The influential power of shapes: How logo shapes moderate the effect of framed message on donation intentions

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The influential power of shapes: How logo

shapes moderate the effect of framed message

on donation intentions

University of Groningen

Faculty of Business and Economics

MSc Marketing Management

Supervisor: Dr. Janny Hoekstra

Ehsan Zahedi

S 2823926

Dierenriemstraat 47

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PREFACE

The following thesis is a dissertation for my MSc degree in Marketing Management at the Rijksuniversiteit Groningen. It represents proudly the last effort of two years where I have gained significant amount of capabilities in the world of marketing. Moreover, this thesis signifies also the end of a wonderful student life and the beginning of a forward-looking career.

I would like to express my deepest gratitude to my supervisor Dr. J.C. Hoekstra for the professional guidance and kindness in the development of my master thesis, my second supervisor dr. J. A. Voerman for reading it and, as Program Coordinator MSc Marketing, for helping me in all my difficulties, my family for their never-ending support and strong faith in me, my friends for motivating me as members of my own family, my fellow students for the enormous help in writing my thesis and, last but not least, my team mates for helping me to bring the best out of me.

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ABSTRACT

The majority of academic research indicates that shapes can have a high degree of influence over the consumer behaviour (Henderson & Cote, 1998). Therefore, shapes (e.g., rounded and angular), used as a variable in many studies, hold an influential power that can stimulate and activate behavioural responses (e.g., avoidance and approach behaviour). The purpose of this research is to enrich the current knowledge regarding the effect of logo shapes and message framing on the behaviour changes, addressing the donation intention as the dependent variable and message framing as the independent variable. Results indicate an outcome non consistent with the predictions. Message framing does not have a significant effect on the donation intention and the moderator, logo shape, does not have the desired effect on the message framing-donation intention relationship. These results aim to be a starting point for a new interpretation of the effect of geometrical shapes over the willingness to donate.

1 INTRODUCTION

Non-profit organizations (known also as NPOs), have the priority to communicate with customers (Fill & Jamieson, 2006) and, with the objective to improve the charity activities, they choose message framing as a solution for their marketing communication strategy (Fill & Jamieson, 2006; Sussman, Sharma, & Alter, 2015).

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have the possibility of a better future’) or in a negative way (e.g., ‘If you don’t help with a donation, a child in need will live in the darkness’). Nevertheless, both massages can influence the donation intention and to be more appealing, they can also contain visual cues (Chang & Lee, 2009). Additionally, the effectiveness of a framed message can be improved in different ways (Chong & Druckman, 2007). Chong & Druckman (2007) affirm that in order to have an effective framed message can use heuristic cues and symbols. Among the symbols and heuristic cues, the logo introduced in a message turns out to be an important driver that influence the opinion and the consumer behaviour (Bennet, 2004). In a non-profit charity organization, one of the most recognizable logo, the pink ribbon, has been seen as a symbolic synonym of strength, responsibility and fight against the cancer (Harvey & Strahilevitz, 2009). The presence of the pink ribbon in marketing communication tool improves the effectiveness of a verbal message and influences the targeted consumer, by creating awareness and recognition (Harvey & Strahilevitz, 2009). Therefore, logo is a visual source that evokes the reactions of the viewers and organizations use it especially for identification purposes (Pittard, Ewing, & Jevons, 2007).

The concept of logo can refer to a set of graphic and typeface elements; however, among its features, the shape is a crucial characteristic for influencing the consumers and further studies have remarked the importance of the shape because it has high degree of influence on the consumers (Kohlia, Suri, & Thakor, 2002; Henderson & Cote 2003, Zhang, Feick & Price,2006). Moreover has been proven by more recent researches that shapes can have a degree of influence on some brain neural activities designated to the creation of responses like higher attention, startle response or approach behaviour (Larson, Aronoff, Sarinpoulos, & Zhu, 2008; Amir, Biederman, & Hayworth, 2011; Armbuster, Suchert, Gärtner, & Strobel, 2014).

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can affect consumer behavioural intention (Henderson & Cote 1998; Messaris & Abraham, 2003; Driessen, 2005; Chang & Lee, 2009; Pieters, Wedel & Batra, 2010; Walsh et al. 2010; Rodriguez & Dimitrova, 2011; Macy et al. 2016), and that logos’ aesthetic features can have a moderating effect on the brand-customer relationship or, that together with headline, can influence the consumer behaviour, stimulating actions (Brakus, Schmitti & Zarantonello, 2009; Whan Park et al., 2013; Jiang et al. 2015), this study strives to be the first academic paper focusing on one specific feature of logo, the shape as a moderator of the main effect between message framing and donation intention. Therefore for this study logo shape is selected in order to test if it has an effect on the message framing and additionally, if an angular shape may strengthen the effectiveness of a negatively and rounded shapes may strengthen the effectiveness positively framed message on the donation intention.

