Which features should be managed in order to achieve a successful partnership between a brand and a cause in the Netherlands?
“A study about consumers’ attitudes towards a cause-related marketing partnership”
Master thesis, MscBA, Specialization Marketing University of Groningen, Faculty of Economics and Business
Master Thesis Supervisor: Liane Voerman Second supervisor: Janny Hoekstra
December 2011
By
Stephanie von Muhlen Student number: 1565540 Jan Pieter Heijestraat 158-1
Amsterdam
Management Summary
Over the last few years the use of cause-related marketing has increased. Therefore, the purpose of the present study is to contribute to a developing body of research in the emerging area of cause-related marketing (CRM). The objective of this study is to obtain understandings about the important features for a successful partnership between a brand and a cause and to give advice on how these aspects should be managed. The main research question of this study is: What are the important features for a successful partnership between a brand and a cause in the Netherlands and how should these features be managed?
Based on previous research, several features (general attitude towards CRM/CSR, attitude towards the partnership, cause affinity, cause-brand fit, familiarity, attitude towards brand, attitude towards cause, credibility and altruistic attributions) are considered in order to achieve the best outcome from the cause-related marketing partnership.
An online survey has been constructed in order to collect data on these features. Bivariate regression analyses and multiple regression analyses have been conducted. For the bivariate regression analyses the findings suggest that all the features have a significant effect and all hypotheses can be accepted. The two variables with the most unique variance are cause brand fit (β=0,778) and credibility (β=0,713). For the multiple regression analyses the findings suggest that cause brand fit, attitude towards CRM/CSR, familiarity and attitude towards the brand are the most influential determinants of attitude towards partnership.
cause-brand fit is the best predictor. This shows that these variables explain the most unique variance of attitude towards partnership.
More understanding on what features contribute to a successful partnership between a brand and a cause may benefit the partnership between a brand and a cause. Apart from the features mentioned above, there are several conditions for success which brands and causes should keep in mind when forming a partnership. First of all the relationship between the brand and the cause should be managed carefully. Effective communication between the brand and the cause is crucial for a successful partnership.
The second condition for success is time commitment. Lafferty and Goldsmith (2005) have shown that a long-term partnership, thus a so-called cause-brand alliance (CBA), tends to be more beneficial for both the brand and the cause. A long-term, consistent and well exposed partnership strengthens associative links in consumers’ minds. Consequently the brand and the cause both benefit from these positive associations in the form of trust and increased awareness (Nowak & Clarke 2003).
Another important condition for success is the message used to promote the CRM campaign.
Welsch (1999) argues that a CRM campaign should stress the benefits which the cause will create instead of the problems it is striving to resolve. Moreover, Ellen et al. (2000) state that some consumers favor concrete campaigns stressing immediate rather than ongoing needs (Welsch 1999). Furthermore it is important that the customer is educated well about the cause and the partnership (Welsch 1999). From the survey it appeared that 50% of the respondents do not know about the partnership between Spa Reine and UNICEF.
While there is much literature about CRM, the main contribution of this research to science is the creation of one insight in what features contribute to a successful CRM partnership and how this partnership should be managed.
Preface
This thesis is my final step to get my master degree in Business Adminstration – Marketing at the University of Groningen. After having done an internship at Beiersdorf I started writing my thesis and orienting myself on the labor market. A new challenge has started in my life, as luckily FrieslandCampina has offered me a job for 3 months in the shopper customer marketing department, a chance which I could not resist. Therefore at the final stage of my thesis I have been working at FrieslandCampina and writing my thesis at the same time, this was not easy, but I have managed to finish my thesis.
I would like to use this chapter of my thesis to thank some people. First of all, I would very much like to start my supervisor Liane Voerman for the nice cooperation and the constructive feedback. She has helped me through my thesis, by positively giving feedback and helping me to progress. Furthermore I would very much like to thank my parents for their unconditional support during my study. Without them it would never have been possible to finish by master degree.
Hopefully you will enjoy reading this thesis!
