m " , an e q u a l l y v a g u e c o n c e p t . 6 For M a r y R a n k i n , w h o s t u d i e d a g r o u p of e a r l y C h i n e s e r e v o l u t i o n a r i e s , the " r e v o l u t i o n a r i e s w e d d e d t r a d i t i o n a l x e n o p h o b i a a n d S i n o c e n t r i s m to their n e w c o n c e p t s of n a t i o n a l i s m and D a r w i n i a n s t r u g g l e . " 7 R o b e r t S c a l ap i n o , w h o is s t a r t l e d b y som e of the o p e n l y racist d o c t r i n e s p r o m u l g a t e d by C h i n e s e i n t e l l e c t u a l s , u n c o v e r s the roots of s u c h t h e o r i e s : they are the p r o d u c t of an i n t e r a c t i o n b e t w e e n the " t r a d i t i o n a l f o r c e s of x e n o p h o b i a " an d ideas

5 C.W. C a s s i n e l l i , a n o n - s i n o l o g i s t , is one of the f e w a u t h o r s w h o has f u l l y r e c o g n i z e d the impact of the idea of race in m o d e r n C h i n a . See his i n s i s t e n c e on the C h i n e s e "racial c o n s c i o u s n e s s " in his Total r e v o l u t i o n : a c o m p a r a t i v e s t u d y of G e r m a n y u n d e r H i t l e r , the Sovi et U n i o n u n d e r S t a l i n a n d C h i n a u n d e r M a o , S a n t a B a r b a r a : C l i o Book s , 1976, pp. 1 58-159, 182, 201, 236- 2 3 7 .

6 Se e for i n s t a n c e J.R. Pus e y , C h i n a a n d C h a r l e s D a r w i n , C a m b r i d g e : H a r v a r d U n i v e r s i t y Press, 1983. In a r e v i e w of P u s e y ’s study, W i l l i a m H a a s has c a u t i o u s l y s u g g e s t e d that " C h a r l e s D a r w i n " a n d "soci a l D a r w i n i s m "

ar e p e r h a p s h i s t o r i o g r a p h i c c a t e g o r i e s not f u l l y s u i t e d to C h i n e s e i n t e l l e c t u a l h i s t o r y ; see W. Haa s , r e v i e w of J.R. P us e y , C h i n a a n d C h a r l e s D a r w i n in J o u r n a l of the H i s t o r y of B i o l o g y 17 (1984), pp. 4 3 5 - 4 3 6 .

7 M . B . R a n k i n , E a r l y C h i n e s e r e v o l u t i o n a r i e s . R a d i c a l intel 1e c t u a l s in S h a n g h a i an d C h e k i a n g , 1902- 1911, C a m b r i d g e , M a s s . : H a r v a r d U n i v e r s i t y Press, 1971, p . 26.

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e x t r a c t e d f r o m " D a r w i n i s t w r i t i n g s " . 8

W e s t e r n s i n o l o g y ha s not o n l y c o n s i d e r a b l y u n d e r s t a t e d the s i g n i f i c a n c e of the idea of race in C h i n a , it ha s a l s o a t t e m p t e d to d i s m i s s it. M i c h a e l G a s s t e r , for in s t a n c e , b e l i e v e s that the C h i n e s e

" s w a l l o w e d t h e m [ f o r e i g n ideas] w i t h i n s u f f i c i e n t r u m i n a t i o n " , as a result of w h i c h " s o m e i n t e l l e c t u a l i n d i g e s t i o n r e s u l t e d " . ® C h i n e s e s c h o l a r s a r e p i c t u r e d as g l u t t o n o u s a d o l e s c e n t s , u n c r i t i c a l l y i n g e s t i n g f o r e i g n ideas, o c c a s i o n a l l y b u r p i n g a racial slur. Suc h e x p l a n a t i o n s p r o c e e d f r o m a p a t e r n a l i s t i c poin t of view, a n d are p r e d i c a t e d on the b e l i e f that p e o p l e f r o m a n o t h e r c u l t u r e c a n n o t be e q u a l l y e n d o w e d w i t h i n d e p e n d e n t

j u d g e m e n t .