In one of the first studies regarding the effect of logos’ shape on the consumers, Henderson and Cote (1998) found that respondents exposed to a large number of logos have a higher recognition when the logo was shaped to objects encountered in their daily life. Highly elaborated logos can lead to a positive affection, positive evaluation, activating recall and if is rounded or less symmetric, it can make the recognition easier (Henderson & Cote, 1998). Consistent with this study, Henderson et al. (2004) show the existence of a positive relationship between the viewer of the logo and its aesthetic design. For example, if an organization wants to communicate a pleasing image, it may craft a shape emphasizing natural form such as handwriting or use of curves (Henderson, Giese, & Cote, 2004). In addition, angular and straight shapes elicit the audience energy, toughness and strength, whereas curves and round shapes can induce feelings of harmony, approachability and friendliness (Zhang, Feick, & Price, 2006).

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that shape of the packaging can have a degree of influence on the likelihood to purchase. Thus, different shapes will differently affect the consumer behaviour.

In light of the fact that shapes can have an influential effect, it is necessary to examine a different kind of marketing communication tool. Thus, this research focuses on considering the usage of a webpage as a communication medium. Logo and webpage are considered important visual stimuli and as such, they are likely to influence the consumer (Henderson & Cote, 2003). The aim of this master thesis is to fill the gap between the research on the manipulations of the logo shapes and its moderation on the main effect of a framed message on the donation intention. Within several studies (Walsh, Winterich, & Mittal, 2010; Walsh, Winterich, & Mittal, 2011) it has been remarked as limitations of their research, that there is the necessity to take in consideration the effect of the shape manipulation; which is meant to be investigated not only on advertisement but also through the usage of other media like internet and websites. Considering that the message conveyed with the logo can influence the consumer and that shapes, seen as logo’s feature, (Driessen, 2005; Whan Park et al., 2013) stimulate negative/positive responses like avoidance/approach behaviour (Schnurr & Stokburger-Sauer, 2016), it is of academic relevance to focus on how the shapes manipulations might strengthen the effectiveness of a framed message and consecutively the willingness to donate inside of a fictive donation page. The website is an important communication medium and in the online environment the presence of a logo can be a visual stimulus that helps to acquire new users (Haig, 2006). The usage of technology can help organizations to attain their marketing objective like the retention and attraction of potential donors (Wenham, Stephens, & Hardy, 2003).

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Based on the existing literature, as a logo shape can influence the effectiveness of message framing and as a rounded shape and positively framed message can stress the concept of approach behaviour, whereas an angular shape and a negatively framed message remarks more an avoidance behaviour, it may be hypothesised that a logo shape can have an influence on message framing and that the presence of a logo shaped with rounded lines can reinforce the effectiveness of a positively framed message whereas a negatively framed message is hypothesized to be more effective with angular logo, which may reinforce its effect on the donation intention.

The thesis is structured as follow: chapter 2 examines the conceptual model, the existing literature of the research topic of the study together with the hypotheses development; chapter 3 addresses the methodology of the research, chapter 4 portraits the results, chapter 5 provides the discussion of the results and chapter 6 provides limitations with future recommendations.

2 LITERATURE REVIEW AND HYPOTHESES

The following chapter explores and describes the already existing literature, in order to summarize the impact of a negatively or positively framed message on the donation intention. The eventual objective is to point out the guidelines which define the possible moderating effect of the logo shape. The section 2.1 shows, through the conceptual model, the relationships between the variables while the sections 2.2 and 2.3 explain the supporting theories for the 2 hypotheses.

2.1 CONCEPTUAL MODEL

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and the amount of money that are important factors for influencing the donation intention (Yavas & Riecken, 1985; Perkins & Jones, 2004).

Figure 1: Conceptual Model

Figure 1 shows the relationships that will be investigated. A positively or negatively framed message is assumed to impact the donation intention. Nevertheless, a negatively framed message is likely to have a higher influence on the donation intention and the logo shape in a framed message is likely to further moderate the relationship. The presence of a logo shaped with rounded lines can strengthen the effect of the positively framed message on the donation intention while a logo with angular shape can strengthen the negatively framed message-donation intention relationship.