Stephanie von Muhlen 13 december 2011
Content
Management Summary ...2
Preface ...4
Content ...5
1. Introduction ...7
1.1 Context ...7
1.2 Theoretical background ...8
1.3 Problem Statement & research questions ...9
1.4 Partnership Spa & UNICEF ...9
1.5 Structure of this research ... 12
2. Theoretical Framework ...13
2.1 Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) ... 13
2.2 Cause-Related Marketing (CRM)... 16
2.2.1 CRM implementation strategies ... 17
2.3 Conditions for success ... 18
2.3.1 Time commitment ... 18
2.3.2 Effective management of the program ... 18
2.4 Benefits and objectives of CRM ... 19
2.5 Which elements contribute to a successful CRM program? ... 21
2.5.1 Fit ... 21
2.5.2 Cause affinity ... 23
2.5.3 Familiarity of the cause and partnership ... 23
2.5.4 Attitude towards the brand and the cause ... 23
2.5.5 Credibility in the context of a CRM campaign ... 24
2.6 Conceptual model... 26
3. Research methods...27
3.1 Research design ... 27
3.2 Constructs, measurements and scales ... 28
3.3 Pretest ... 32
3.4 Participants and sample ... 32
3.4 Plan of analysis ... 33
4. Results ...35
4.1 Binary regression ... 35
4.2 Multiple regression... 41
5. Conclusions & Recommendations ...44
5.1 Conclusions... 44
5.2 Recommendations ... 47
5.3 Limitations and further research ... 49
Literature ...51
Appendices ...56
1. Introduction
This chapter provides an introduction into the background of the research. First there will be a short introduction about the context (1.1) in which where this research takes place. This will be followed by the theoretical background (1.2) after which the problem statement and main research question, sub questions and objectives (1.3) will be outlined. Finally in (1.4) the case study of this research will be explained.
1.1 Context
Through the literature it appears that there is a lack of knowledge on the possible effects of Cause Related Marketing (CRM), on how to implement it etc. This thesis defines the term Cause related marketing (CRM) as “the process of formulating and implementing activities that are characterized by an offer from the firm to contribute a specified amount to a designated cause when customers engage in revenue-providing exchanges that satisfy organizational and individual objectives” (Varadarajan and Menon, 1988).
In the last decade more and more companies have recognized that paying more attention, and spending more time and money to human beings and the environment, gives an added value. Many profit organizations have therefore launched marketing campaigns attached to charitable causes (Welsh 1999). But CRM is a concept which is very difficult to grasp. What can CRM do for my business? How can we implement it? Should we communicate about it and can it enhance or hurt the reputation of my organization?
Therefore this thesis will first find out what the added value of cause related marketing is for companies. Then, it will discover which aspects should be managed and how in order to achieve a successful partnership between a brand (Spa) and a cause (UNICEF) in the Netherlands. Before discussing the actual problem statement and related research question, the next paragraph will give a short introduction to the theoretical background.
1.2 Theoretical background
Research has shown that consumers’ perceptions regarding an entire company and its role in the society can contribute significantly to the reputation and strength of a brand (Hoeffler
& Keller 2002). The strength of a brand lies in what consumers have learned, felt, seen and heard about the brand. Communication on corporate social responsibility and cause related marketing plays a bigger role nowadays. It contributes to the reputation of a brand, enhances the image, enhances credibility, evokes emotions and creates a feeling of brand community (Hoeffler & Keller 2002). The enormous popularity of cause related marketing has triggered an increasingly critical consumer. Social claims of companies are therefore not easily praised and accepted (Becker-Olsen et al., 2006).
As can be seen in figure 1, a CRM partnership involves three parties who should benefit from the partnership.
Figure 1
As Cause related marketing is strongly gaining popularity in the Netherland (Meijs and Van der Voort 2003), it is time to find out which elements contribute to a successful CRM program. Therefore, the objective of the present research is to contribute to a developing body of research in the emerging area of cause-related marketing. To provide insight in the important aspects for a successful partnership between a brand and a cause and to give advice on how these aspects should be managed.
Customer
Cause Brand
1.3 Problem Statement & research questions
The objective of this research leads to the following main problem statement:
What are the important features for a successful partnership between a brand and a cause in the Netherlands and how should these aspects be managed?