M o s t C h i n e s e h i s t o r i a n s , except some i s o l a t e d c a s e s , 10 h a v e e i th e r i g n o r e d the issue or s i m p l y d e n i e d that t h e r e has ever b e e n a n y t h i n g e v e n v a g u e l y r e s e m b l i n g r a c i a l t h i n k i n g in C h i n a . O f f i c i a l p r o p a g a n d a in m a i n l a n d C h i n a h as f o s t e r e d the idea that o n l y W e s t e r n e r s can p o s s i b l y i n d u l g e in raci s m , as the C h i n e s e are the l e a d e r s of the v i c t i m i s e d c o l o u r e d p e o p l e in their

8 R.A. S c a l a p i n o , " P r e l u d e to M a r x i s m : T h e C h i n e s e s t u d e n t m o v e m e n t in Japan, 1 9 0 0 - 1 9 1 0 " in A. F e u e r w e r k e r et al. ed., A p p r o a c h e s to m o d e r n C h i n e s e h i s t o r y , B e r k e l e y : U n i v e r s i t y of C a l i f o r n i a Press, 1967, p. 197.

9 M. G a s s t e r , "The r e p u b l i c a n r e v o l u t i o n a r y m o v e m e n t " , in D. T w i t c h e t t a n d J.K. F a i r b a n k , e d s ., C a m b r i d g e h i s t o r y of China, C a m b r i d g e : C a m b r i d g e U n i v e r s i t y Pre s s , 1980, vol. 11, par t 2, p. 494.

10 Bo Yang, " Z h o n g z u q i s h i " (Racial d i s c r i m i n a t i o n ) in C h o u l o u de Z h o n g g u o r e n (The u g l y C h i n e s e ) , Taip e i : Li n b a i c h u b a n s h e , 1985, pp. 2 1 2 - 2 1 4 .

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h i s t o r i c a l s t r u g g l e a ga i n s t w h i t e " i m p e r i a l i s m " (that the idea of " w h i t e i m p e r i a l i s m " is racial in e ssence, as it a s c r i b e s a b i o l o g i c a l f o u n d a t i o n to a h i s t o r i c a l p h e n o m e n o n , s e e m s to be i r r e l e v a n t ) . C o n c e r n w i t h r a c i s m w a s s u c h that until the b e g i n n i n g of the last decade,

r e t r o a c t i v e c e n s u r e w o u l d p u r g e p r e - l i b e r a t i o n texts fro m ra c i s t a l l u s i o n s b e f o r e r e p u b l i c a t i o n . 11

T h e tab o o s u r r o u n d i n g C h i n e s e racial thinking, h o w e v e r , is not c o n f i n e d to c o m m u n i s t C h i n a only. D a v i d Ho, to take but one e x a m p l e , felt c o m p e l l e d to d e l i v e r an e n t i r e a r t i c l e a t t a c k i n g a t e a m of W e s t e r n s o c i o l o g i s t s w h o h a d d o n e r e s e a r c h in H o n g Kong. O n e result of the t e a m ' s i n v e s t i g a t i o n h a d b e e n their d i s c o v e r y of u n c o m f o r t a b l y h i g h social and racial d i s t a n c e a t t i t u d e s . 12 Ho has r e c e n t l y r e i t e r a t e d his a t t a c k a g a i n s t A g a s s i and J a r v i e in an a r t i c l e on i n t e r e t h n i c r e l a t i o n s . D a v i d H o q u o t e s the i n f a m o u s tea m of r e s e a r c h e r s : "This i d e o l o g y [of e t h n o c e n t r i s m ] is o v e r t l y raci s t : to be b o r n C h i n e s e is the g r e a t e s t p r i v i l e g e . . . O n the o t h e r h a n d to be b o r n a E u r o p e a n is to be b o r n a f o r e i g n d e v i l " , a n d c a r r i e s o n w i t h a trivial d i s c u s s i o n