2.2 THE EFFECT OF A POSITIVE AND NEGATIVE MESSAGE FRAME ON THE

DONATION INTENTION

The concept of framing is referred to the exposition of one outcome to a decision made by the targeted audience, where this outcome can be expressed in positive or negative terms through a message. Framing influences the consumers’ attitude by encouraging them to reflect about issues with attention (Chong & Druckman, 2007; Chang & Lee, 2010) and it refers to the presence, in positive

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or negative terms, of the outcome of different decisions that the reader of the message can make (Chang & Lee, 2009).

Several studies have been conducted regarding the positive effect of a framed message in the NPO sector (Mahswaran & Meyers-Levy 1990; Das, Kerkhof, & Kuiper, 2008; Chang & Lee, 2010). Charitable donations can be promoted by remarking positive and negative consequences. Thus, communications regarding a charitable issue could be framed in a negative (e.g., If we do not make this choice, more than 400 lives will die) or positive way (e.g., If we do this choice, 200 lives will be saved) and are associated with a consequential behaviour (Rothman & Salovey, 1997). The relevance and the consequence of framed messages stand on their ability to increase audience scrutiny and evaluation (Levin et al. 1998). In describing the effect of a framed message, Buda and Zhang (2000) affirm that a negatively framed message, for instance, can go against the idea that attention increases in issues framed in positive ways rather than negative ones. Nevertheless, a negative framed message increases consumers need for information about the negative outcomes and in which ways these negative consequences can be avoided (Chang & Lee, 2010). It consequently influences emotionally the audience and it fosters them to interact (Mayer et al. 1992). Thus, framing enhances also a consumer behaviour like the willingness to donate and lowers the individual’s relevance regarding their budget (Sussman, Sharma, & Alter, 2015).

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performing the action. On the contrary, messages that emphasize the consequence of risky behaviours can be more persuasive if framed in terms of loss (Millar, G. & Millar, U. 2000). Thus, there is also a body of study highlighting the higher degree of influence of negatively framed message in respect of its positive counterpart (Meyerowitz & Chaiken, 1987; Banks et al. 1995). Meyerowitz & Chaiken (1987), analysing how a message can stimulate awareness, found that message, aimed to solicit breast self-examination, should be framed negatively in order to obtain higher influential power. Consistent with this research Banks et al. (1995) confirmed that to persuade a woman to have a mammography screening, messages need to be negatively framed.

Nevertheless the contradictory results regarding which framed message can be more persuasive have been found also in the non-profit organizations sector (Maheswaran & Meyers-Levy, 1990; Smith & Berger, 1996; Chang & Lee, 2009). For example Das et al. (2008) affirm that if a positive message contains vivid and anecdotal evidence this can have a high degree of persuasiveness. Messages are more persuasive if framed in terms of gain when people process the information with less mental effort and the positivity associated with the message increase the persuasion (Maheswaran & Meyers-Levy, 1990). Furthermore, message emphasizing a behaviour that can help to improve the health of one person is more persuasive if framed positively (Chang, 2007). In the charity sector a positively framed message can be persuasive because the action of donating is connected with a positive affect and this pushes people to hold positive feeling (Isen, 1993; Smith & Berger, 1996; Chang & Lee,2009).

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can be the outcome if no intervention is taken. As a consequence, it helps to motivate them to process the message and look for major information (Chang & Lee, 2010).

When people face oncoming and averse threats coming from social changes, they adapt their behaviours to prevent the danger by supporting what is promoted in the message (Chang & Lee, 2009). Consumers who are facing the threat of an undesired outcome tend to avoid the upcoming danger by supporting the cause (Miller & Krosnick, 2004; Chang & Lee, 2009). Feelings like fear, threat and danger emphasized through a message can foster a behavioural change promoting a more benevolent reaction (Witte, Cameron, McKeon, & Berkowitz, 1996; Rader, May, & Goodrum, 2007). Moreover, considering that negatively framed messages express losses and negativity (Meyerowitz & Chaiken, 1987), for the theory of the loss aversion, consumers change their behaviour following these messages because they tend to give more importance to losses than to gains (Meyerowitz & Chaiken, 1987; Köbberling & Wakker, 2005). Therefore it is hypothesized that a negatively framed message may increase the donation intention more than a positively framed message. Thus, the hypothesis is proposed as such:

1. Negatively framed messages have a higher influence on increasing the donation intention than a positively framed message.

2.3 THE MODERATING EFFECT OF THE LOGO SHAPE

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The logo is a visual component of the brand and through different marketing media it can help to affect the customer and to identify the organization (Henderson & Cote 1998). In the context of donations, many messages can be framed to persuade people to engage in a pro social behaviour. Thus, the effectiveness of a donation campaign can be based also on the forms through which a message is framed (Anker, Hart LaVail, Reinhart, & Hugh Feeley, 2010). As such, logo can strengthen the idea of a message (Muller & Ruffieux, 2011).