The overall goal of this thesis is to see what the attitude of consumers is regarding the partnership between UNICEF and Spa Reine. As “a successful partnership” is not measurable, this research will use the dependent variable “attitude towards the partnership” in order to get an answer to the problem statement. This means the perception of consumers.
The following sub-questions will be used as a guideline to find an answer to the main research question:
1. How can cause-related marketing be defined and why is it important?
2. How can cause-related marketing create value for a brand and a cause?
3. How can CRM be managed and implemented?
4. Which elements contribute to a successful partnership between a brand and a cause?
1.4 Partnership Spa & UNICEF
The empirical research will focus on the partnership between Spa Reine and UNICEF.
Therefore this subchapter will give a short introduction of both SPA and UNICEF and the partnership.
The brand name Spa is owned by the international group Spadel. Spa is a light mineral Belgian mineral water which has been bottled since the late 16th century.
Spa bottles four sorts of spring water:
Spa Reine (Spa blauw) still water Spa Barisart (Spa rood) sparkling water
Spa Marie-Henriette (Spa turquoise) naturally sparkling water Spa Citron (Spa groen) sparkling water with lemon taste
At Spa, sustainability and caring have been in the genes for centuries. For Spa the caring for nature and people means everything. This vision is also encapsulated in Spa’s slogan: “Purity which takes care of you”. As such Spa has protected one of the largest nature reserves around the city of Spa. The area is called: “the Hoge Venen” and covers more than 13000 acres since the late 18th century. Furthermore Spa was the first mineral water company in Europe that recycles as much as 50% of the materials used for the manufacturing of Spa Reine bottles. Its labels are printed with vegetable ink and made from recycled paper. Spa also finds it important to take care of the people around them. Spa argues that the collaboration with UNICEF, wherein taking care of a fundamental right - clean drinking water for children - is essential and therefore a logical step which fits the philosophy of the brand.
On November 20th, 1989, member states of the United Nations adopted the convention on the rights of the child. But fulfilling the agreements that the treaty contains is not always easy, that’s the reason why the UN assigned UNICEF to speak out whenever countries do not comply to the treaties. UNICEF works with governments, local and international aid organizations and NGOs to ensure that the living conditions of children around the world improve.
In 2010 Spa Reine and UNICEF have joined forces through a short-term partnership of 2 months in a common concern for clean drinking water for children. 1.5 million children die annually because they drink contaminated drinking water and have poor hygiene. The World Health organization aims to half the proportion of people without access to safe drinking water by 2015. UNICEF helps through
achieving water in countries like Burkina Faso. In Burkina Faso, the poorest country in the world, the mortality rate is very high:
1 out of 6 children dies before their fifth year mainly because of the lack of clean drinking water and sanitation. This is one of the reasons why UNICEF is very active in providing clean drinking water, as this can help any country get out of the poverty circle and ensure that the health status improves and prevent diseases. Clean drinking water is thus seen as the motor for
development in many poor countries. UNICEF is working closely with local authorities for a national water policy. In the coming years the number of people having access to clean drinking water will therefore increase significantly.
The partnership between UNICEF and Spa Reine in 2010 has yielded over 25 million liters clean drinking water. For each liter sold Spa Reine (mineral water), Spa provides one day clean and safe drinking water for a child in Burkina Faso by building water wells. This year, Spa Reine is supporting UNICEF for the second time with a national campaign that started the 3rd of october and will end medio november 2011. UNICEF and Spa Reine this year strive to provide clean water to 47000 children for one year.
Special Spa Reine/UNICEF packages will be sold in the supermarkets in the Netherlands.
1.5 Structure of this research
In order to answer the main problem statement , this research will be structured as followed; the theoretical framework will be presented in the second chapter where the causal connection will be displayed in a conceptual model. This model is reviewed after the operationalization through a survey. The following chapter deals with the research design.
The subsequent chapter explains the empirical research which consists of regression analyses and discussing the empirical data. After that, a summary will be given of the findings of this research. Finally, recommendations and limitations will be presented in the last chapter.