11 M a r t i n B e r n a l h as p o i n t e d at o n e e x a m p l e of such r e - e d i t i n g , i n t e r p r e t i n g it as a s i g n of the " d e c l i n e in the r e s p e c t a b i l i t y of " r a c i a l " t h e o r i e s d u r i n g the t w e n t i e t h c e nt u r y " ; see M. B e r n a l , C h i n e s e s o c i a l i s m to 1 9 0 7, Ithaca: C o r n e l l U n i v e r s i t y Press, 1976, p. 71, n.

62. I am i n d e b t e d to P r o f e s s o r T.H. B a r r e t t for h a v i n g d r a w n m y a t t e n t i o n to this f o ot n o t e , w h i c h a c t u a l l y b e c a m e the s t a r t i n g p o i n t of this thesis.

12 D . Y . F . Ho, " F i e l d s t u d i e s in f o r e i g n cultu r e s : a c a u t i o n a r y n o t e on m e t h o d o l o g i c a l d i f f i c u l t i e s " in P s y c h o l o g i a 15 ( M a r c h 1972), pp. 15-21.

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on the l i n g u i s t i c o r i g i n of the w o r d " f o r e i g n d e v i l " , w h i c h is s u p p o s e d to h a v e g e n e r a t e d a r e g r e t t a b l e

" m i s u n d e r s t a n d i n g " c o n c e r n i n g the v e r i t a b l e n a t u r e of C h i n e s e e t h n o c e n t r i s m . 15 Ho, h o w e v e r , has c o n s i d e r a b l y t r u n c a t e d the o r i g i n a l v e r s i o n of A g a s s i and Jarv i e :

"This i d e o l o g y is o v e r t l y racist: to be b o r n C h i n e s e is the g r e a t e s t p r i v i l e g e ; to be b o r n f a i r - s k i n n e d C h i n e s e is to be b e a u t i f u l as well. O n the o t h e r h a n d to be b o r n a E u r o p e a n is to be b o r n a f o r e i g n devil; to be b o r n a n e g r o is s o m e t h i n g w o r s e . " 1 *

4

In an a r t i c l e c o n c e r n i n g the role of ski n col o u r and p h y s i c a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s in n o n - W e s t e r n c o u n t r i e s p u b l i s h e d m o r e tha n t w e n t y y e a r s ago, H a r o l d Isaacs a r g u e d that r a c i s m a m o n g n o n - E u r o p e a n s e x i s t e d long b e f o r e their e x p o s u r e to the ideas of the c o n q u e r i n g w h i t e E u r o p e a n s , a n d that the c h a r g e of W e s t e r n r e s p o n s i b i l i t y for racial p a t t e r n s in e x - c o l o n i e s was o n l y p a r t l y valid. " W h e r e r e s p o n s e s to W e s t e r n e r s took p l a c e in racial terms, they w e r e s u p e r i m p o s e d u p o n s t r o n g l y - r o o t e d a t t i t u d e s about rac e an d s k i n col o r that

1S D.Y.F . Ho, " P r e j u d i c e , c o l o n i a l i s m , an d i n t e r e t h n i c r e l a t i o n s : an E a s t - W e s t d i a l o g u e " in Jou r n a l of A s i a n a n d A f r i c a n S t u d i e s 20 (1985), pp. 224-225.

14 J. A g a s s i a n d I.C. J a r v i e, "A s t u d y of W e s t e r n i z a t i o n " in J. A g a s s i and I.C. J a r v i e , eds., H o n g K o n g : a s o c i e t y in t r a n s i t i o n , Lond o n : R o u t l e d g e and K e g a n Paul, 1969, p. 158.