Previous researches tried to develop a conceptual framework regarding how shapes and messages are delivered together through the usage of a communication medium (Schneider, et al., 2001; Pieters, Wedel, & Batra, 2010; Negm & Tantawi, 2015; Macy, Chassin, Presson, & Yeung, 2016). Within the study of Negm and Tantawi (2015), the authors demonstrated that shapes and messages delivered via communication media help to influence and persuade consumers’ visual perceptions. These findings are consistent with the study of Macy et al. (2016). Their research showed that smokers’ attitude, exposed to a packet of cigarette, changes with loss framed messages together with geometric shapes (e.g., angular and rounded). Thus, placing geometric pictures, like rounded or angular shapes, through warning messages, it is possible to motivate smokers to abandon their addiction. The attitudes towards smoking can be changed if individuals are exposed to a framed warning message plus shapes (Macy, Chassin, Presson, & Yeung, 2016). Additionally, Schneider et al. (2001) confirmed that a framed message can be more effective if paired with a visual cue. A gain-framed message with a visual cue stimulates the smoker to see positive consequences of avoiding smoking and related temptations. Gain-framed messages with visual cue like images are positively related with the decrease of smoking behaviour and they help to prevent such desire being more persuasive (Schneider, et al., 2001).

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factor for influencing the consumer evaluation and the behaviour intention (Fenko, Lotterman, & Galetzka, 2016). Past researches focused on the influence of visual elements with a framed message without focusing on the shape of these images. A message, in order to be strategically effective, needs to integrate visual elements because they have a degree of influence on the attitude and on the behaviour intention ( Clow, James, Kranenburg, & Berry, 2009). Therefore the aim of this study is to expand the research by examining the moderation effect of the shape given the effects that different shapes can have on the consumer intention (Schnurr & E. Stokburger-Sauer, 2016). Gueguen et al. (2011) give us a better overview of consumer-shape relationships. According to their study, during the cognitive process of shapes, viewers are exposed to a source of information. The information is encoded to create an interconnected network. When consumers see a shape, the associations created by this vision are recalled from this network. Consequently, if shapes are associated with concepts activated from the view, these concepts turn out to be available in the human brain. In that way consumers act bearing their actions under the influence of these activated concepts (Gueguen, Jacob, & Charles-Sire, 2011).

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and simple lines have a better positive feeling and the receiver of a message tends to prefer them over the angular shapes (Velasco et al., 2016). Therefore, curvilinear shapes tend to be more pleasing and favour more approaching behaviour (Velasco et al., 2016). Westerman et al. (2013) provide a further explanation regarding the effect of the aesthetic design on the consumer response. The product evaluation of the consumer can be influenced by the aesthetic shape of the packaging because of a halo effect (Westerman et al., 2013). This effect consists in the dependency of the assessment of one factor that influences the evaluation of other factors. Results show that respondents prefer rounded shapes over angular ones. The aesthetic shape of the packaging turns out to be more pleasing and less annoying when it is more rounded rather than angular. Consequently the willingness to purchase was found to be higher for products containing rounded graphics within their package (Westerman et al., 2013).

This finding can be explained by the negative association that sharp corners can create (Rompay, Pruyn, & Tieke, 2009). Compared to rounded shapes that express more harmony, angular shapes express negative association like aggression and fear, increase the conflict between the stimulus and the environment creating an avoidance response (Rompay, Pruyn, & Tieke, 2009). The difference in the effect between rounded and angular shapes has been found in another research conducted by Bar and Neta (2006; 2007). With a further comparison between sharp and rounded shapes, Bar and Neta in their two studies confirmed that angular shapes emphasize fear and threat. Therefore, these feelings can activate a negative bias and people will tend to evaluate rounded shapes as more familiar (Westerman et al., 2012). Since rounded shapes are more associated with human body shapes, they tend to be easier to process and induce a higher likelihood to purchase (Westerman et al., 2012).

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organization like fear, anger or anxiety, consumers can also donate a greater amount of money (Burt & Strongman, 2005). According to these reasoning, it might be reasonable to assume that the shape of the logo might have an influential effect on the message framing effectiveness. Going more into the detail, as an angular shape can trigger the avoidance response and negatively framed messages stress the avoidance of negative consequences, it might be valid to assume that the presence of an angular shape can strengthen the effectiveness of a negatively framed message. Contrarily, as rounded shapes stress more the concept of an approach behaviour and positively framed messages emphasize more positive consequences if we decide to donate, it might be also valid to assume that the presence of a rounded logo might reinforce the effect of a positively framed message. Therefore, it is hypothesized that the shape of a logo might moderate the effect of message framing on the donation intention. The hypothesis is proposed as such:

2a. The logo shape influences the effect of message framing

2b. The presence of a rounded logo in a donation page strengthens the effect of the positively framed message on the donation intention

2c. The presence of an angular logo in a donation page strengthens the effect of negatively framed messages on the donation intention

3 METHODOLOGY

The following chapter describes the methodology through which this study will be conducted. Section 3.1 covers the ‘data collection’ while the paragraph 3.2 and 3.3 covers the ‘study design’ together with the ‘construct measurement’. The last two sections, 3.4 and 3.5, cover the ‘manipulation check’ and the ‘method of analysis’.