2. Theoretical Framework
In order to investigate the problem statement, it is necessary to examine the literature on cause related marketing. This so called literature framework is divided into several paragraphs. In subparagraph 1 and 2 the definition of corporate social responsibility and cause related marketing will be explained and how CRM should be implemented and managed. Subparagraph 3 will elaborate on the benefits and objectives of CRM and subparagraph 4 will emphasize the features which contribute to a successful CRM program.
The academic literature will be used to make a conceptual model and formulate hypotheses.
2.1 Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR)
In today’s marketplace, consumers are becoming more and more concerned with corporate social responsibility (CSR) (Mohr et al. 2001). CSR and cause related marketing (CRM) are two terms that originally are rather different, but which are actually closely related to each other and often used at the same time (Sheikh & Beise-Zee 2011). CSR is a more far-reaching concept (Nielsen & Thomson 2007) and more complex (Mohr et al 2001), largely due to the diversity of social responsibility.
Giving an accurate and commonly accepted definition of CSR is still difficult (Turker 2009).
Central to the problem of an exact definition of CSR, is that CSR targets loosely defined societal goals, and is not completely related to the goal of a company. Nevertheless, what is socially responsible practice to one, may not be socially responsible to others (Juholin, 2005) But looking at a broad definition CSR may be defined as: “the economic, social and environmental development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs” (Boogaard 2002).
Another more concrete definition, which has a sharper focus on business: “CSR is a concept whereby companies integrate social and environmental concerns in their business operations and in their interactions with their stakeholders on a voluntary basis” (Blowfield & Murray 2008).
Consumers are expecting more and more from brands and are willing to pay more for those brands that are environmentally and socially responsible. Studies of Edelman1 show that 83% of people are willing to change their consumption habits if it can make tomorrow’s world a better place. They even feel it is their duty to contribute to a better society &
environment. Furthermore 70% of consumers think that companies - more than governments - are responsible for finding solutions to social & environmental problems and 76% of consumers globally claim that they like to buy from brands that donate to worthy causes. Research of Havas2 found that 71% of consumers think brands spend too much on marketing/advertising and should invest more into good causes.
As can be concluded from these 2 studies, consumers increasingly demand that companies include environmental and social aspects into their business plans. Climate change, overpopulation, education and scarcity are elements of changes in the world that put a lot of pressure on companies. Companies face social pressures, are exposed to international competition and have to respond to opportunities and threats in their market. The supporting of a social plan becomes a market imperative and a real tool to find global consumer appeal. It is a strong and long-lasting marketing tool which started in the USA over 20 years ago.
According to Lantos 2001, CSR has in practice been perceived as mostly motivated by marketing objectives. Disclosing social responsibility practices can provide benefits to a company in the form of enhanced reputation, market value (Luo & Bhattacharya 2006), supportive communities, enhanced customer loyalty, improved quality and productivity and greater employee loyalty and retention (Moir 2001).
1 Edelman study, Good Purpose 2009 6000 consumers, 10 markets, France, Germany, UK, Canada, Italy, USA, India, China, Japan, Brazil, 18-64 y.o
2 Havas study, Sustainable Future 2009 20 000 consumers, 10 markets, France, Germany, UK, Sweden, Spain, USA, India, China, Mexico, Brazil
According to a study of Edelman3, 90% of respondents claim to work more likely for an ethically & socially responsible company and nearly 90% would leave their jobs to work for a more socially responsible company. It seems to work: when executed well, social responsibility efforts can boost a firm’s image.
Nevertheless criticism of CSR remains present. The most common criticism is the so-called green-washing, where companies claim to be greener and more sustainable than they are in reality. According to this view, CSR is primarily used as a marketing tool to meet the growing consumer demand for responsible practices and to improve the company's reputation.
According to another criticism CSR is not effective and has mainly a business interest. In addition, according to some liberal economists CSR works against the free market idea.
Friedman describes this vision in 1970 in his article "The social responsibility of business is to increase its profits”. According to him the sole responsibility of companies is to maximize profits, and because of this, the market (and thus society) will be well served and the greatest prosperity for shareholders, consumers and employees will be created. But because of pressure from society, NGOs, governments, and the media, CSR is really part of today's business life. These groups hold companies responsible for the social and environmental consequences of their actions. Porter and Kramer suggest that this trend can be described as: “CSR has emerged as an inescapable priority for business leaders in every country.”