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lon g a n t e d a t e d this e n c o u n t e r . ”15 F r e d e r i c W a k e m a n has e s t a b l i s h e d a link b e t w e e n sexual x e n o p h o b i a an d C h i n e s e r a c i s m d u r i n g the O p i u m W a r , 16 w h e r e a s Paul C o h e n has i n d i c a t e d h o w r a c i a l p r e j u d i c e a m o n g the C h i n e s e was p a r t i c u l a r l y v i r u l e n t long b e f o r e the r e f o r m m o v e m e n t of the 1 8 9 0 s . 17 D e s p i t e the s e f i n d i n g s , the d o m i n a n t t r e n d of i n t e r p r e t a t i o n tends to f l a t l y e q u a t e C h i n e s e racial t h i n k i n g w i t h " W e s t e r n i n f l u e n c e ” . P e r h a p s it is true, as L u c i a n P y e has s u g g e s t e d , that " m a n y C h i n a s p e c i a l i s t s

o _ ,

s e e m a n x i o u s to a v o i d a n y hint of o f f e n s i v e to the C h i n e s e ” .16 P e r h a p s some W e s t e r n e r s are b u r d e n e d by a f e e l i n g of w h i t e g u i l t that can o n l y be e x o r c i s e d by a c o n s t a n t p r o c e s s of s e l f - a c c u s a t i o n . "The g u i l t y w h i t e l iberal is o n l y too g l a d to a s s i g n all v i r t u e s to the o p p r e s s e d ; the o p p r e s s e d is u s u a l l y o n l y too r e a d y to a c ce p t this g r a t u i t o u s l y o f f e r e d halo", b e l i e v e s I s a a c s . 19 P e r h a p s t h e r e has a ls o b e e n a t e n d e n c y to i d e a l i z e C h i n e s e c u l t u r e , e r e c t e d as a r e c e p t a c l e for

15 H.R. Isaacs, " G r o u p i d e n t i t y and p o l i t i c a l c h a n g e : the ro l e of col o r an d p h y s i c a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s ” in D e a d a l u s , S p r i n g 1967, p. 367.

16 F. W a k e m a n , S t r a n g e r s at the g a t e . Social d i s o r d e r in s o u t h C h i n a , 1 8 3 9 - 1 8 6 1 , B e r k e l e y : U n i v e r s i t y of C a l i f o r n i a P r e s s , 1966, pp. 55-56.

17 P.A. Cohe n , " C h r i s t i a n m i s s i o n s and their impact to 1900" in D. T w i t c h e t t a n d J.K. F a i r b a n k , e d s ., The C a m b r i d g e h i s t o r y of China, C a m b r i d g e : C a m b r i d g e U n i v e r s i t y Press, 1978, vol. 10, pa r t 1, p. 568.

16 L.W. Pye, T h e m a n d a r i n a n d the cadre: C h i n a ’s p o l i t i c a l c u l t u r e s , A n n A r b o r : C e n t e r for C h i n e s e S t u d i e s , 1988, p. 1.

19 H.R. Isaacs, " G r o u p i d e n t i t y " , p. 364.

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W e s t e r n f r u s t r a t e d ideals: C h i n a h a d to be p u r e and u n c o r r u p t e d b e f o r e the a rr i v a l of the W e s t . W h a t e v e r the t w i s t e d r e l a t i o n s h i p s o m e s i n o l o g i s t s m i g h t e n t e r t a i n w i t h C h i n e s e c ul t u r e , the ide a of W e s t e r n i n fl u e n c e p r e s e n t s som e s e r i o u s l i m i t a t i o n s . T h o u g h W e s t e r n