3.1 DATA COLLECTION

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logo) design (see Table 1). Data is collected in an online survey. The questionnaire contains four different conditions representing the manipulated framed message together with one of the two logos. The conditions are structured as follow: condition 1) negatively framed message and rounded shape logo, condition 2) negatively framed message and angular shape logo, condition 3) positively framed message and rounded shape logo and finally condition 4) positively framed message and angular shape logo.

After seeing the web-page with one of the four conditions, participants need to respond if the message that they have seen is considered negative or positive and if the shape of the logo is rounded or angular. Subsequently, in order to measure donation intention, respondents need to assess their willingness to donate through a 3 items question. After these questions, it will be asked demographical questions. Factors like gender (Brunel &Nelson 2000, 2003; Newman 2000; Nelson et al. 2006), age (Putman, 2000; Piff, Kraus, Côté, Hayden Cheng, & Keltner, 2010; Yao, 2015), income (Piff, 2010), donation proneness (Sharma & Chan, 2011) and if they have helped the charities in the last 12 months (Perkings & Jones, 2004; Chang & Lee, 2009) are determinant factors for charitable behaviour.

Rounded Angular Negatively framed message Condition 1 Condition 2

Positively framed message Condition 3 Condition 4

N Condition 1 Negatively framed

message/Rounded shape logo

40

Condition 2 Negatively framed message/Angular shape logo

40

Condition 3 Positively framed message/Rounded shape logo

40

Condition 4 Positively framed message/Angular shape logo

40

Table 1: Study design 2 by 2 between subjects 1: Study design 2 by 2 between subjects

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To grant autonomy, anonymity and user-friendliness on answering to the questioners, the experiment is conducted with the usage of online platforms (Malhotra & Birks, 2007). Respondents have been thus selected through the social media (e.g. Facebook). A total of 160 participants joined the experiment. Data shows that in the number of participants there are 110 males and 50 females ranging from 18 to 65 years old (M=28.06, SD=.379). The socio demographics characteristics of the 160 respondents are listed in table 2 below.

Attribute Levels Total

Gender Male 110 Female 50 Tot. 160 Age ≤ 30 142 30 < n ≤40 8 < 40 10 Tot. 160 Income Below 10.000 100 between 10,000 and 25,000 € 30 between 25,000 and 40,000 € 17 above 40,000 € 13 Tot. 160 Table 2: Socio-demographics results

3.2 STUDY DESIGN

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allude to the negative and positive framed message. The two messages and the 2 logos are available in the Table 3 below:

Framing

Logo

Negative

‘‘ if you don't donate today, you’ll make

a child sad tomorrow ’’

Rounded

Positive

“ if you donate today, you’ll make a

child happy tomorrow ”

Angular

Table 3: Framing and Logo values

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Figure 2: Donation page with positive framing and angular logo

3.3 CONSTRUCT MEASUREMENT

The following section shows the construct measurement. The questions regarding the dependent variable donation intention are based on work of Nasr Bechwati & Xia (2008), adjusted from the purchase of a digital camera via web page to the respondents’ donation intention always through a web page platform. The construct consists in a 7 point Likert scale. The control variable donation

proneness as such does not exist, however this measure is based on work of Sharma & Chan (2011),

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gender and age. The question regarding the income comprehends four choices: Below 10,000 Euros,

between 10,000 and 25,000 Euros, between 25,000 and 40,000 Euros, and above 40,000. At the end of the survey, respondents need to indicate their gender and fill their age.

Table 4 presents the variables that are going to be measured and their scales. Two Factor Analysis and reliability analysis have been conducted in order to test if the items are consistent with the factors. The results identify 3 factors: donation intention, donation proneness and help others. All variables tested with multi item Likert scales. The factor analysis for the dependent variable donation intention (KMO=.775, Sig. = .000) shows that three items form one factor and the reliability analysis (Cronbach Alpha=.947) confirms that the factor is internal consistent. Furthermore the same analysis has been conducted for the other two control variables. Also for donation proneness and help others, the factor (KMO=.770, Sig. = .000) and the reliability analysis (Cronbach Alpha=.891 and Cronbach Alpha=.672) confirm that both variables are internal consistent (Table 4: variables and scales).