The concept of CSR can be operationalized by the term ‘corporate social initiatives’, meaning major activities undertaken by a company to support social causes and to comply with
duties to corporate social responsibility (Kotler & Lee, 2005). Six types of corporate social initiatives can be distinguished: Corporate Social Marketing, Corporate Philanthropy, Cause Promotions, Cause-Related Marketing, Community Volunteering and Socially Responsible Business Practices. The most widely used CSR dimension is the partnering of a company with a cause, called cause-related marketing (CRM). CRM will be further elaborated in the next subchapter and will be the main subject for this thesis.
3 Edelman study, Good Purpose 2010 6000 consumers, 13 markets, France, Germany, UK, Canada, Italy, USA, India, China, Japan, Brazil, Mexico, UAE, the Netherlands, 18-64 y.o
2.2 Cause-Related Marketing (CRM)
CRM was initially conceived as a sales promotion technique where a brand partnered with a cause for a short time period, but today it has changed into a long-term partnership or cause–brand alliance (CBA) designed to improve the image of both partners (Lafferty &
Goldsmith 2005).
According to Lafferty 2009, a cause–brand alliance (CBA) can be defined as: “the long-term partnership between a firm and a cause whereby the firm contributes a specified amount to the cause when consumers purchase designated brands, thus forming a deeper bond with consumers and satisfying the long-term goals of both partners with regard to organizational awareness, image, and market positioning.”
CRM is a very complex marketing tool which may form unexpected associations in the mind of the consumer (Hamlin & Wilson 2004). The profit and non-profit organization that are involved in the CRM initiative obviously hope that these reactions will be positive.
Sen & Bhattacharya (2001) argue that by forming a partnership whereby the profit organization makes donations to a charitable cause is one way to show good corporate citizenship and build trust in the brand and in the corporation.
According to Lafferty (2009), research implies that the popularity of CRM has grown among consumers, with 76% of consumers having participated in at least one CRM campaign in 2004.
This trend has carried on as consumers demand more from profit organizations in terms of social responsibility and continue to say that their purchased goods or services are influenced by a brand’s charitable donations (Lafferty 2009). Therefore, it can be concluded that consumers expect more and more from brands in terms of being environmentally and socially responsible. Therefore the following hypothesis is formulated:
H1: Consumers‘ attitude towards CRM/CSR in general is positively related to consumers’
attitude towards the partnership
2.2.1 CRM implementation strategies
The following subparagraphs (2.2.1, 2.3, 2.3.1 and 2.3.2) are part of the background of CRM and are not researchable due to limitations. Therefore these subparagraphs will not lead to hypotheses.
CRM implementation strategies are the different modes of delivering the CRM program. The most used practice for CRM is donating a part of every product/service sold, to the cause organization. Nevertheless there are many other implementation strategies.
Berglind & Nakata 2005 and Gupta & Pirsch (2006) have tried to classify the strategies:
1. Sponsorship This definition is restricted to event sponsorship. This means that the corporate sponsorship must be connected to a nonprofit charitable event, like the yearly concert “Girls First” of PLAN Nederland. This strategy helps to target specific (including difficult to reach through more traditional advertising) populations and offers useful product exposure. According to Sneath et al. (2005) sponsorship may improve a company’s image through associating the name of a sponsoring brand with a cause that is valuable to a specific target group.
2. The transaction-based CRM implementation strategy For every product/service sold a share of profits is donated to a particular cause. Olsen et al. (2003) state that this link may result in the target customers purchasing more. An example is Quaker cruesli. From every packaging sold, they donate 1% of their turnover to World Food Program. This goes to school meals in Benin.
3. Joint promotion implementation strategy involves the cooperation in advertising between a profit organization and a nonprofit organization / cause. A joint- promotion implementation is not connected to a specific event like a sponsorship.
The focal point of a joint promotion implementation strategy is to evoke consumer’s emotions concerning corporate ethical behavior.
4. Donation in-kind non-financial corporate involvement towards enhancement of a social cause. Profit organizations are usually keener on providing corporate volunteers, making improvements to facilities or donating products to a cause than giving money (Peterson 2004).