i n f l u e n c e has u n d e n i a b l y c o n t r i b u t e d to s h a p e m o d e r n i n t e l l e c t u a l p r o c e s s e s , it c a n n o t a l o n e a c c o u n t for C h i n e s e racial c o n s c i o u s n e s s . T h e p u r p o s e of the i n t r o d u c t o r y c h a p t e r of this t h e s i s is to s h o w ho w 1) a t t i t u d e s about s k i n c o l o u r an d p h y s i c a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s w e r e a g e - o l d in Chi n a ; 2) s i g n i f i c a n t p a r t s of the C o n f u c i a n c o s m o l o g y p r e d i s p o s e d the C h i n e s e to p e r c e i v e the n e w w o r l d o r de r c r e a t e d by W e s t e r n e x p a n s i o n in h i g h l y r a c i a l i s t terms; 3) s u c c e s s i v e p e r i o d s of contact w i t h e x o g e n o u s g r o u p s f o s t e r e d p r o t o - n a t i o n a l i s t f e e l i n g s a n d g e n e r a t e d a s t r o n g c o n s c i o u s n e s s of b i o l o g i c a l c o n t i n u i t y . An i m p o r t a n t a s p e c t of this s t u d y is to a n a l y z e h o w this c u l t u r a l b a c k g r o u n d g u i d e d the C h i n e s e p e r c e p t i o n and i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of W e s t e r n racial theories.

T h e impact of W e s t e r n in f l u e n c e , it is b e l i e v e d , was l a r g e l y d e p e n d e n t on the n a t u r e of the t r a d i t i o n a l C h i n e s e w o r l d view. P e r h a p s a c o m p a r i s o n w i t h the B a K o n g o c a n i l l u s t r a t e this n o d a l point. A c c o r d i n g to M a c G a f f e y , 10 the t r a d i t i o n a l c o s m o l o g y of the B a K o n g o was b a s e d u p o n a c o m p l e m e n t a r y o p p o s i t i o n b e t w e e n this w o r l d

10 T h e f o l l o w i n g is b a s e d on W. M a c G a f f e y , "The We s t in C o n g o l e s e e x p e r i e n c e " in P.D. C u r t i n , A f r i c a a n d the Wes t . I n t e l l e c t u a l r e s p o n s e s to E u r o p e a n culture, M a d i s o n : U n i v e r s i t y of W i s c o n s i n Press, 1972, pp. 49-74.

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a n d the other. It wa s b e l i e v e d that the sk i n of the d e a d t u r n e d w h i t e w h e n they c r o s s e d the w a t e r to join the s p i r i t s in the o t h e r w o r l d . W h e n W e s t e r n e r s first a r r i v e d a m o n g the B a K o n g o , it was t h o u g h t that they e m e r g e d from the water, w h e r e th e y w o u l d r e t u r n at n i g h t to sleep.

T h i s i n t e g r a t i v e w o r l d v i e w p r e v e n t e d the B a K o n g o fro m d i s t i n g u i s h i n g c i v i l i z a t i o n s in racial ter m s and i m p e d e d the e m e r g e n c e of a s h a r p d i s t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n W e s t e r n c u l t u r e an d B a K o n g o c o s m o l o g y . As a result, C o n g o l e s e t h i n k i n g has b e e n r e m a r k a b l y r e s i s t a n t to d e c a d e s of c o n c e n t r a t e d W e s t e r n i n f l u e n c e , i n c l u d i n g the racial p a n o p l y c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of c o l o n i a l i s m .

5

" M o d e r n C h i n e s e i n t e l l e c t u a l h i s t o r y , the p e r i o d of w e s t e r n i n f l u e n c e , m a y be s u m m e d up as two r e c i p r o c a l p r o c e s s e s , the p r o g r e s s i v e a b a n d o n m e n t of t r a d i t i o n by i c o n o c l a s t s and the

p e t r i f i c a t i o n of t r a d i t i o n by

tradi t i o n a l i s t s . " 21

A n y a c c o u n t of i n t e l l e c t u a l c h a n g e in m o d e r n C h i n a will h a v e to c o n f r o n t the p r o b l e m of c o n t i n u i t y v e r s u s d i s c o n t i n u i t y . T h e s c h o l a r s h i p of J o s e p h L e v e n s o n , auth o r of the a b o v e d e c l a m a t i o n , w as g u i d e d b y the c o n v i c t i o n that m o d e r n C h i n a c o u l d p r e s e n t o n l y l i t t l e c o n t i n u i t y w i t h " t r a d i t i o n " , a c on c e p t p e r c e i v e d as m o r e or less

21 J.R. L e v e n s o n , C o n f u c i a n C h i n a a n d its m o d e r n f a t e . Th e p r o b l e m of i n t e l l e c t u a l c o n t i n u i t y , London:

R o u t l e d g e an d K e g a n Paul, 1958, p. xvi.