3.4 MANIPULATION CHECK

Subsequently, in order to test the manipulation, respondents are asked to answer to: how the message is framed (negative or positive), their evaluations regarding the shape of the logo (Rounded/Angular). Message framing has been adapted on the experiment of Chang & Lee (2009) and (2010). As Chang & Lee (2009) and (2010) asked to rate the tone of a framed message in a charity advertisement, this experiment investigate how the respondents evaluate the tone of a framed message in a charity web page. Participants have to indicate how they experienced the shape of the logo through the measurement of the logo shape that has been created for this experiment. In order to check the manipulation of the experimental variables, the questions are also presented in Table 4.

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differs from respondents exposed to angular logo (M= 5.09, SD=1.285). Thus, the t-test for the logo

shape shows that respondents exposed to a rounded logo answer that the logo is angular while those

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Construct and Items Likert scale Factor Loading Cronbach Alpha Donation intention (Nasr Bechwati & Xia, 2008):

 It is very likely that I will donate to ‘Donate for Life’  If I have to decide now, I probably will donate to

‘Donate for Life’

 The likelihood that I will donate to ‘Donate for Life’ is high

7 points Likert scale ranging from strongly

disagree to strongly agree .954 .949 .953 .947 Manipulation check

Message framing (Chang & Lee, 2009; Chang & Lee, 2010) :

 Please indicate how you experience the tone of the message

7 points Likert scale ranging from extremely negative to

extremely positive Manipulation check

Logo shape:

 Please indicate how you experience the shape of the logo that you saw in the web page

7 points Likert scale ranging from very

angular to very rounded

Income (Sinha and Mandel, 2008):

Please Indicate your gross annual income

Below 10,000 €, between 10,000 and 25,000 €, between 25,000€ and 40,000 €, above 40,000 € Age:

 Please insert your age

Gender:

 Please insert your gender Male/Female

Donation proneness (Sharma & Chan, 2011):

 Donating makes me feel good  I feel excited when donating to charity

 When I donate, I feel that I am helping someone in need  I enjoy donating, regardless of the amount I give

7 points Likert scale ranging from strongly disagree to strongly agree .850 .801 .835 .872 .672

Help others (Perkings & Jones, 2004):

 During the last 12 months, how many times have you been involved in a charity organization project to help make life better for other people?

 During the last 12 months, how many times have you given money or time to a charity or organization that helps people?

 During the last 12 months, apart from giving money, how many times have you spent to help people who are poor, hungry, sick, or unable to care for themselves?

5 point Likert scale ranging from 1 (never), 2 (once), 3 (twice), 4 (3-4 times), and 5 (5 or more times) .766 .649 .658 .891

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3.5 METHOD OF ANALYSIS

An ANOVA is used to measure whether there is a significant direct relationship between positive/negative framed messages and the willingness to donate, testing the first and the second hypotheses. The ANOVA analysis is used by considering dummy variables for the independent variable

message framing (with values of 1= Positive and 0= Negative) and for the moderator logo shape (with

values of 1=Rounded and 0=Angular). Additionally, control variables like gender, age, income, help

others and donation proneness will be taken into consideration via a regression analysis (Table A). The

regression analysis is represented as follows:

𝐷𝐼 = 𝛼 + 𝛽𝐺 + 𝛽

₂

𝐴 + 𝛽

₃

𝐼 + 𝛽

₄

𝐻𝑂 + 𝛽

₅

𝐷𝑃 + 𝜀

𝑊ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒:

𝐺 = 𝐺𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟

𝐴 = 𝐴𝑔𝑒

𝐼 = 𝐼𝑛𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑒

𝐻𝑂 = 𝐻𝑒𝑙𝑝 𝑂𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑠

𝐷𝑃 = 𝐷𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠

𝜀 = 𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚

Gender, income, age, help others and donation proneness are regressed on the dependent variables

in order to see which variables should be considered in the ANOVA for the main and moderation effect. Among all the control variables only donation proneness yields a p value = .000. Thus, it is the only control variable to be included in the ANOVA for measuring the main and the moderation effect (Model 2 and Model 3, Table B).

4 RESULTS

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4.1 HYPOTHESIS TESTING

In order to decide which variables include in the ANOVA, all the control variables are regressed on the dependent variable donation intention. The regression analysis model yields an Adjusted R Square= .159 with an explanatory value of 15.9% and a Significance =.000. In this analysis only the control variable donation proneness yields a significant p value=.000 with all the variables showing no significance, even at the p level. The complete results regarding all the effects of the variables on the donation intention are listed in the following table (Table A).