Overall these are four different manners to implement a CRM campaign. However a CRM campaign could also be a combination of some CRM implementation strategies.
2.3 Conditions for success
In order to achieve a successful CRM partnership between a brand and a cause there are some conditions which are important to consider. These will be elaborated in the next two subchapters.
2.3.1 Time commitment
As stated above, Lafferty and Goldsmith (2005) have shown that long-term partnership, thus a CBA, tends to be more beneficial for both the brand and the cause. A long-term, consistent and well publicized relationship strengthens associative links in consumers’ minds.
Consequently the brand and the cause both benefit from these positive associations in the form of trust and increased awareness (Nowak & Clarke 2003). A long-term relationship also has the advantage of reducing start up costs and down-time for both parties.
2.3.2 Effective management of the program
What is crucial for a successful cause-related marketing campaign is effective communication between the brand and the cause. According to Anderson & Narus (1990) communication refers to ‘the formal as well as informal sharing of meaningful and timely information between firms’. It generates an environment in which task coordination, goal adjustment, and interfirm learning can occur (Sivadas and Dwyer 2000). Successful partnerships show better information gathering and communication quality. Another element of a successful partnership is trust. Morgan and Hunt (1994), argue that trust exists when ‘one party has confidence in an exchange partner’s reliability and integrity.’
It is difficult to achieve a successful partnership if the brand and the cause are not capable of coordinating their activities. Successful coordination of a CRM campaign requires both parties to be professional, reliable, competent, and focused on the goals and mission of the campaign. According to Anderson & Narus (1990) ‘both parties must be willing to stay involved, stick to a time schedule, and give the project the attention and resources it needs’.
What can also be important for a successful CRM program is the message used to promote the CRM campaign. For example how the campaign outcomes are framed, positive (e.g.
survival rates) instead of negative (e.g. death rates) (Grau and Folse 2007) can generate different consumer reactions. According to Welsch (1999) a cause related marketing campaign should stress the benefits which the cause will create instead of the problems it is striving to resolve.
Furthermore, according to Ellen et al. 2000 some consumers prefer concrete campaigns stressing immediate (e.g. victims of the Tsunami in Asia) versus ongoing needs (feeding the victims of poverty in less developed countries) (Welsch 1999). They argue that this could be due to the fact that consumers may feel the response to disasters to be more altruistic, while the sponsoring of an ongoing cause may yield more skepticism by consumers because of thoughts of self-interest by the profit organization.
Another key ingredient for effective management of the program is educating the customer (Welsch 1999). A company that claims to act socially responsible, does not survive if it is not incorporated into the entire organization. What is important here is that also the employees should be educated about the cause in order to support and understand the efforts.
All in all CRM can be a very dangerous area for companies to enter if not done correctly.
According to Duncan & Moriarty (1997) this means: tying the cause to the organization’s mission, not using it as a short-term tactic to increase sales but making it long term, and understanding that the effects are not always easy to measure and whatever effects there are, normally through enhanced reputation, are very long term.
2.4 Benefits and objectives of CRM
CRM is one of the fastest growing marketing tools due to the fact that it is often a win-win- win situation for profit organizations, non-profit organizations, and consumers (Endacott 2004). It generates goodwill and revenues for the profit organization, benefits the society and it forms positive feelings for the consumer as a result of their purchase decision. The non-profit organizations may gain knowledge, funding, and publicity.
According to Lafferty (2009), companies seek to combine fundamental marketing objectives with cause related marketing. These objectives are wide-ranging but tend to relate to three main areas: corporate image, brand equity and revenue generation. There have been various studies (Pringle & Thompson, Endacott 2004, Pracejus & Olsen 2004, Varadajan & Menon 1988, Berglind & Nakata 2005, Drumwright 1996) about the objectives of CRM, which are summarized in table 1.