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e q u i v a l e n t to C o n f u c i a n i s m . T h r o u g h a c a s e s t u d y of L i a n g Q i c h a o , a m a j o r i n t e l l e c t u a l f i g u r e of m o d e r n C h i n e s e h i s t o r y , L e v e n s o n a t t e m p t e d to d e m o n s t r a t e h o w C h i n e s e i n t e l l e c t u a l s w h o a d v o c a t e d the e m u l a t i o n of W e s t e r n a c h i e v e m e n t s w e r e a l i e n a t e d f r o m the C h i n e s e t r a d i t i o n . T h e o n l y c o n t i n u i t y , it seemed, r e s i d e d in a p u r e l y e m o t i o n a l tie. C o n f u c i a n i s m , L e v e n s o n a rgued, wa s m e r e l y u s e d as a " s u g a r - c o a t " to cove r up " W e s t e r n i s m " . * 1 L e v e n s o n , like m a n y o th e r h i s t o r i a n s of his g e n e r a t i o n , o p e r a t e d out of a c o n c e p t u a l f r a m e w o r k that has b e e n i d e n t i f i e d as the m o d e r n i z a t i o n , or t r a d i t i o n - m o d e r n i t y a p p r o a c h . T h i s a p p r o a c h has b e e n i n c r e a s i n g l y c r i t i c i z e d for its e u r o c e n t r i s m , as it i m p o s e s W e s t e r n h i s t o r y as the n o r m by w h i c h C h i n e s e h i s t o r y s h o u l d be m e a s u r e d . * 3 As a r e a c t i o n to the p a r o c h i a l t r a d i t i o n - m o d e r n i t y p a r a d i g m , rece n t s c h o l a r s h i p has o r i e n t e d itself towards an i nternal a p p r o a c h , c a p a b l e of a c c o u n t i n g m o r e a c c u r a t e l y for the c o m p l e x i t y of C h i n e s e h i s t o r y . C h a n g Hao, for insta nc e , has a r g u e d that L i a n g Q i c h a o ’s i n t e l l e c t u a l t r a j e c t o r y ca n h a r d l y be i n t e r p r e t e d as a

" r e s p o n s e " to the W e s t , as he a l s o r e s p o n d e d c r e a t i v e l y to a vast a nd c o m p l e x i n t e l l e c t u a l b a c k g r o u n d , m a i n l y d o m i n a t e d b y the C o n f u c i a n ideal of p r a c t i c a l

** J.R. L e v e n s o n , L i a n g C h 'i - c h 'ao a n d the m i n d of m o d e r n China, C a m b r i d g e , M a s s . : H a r v a r d U n i v e r s i t y Press,

1953, p. 2.

13 Fo r an o v e r v i e w a n d c r i t i c i s m of e u r o c e n t r i c a p p r o a c h e s to C h i n e s e h i s t o r y , see P.A. Cohen, D i s c o v e r i n g h i s t o r y in C h i n a : A m e r i c a n h i s t o r i c a l w r i t i n g on the r ec ent C h i n e s e past, N e w Y o r k : C o l u m b i a U n i v e r s i t y Pre s s , 1984.