However, as reported in Table B an ANOVA analysis has been performed to test the main effect and the moderation of logo shape on message framing.

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Table B

P value < .05 *, P value< .10**

The main effect has a significance =.000 with and Adjusted R Squared = .142 indicating an explanatory value of 14.2 %. However, message framing does not have a significant main effect on donation

intention yielding a p value =.375. Thus, the first hypothesis is not confirmed.

The second hypothesis is tested with an ANOVA analysis and the model has a significance =.000 with an Adjusted R Squared = .141 indicating an explanatory value of 14.1%. Nevertheless, logo shape yields a Sig. = .207 and also the moderation, message framing*logo shape, shows a p value=.686 (Table B). Thus the moderator logo shape doesn’t have the anticipated outcome on the message framing-donation intention relationship. The variable logo shape does not have an influence on message

framing, thus, considering that the hypothesis 2a is not supported, no further analysis are conducted

to test hypotheses 2b and 2c. The following bar chart represents graphically the aforementioned relationships in order to give an additional overview of the moderation effect.

Model 2 ANOVA Main effect Mean Square Sig. Model 3 ANOVA Moderation Effect Mean Square Sig. Main variable Message Framing Control variables 1.874 .375 1.870 .376 Donation Proneness 66.273 .000** 65.748 .000** Moderator Logo Shape Interaction Effect

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Figure 3: Moderation effect

5 DISCUSSION

The present research analyses the influence of the logo shape of a fictive charity organization on the donation intention, and whether the combination of the shape with a framed message is likely to further increase the effect. The results do not support the predictions and logo shape does not have a moderation effect on the donation intention-message framing relationship.

Thus, considering the two hypotheses concepts under the spotlight, why do framed messages and logo shape show no significant effects?

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5.1 DISCUSSION OF THE RESULTS AND THEORETICAL CONTRIBUTIONS

The findings of this study provide surprising results starting from the manipulation check. During the evaluation of the logo shape experience, respondents have evaluated rounded logo as angular and angular logo as rounded. Considering how respondents have perceived the logo shape, the t-test reveals that the manipulation check did not work, leading to intriguing results. At a first glance, it might seem that logo shape does not interact with the respondents’ experience. The reasoning behind these results may be due to the incapacity of logo shape to affect viewers’ emotions. This explanation can be consistent with the findings of Brakus et al. (2009) which found that brands’ features like logo and shape can interact with the consumer creating an experience. The experience is considered as an internal consumer response evoked also by brand-related features like the logo. Logo, as a brand’s stimuli, can be applied in marketing communication media, evoking feelings, sensations, cognition and behavioural response. Thus, the higher the level of interaction between a brands’ features, the more the experience is likely to make a mark in the consumer’s mind and to create emotional bonds (Brakus, Schimitt, & Zarantonello, 2009). In the four scenarios, angular logos are depicted as rounded and rounded shaped logo as angular because apparently they create an experience poor of feeling, cognitions, sensations, behavioural response and they do not stimulate an emotional interaction. An additional justification to these results can also be found in the theory of Nikolopoulou and colleagues (2016) related to the importance of emotions and brand’s features like logo. In order to let consumers identify or recognize what is expressed by any marketing media, brands’ features like logo need to be carefully designed to trigger emotions and to sufficiently affect the human brain (Nikolopoulou, Pollali, & Samanta, 2016). Logos together with the shape might focus on creating an emotional reaction affecting the brain and activating, consequently, consumers’ interest, attention and imagination (Brakus, Schimitt, & Zarantonello, 2009). In conclusion, if a logo interacts with the consumer creating an experience without triggering any emotional reaction, consumers may not pay attention to logo shapes. Therefore, emotions can have a crucial role in recognizing how the shape (rounded or angular) of the logo is experienced by respondents and it can be considered as a control variable for future experiments.

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the hypothesis of Rothman & Peter (1997) study that the response towards gain or loss framed message depends also on the individual knowledge and experience with the issue. The higher is the experience and the knowledge with an issue, the higher will be the possibility that a framed message can be averted by the message reader (Rothman & Peter, 1997). The inconsistency of the investigation results with the theory behind the hypothesis might be also attributed to the respondents’ involvement with the charity issue. Involvement can be an important factor that moderates the message framing effectiveness. A person that is highly involved with an issue can process the message better and consequently can have a cognitive response toward a persuasive message (G. Millar & U. Millar, 2000). When a respondent is not involved with a charity causes can be also less connected with the marketing campaign with which a NPO is trying to influence him/her. As a consequence, if respondents hold a low involved charitable attitude, marketing communication connected with the charity issue, will be less influential and the intention to donate will be low (Grau & Garretson Folse, 2007). In sum, if respondents are not involved with the charity issue, they may not be willing to donate or they may not consider the marketing communication tools through which NPOs try to promote their message. Therefore, involvement, experience and knowledge in the charity cause can be important variables to consider in explaining these results and can be also an important variables to include for further studies.

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may be more advantageous to pair both variables adding pictorial images. It has been proven that the duality message-image can boost the willingness to donate significantly (Chang & Lee, 2009). This solution can be justified with the research of Chang and Lee (2009) which confirmed that negative vivid image can better foster the effectiveness of a negatively framed message if presented to the consumer in the same marketing communication tool. In order to give a further explanation of the no significant effect of the main and moderation effects, in line with the theory of Das and colleagues (2008), it is also possible to use messages with explicit references and information about the achievement of the charity goals because they can increase the effectiveness of the message affecting the attitude inducing a higher donation intention. In order to maximize the effectiveness of the message that they want to communicate, charities need conversely to combine abstract or statistical message framed in a negative way whereas anecdotal and vivid message need to be framed positively (Das, Kerkhof, & Kuiper, 2008). Moreover, a framed message presenting higher statistical data regarding for example child poverty can increase vividness and salience improving as such the message effectiveness (Chang & Lee, 2010). Thus, different improvement of this investigation may consider logo shape and message framing together with other sources (like statistical data and vivid image) that can foster more a cognitive response from the viewers. Moreover, in the development of the manipulation, two kinds of message framing have been tested. Other sources of manipulations could be considered as vivid information and statistical presentation together with messages or logos. The current research is the first in the body of academic knowledge to combine the effect of message framing and logo shape but, due to these surprising results, it does not provide practical implications for marketers and does not add any remarkable finding in the neuro marketing academic research.

6 LIMITATIONS AND FUTURE RESEARCH

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in order to expand the knowledge on logo shapes and framed messages, it is suggestable that future studies are carried out in a different scenario, or that another research method is included.

Thus, for further research, it is also recommended that the visual stimuli can be improved by providing changes in the design of the shapes. The experiment of this thesis analyses two kinds of shapes (angular vs rounded), others can consider also the influential power of other geometrical shapes. It could be possible that potential donors respond differently to the different shapes together with other marketing communication sources (e.g. advertisement). In order to expand this research, there is also the necessity to take into account characteristics like typeface or colours as further influential brand elements. Marketers need to be aware of other cues that might impact the consumer and other kind of design shapes. Variations and combination of colours are also factors that influence the consumer behaviours (Westerman, et al., 2013). Lastly, for future research it is interesting to expand this study using a real charitable brand logo and not a fictive one. The choice of a non-existing name for NPOs may create a lack of trustworthiness towards the respondent. Trust is an important component in the choice to donate because the higher it is, the stronger will be our donation intention (Janssen, 2016). Trust, reputation and popularity of an organization are important factors that can influence the charitable contribution especially if this donation is made online (Janssen, 2016; Tan, Lu, & Tan, 2016)

.

Respondents may be more willing to pay or donate a significant amount of money if they really recognize a true non-profit organization that bases its power on an important history and activism in supporting the cause of victims in need of charity support.

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APPENDIX

APPENDIX I - SCENARIOS

Fictive donation page with rounded logo and negative framed message

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Fictive donation page with angular logo and negative framed message

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APPENDIX II - EXPERIMENT

Dear respondents,

Thank you for participating in my experiment. Completing this questionnaire will contribute to finishing my Master of Science in Marketing Management at the University Of Groningen

(Rijksuniversiteit Groningen). The response of this questionnaire will approximately take you 3 to 4

minutes of your time.

For my thesis I am studying the consumer willingness to donate after seeing the donation page of a charity organization known as ‘Donate for life’. Before you can fill the questionnaire you will see the donation-web page. Remember that you will not express your donation intention clicking on ''click here to donate'' but through specific questions that you will see in the questionnaire. Please spend 20 seconds taking a close look at the web page and then proceed to the questionnaire. To ensure realism, validity and quality to the research it is important that you really immerse yourself in a scenario where you are visiting the donation page of a charity organization web-site. It is also important that you carefully read the questions.

All the answers that you provide will be confidential and the outcome will be anonymous. Thank you for your participation. Your help is very important. For every questions regarding the questionnaire please do not hesitate to contact me.

Ehsan Zahedi,

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e.zahedi@student.rug.nl

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The influential power of shapes: How logo shapes moderate the effect of framed message on donation intentions