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s t a t e s m a n s h i p a n d b y N e w Tex t t h i n k i n g . 24 W h e r e a s L e v e n s o n d e s c r i b e d the fate of C o n f u c i a n i s m in the han d s of c o m m u n i s t C h i n a as a p r o c e s s of " m u s e u m i f i c a t i o n " , K a m L o u i e ha s d e m o n s t r a t e d h o w s c h o l a r s on the m a i n l a n d hav e r e s p o n d e d to the l e ga c y of the pa s t in an e s s e n t i a l l y t r a d i t i o n a l way, m u c h like their p r e d e c e s s o r s in imperial t i m e s . 2 5

T h i s s t u d y i n c o r p o r a t e s b ot h the e x t e r n a l a p p r o a c h, w h i c h e m p h a s i z e s the u n i q u e n a t u r e of the W e s t e r n impact on C h i na , and the inter na l a p p r o a c h , w h i c h f o c u s e s on the a u t o n o m o u s n a t u r e of m o d e r n h i s t o r i c a l d e v e l o p m e n t s . Th e c o m b i n a t i o n of b o t h m e t h o d s is n e c e s s a r y for an u n d e r s t a n d i n g of C h i n e s e h i s t o r y in its ow n terms.

6

T h e t e r m " r a ci s m " see m s to h a v e a p p e a r e d in the E n g l i s h l a n gu a g e at the end of the 1930s. It r a p i d l y a c q u i r e d a s t r o n g l y p e j o r a t i v e c o n n o t a t i o n , as it was u s e d m a i n l y to a t t a c k d o c t r i n e s of i n e q u a l i t y . S i n c e its a p p e a r a n c e , d e f i n i t i o n s of " r a c i s m " h a v e t e n d e d to a c c u m u l a t e as the d o c t r i n e s u n d e r a t t a c k have d i v e r s i f i e d . T h i s t e r m i n o l o g i c a l e x t e n s i o n has r e n d e r e d the c o n c e p t v i r t u a l l y m e a n i n g l e s s . In the b r o a d sense, as

24 C h a n g Hao, L i a n g C h ' i - c h ' a o and in tel le c t u a l t r a n s i t i o n in C h i n a , 1 8 9 0 - 1 9 0 7, C a m b r i d g e , M a s s . : H a r v a r d U n i v e r s i t y Press, 1971.

25 K. Louie, I n h e r i t i n g t r a d i t i o n : i n t e r p r e t a t ions of the c l a s s i c a l p h i l o s o p h e r s in c o m m u n i s t China, 1949- 1966, H o n g Kong: O x f o r d U n i v e r s i t y Press, 1986, p. viii.

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M i c h a e l B a n t o n n o t e s , it tends to roll " i n t o one ball c u l t u r a l a s s u m p t i o n s , m o t i v e s , i n s t i t u t i o n s , a t t i t u d e s , a n d b e l i e f s a b o u t s u p e r i o r i t y : it m a y be p o l i t i c a l l y e f f e c t i v e , but it is not s u i t e d to c o m p a r a t i v e or h i s t o r i c a l a n a l y s i s . " * ® S t r i c t l y d e f i n e d , " r a c i sm "

a s s e r t s that rac e d e t e r m i n e s c ul t u r e . But e v e n in the n a r r o w sense, the c on c e p t of " r a c i s m " e x h i b i t s a g r a v e h a n d i c a p for the c u l t u r a l h i s t o r i a n , as it a s s u m e s that all t h e o r i e s of b i o l o g i c a l i n e q u a l i t y are e s s e n t i a l l y the same. G e o r g e M o s s e ' s s t u d y on the h i s t o r i c a l roots of r a c i s m , for inst a n c e , is b a s e d on the a s s u m p t i o n that r a c i s m c a n o n l y be i n t e r p r e t e d as a g l o b a l E u r o p e a n p h e n o m e n o n . * 7 R e c e n t s t u d ie s , h o w e v e r , h a v e a d o p t e d a n a r r o w e r focus, and i n d i c a t e that e v e n w i t h i n Europe, d i f f e r e n t c u l t u r a l b a c k g r o u n d s can g e n e r a t e d i v e r g e n t i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s of p h y s i c a l d i s s i m i l a r i t y . * ® E q u a l l y i m p o r t a n t is the o b s e r v a t i o n that the m e a n i n g v ar i o u s c u l t u r a l g r o u p s h a v e a s s i g n e d to racial t h e o r i e s has g r e a t l y vari e d . In E n g l a n d , for i n stance, t h e r e h a v e b e e n at least thr e e d i f f e r e n t a p p r o a c h e s to racial thought

*® M. B a n t o n , T h e idea of race, B o u l d e r : W e s t v i e w P re s s, 1978, p. 157.

27 G.L. M o s s e , T o w a r d the final s o l u t i o n : a h i s t o r y of E u r o p e a n racism, N e w Yor k : H o w a r d F e r t i g , 1978; the s a m e a p p r o a c h ha s b e e n a d o p t e d b y L. P o l i a k o v , Le m y t h e a ryen. Essai sur les s o u r c e s du r a c i s m e et des n a t i o n a l i s m e s , B r u x e l l e s : E d i t i o n s C o m p l e x e , 1987.

*® See for i n s t a n c e N. Ste p a n , T h e idea of race in sci e n c e : G r e a t B r i tain, 1 8 0 0 - 1 9 6 0 , L o n d o n : M a c m i l l a n , 1986, and W . B . C o h e n , T h e F r e n c h e n c o u n t e r wi t h A f r i c a n s . W h i t e r e s p o n s e to blacks, 1530-1880, B l o o m i n g t o n : I n d i a n a U n i v e r s i t y Pre s s , 1980.

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b a s e d on the d i f f e r e n t s e n s e s in w h i c h the w o r d race has b e e n u s e d s i n c e the s i x t e e n t h c e n t u r y . 29

T h i s s t u d y e m p h a s i z e s b o t h the c u l t u r a l d i v e r g e n c e a n d the h i s t o r i c a l v a r i a n c e of racial t h i n k i n g by e m p l o y i n g the c o n c e p t of p e r c e p t i o n . It r e c o g n i z e s that t h e r e are m o r e or less a p p a r e n t p h e n o t y p i c a l ( = p h y s i c a l ) d i f f e r e n c e s b e t w e e n or w i t h i n p o p u l a t i o n g r o u p s that are t r a n s m i t t e d g e n e t i c a l l y , but it b e l i e v e s that " r a c e ” (zu, zhong, zulei, m i n z u , z h o n g zu, r e n z h ong , in C h i n e s e ) is a s u b j e c t i v e l y d e f i n e d c o n c e p t d e p e n d e n t on b o t h c u l t u r a l and b i o l o g i c a l p r o c e s s e s of p e r c e p t i o n that can d i v e r s i f y or shift. F r o m this p e r s p e c t i v e , a h i s t o r y of racial t h e o r i e s can o n l y adopt a n o m i n a l i s t a p p r o a c h : it d e s c r i b e s h o w "race" has b e e n d e f i n e d , an d h o w these d e f i n i t i o n s h a v e c h a n g e d h i s t o r i c a l l y . T h e E n g l i s h w o r d

"race", w h e n u s e d in an y s t u d y d e s c r i b i n g n o n - E n g l i s h racial p e r c e p t i o n s , s h o u l d be e n c l o s e d in q u o t a t i o n m a r k s , w e r e t h e r e no p r a c t i c a l and s t y l i s t i c

c o n s i d e r a t i o n s . " R a c i a l " is u s e d h e r e as the a d j e c t i v a l f o r m of " r a c e " .

In brief, this t h e s i s a t t e m p t s to a n a l y z e h o w C h i n e s e i n t e l l e c t u a l s h a v e p e r c e i v e d and i n t e r p r e t e d p h y s i c a l d i f f e r e n c e s f r o m 1793 up to 1949. W h e t h e r or not t h e s e p e r c e p t i o n s s h o u l d b e d e f i n e d as " r a c i s t " is a j u d g e m e n t that res t s e n t i r e l y w i t h the reader.

29 See M. B an t o n , R a c i a l t h e o r i e s , C a m b ri d g e : C a m b r i d g e U n i v e r s i t y Pre s s , 1987.

White Ash and Black Coal: The Perception of Race in Modern China 1793-1949.