Corporate image Brand Equity Revenue generation
Enhance corporate image Enhance brand awareness Generate incremental profit Attract & retain employees Differentiate brand Retain existing customers Improve social responsibility Increase brand recognition Attract new customers Oppose negative publicity Enhance brand attitude Improve customer loyalty Appease customer groups Draw media attention Increase market share
Positively influence external groups Competitive edge
Generates goodwill
Table 2: Objectives of CRM
Research4 has shown that consumers’ purchase patterns reveal the significant positive impact that CRM programs may have on their purchase practices, which consequently influences the brand’s reputation, differentiation and the sale of a product.
The most important benefit a nonprofit organization gets from the partnership with a profit organization is funding. Furthermore the nonprofit organization may benefit from the partnership through business advice and knowledge they get from the profit organization.
For example how to improve the administration of programs or getting advice on how to design promotional material more effectively, corporate employees assigned to aid running a fund-raising event, and services or products such as transport or computers (Baylin, Cunningham & Cushing 1994). In addition, it is very difficult for charities to gain public’s attention. Through a partnership with a profit organization, the nonprofit organization receives free publicity and thus more public knowledge of the cause (Thomas, Mullen, Freadrich 2011).
4 Profitable Partnerships ( 2000 ) Business in the Community Quantitative Consumer Research, supported by Research International.
Consumers may satisfy their altruistic needs by contributing to a cause, with little or no additional funds (Polonsky & Wood, 2001). Customers who buy a good cause related product ease their duty of charity given and they only need to open up their wallet once.
2.5 Which elements contribute to a successful CRM program?
2.5.1 Fit
Simmons & Becker-Olsen (2006) argue that fit is the most important success factor of a partnership. High fit is defined as: “Fit between a firm and a sponsored cause is high when the two are perceived as congruent (i.e. as going together), whether that congruity is derived from mission, products, markets, technologies, attributes, brand concepts or any other key association”.Managers are facing the problem of ‘fit’ between the brand and the cause. The management of ‘fit’ has turned into an increasingly crucial area as CRM has developed from one-off tactical manoeuvres to long term strategic brand partnerships between companies and causes (Mullen 1997). Studies investigating the problem of fit have found different results, but mostly positive.
Prajecus et al (2004) and Lafferty & Goldsmith (2005) have proved that strategic fit between a brand and a cause leads to positive results for consumer response. These positive results include increased likelihood of purchase and more positive consumer attitudes toward the brand and cause. Pracejus & Olsen (2004) found that more fit leads to 5-10 times higher purchase intention. According to Nan & Heo (2007), CRM works when there is no fit between a brand and a cause, but works better when there is fit for consumers who are high in brand consciousness.
But despite of all this research proving that better cause-brand fit leads to more positive consumer responses there have also been some studies that have shown that moderate fit between a cause and a brand may lead to improved effectiveness of a partnership (Lafferty 2007). Barone et al. (2007) argue that higher fit does not always lead to better image or attitude. One possible explanation for the different results on the effects of cause-brand fit on CRM is heterogeneity in the operationalization of the ‘fit’ variable (Barone et al. 2007).
There are 2 common ways of operationalizing cause brand fit (Barone et al. 2007):
1. Functional fit this is determined by means of comparing the functions and characteristics of the product category related to the brand, and the type of cause it is associated with (e.g. cosmetics products and hygiene causes)
2. Image fit what is very important in order to achieve a successful partnership is that both parties should have the same positioning characteristics, common target groups or shared values. Shared values are described as ´the extent to which partners have beliefs in common about what behaviors, goals, and policies are important or unimportant, appropriate or inappropriate, and right or wrong´ (Morgan and Hunt 1994, p. 25). According to Keller (1993), brand image could be defined as:
‘perceptions about a brand as reflected by the brand associations held in consumer memory. Brand associations consist of brand attributes (product-related and non- product-related, benefits (functional, experimental, symbolic) and attitudes. A cause should look for a corporate sponsor (brand) who is willing to give the CRM campaign the attention it needs in order to achieve success (Nowak & Clarke 2003).
Sen & Bhattacharya (2001) argue that consumers only react positively to CRM activities when the cause matches consumer preferences.
Additionally, Lafferty&Goldsmith (2005) have shown that strategic fit consists out of 2 elements:
1. Longevity of the CRM relationship
2. Compatibility which is the resemblance between the brand and the cause (e.g.
Crystal clear partnering with PLAN Netherlands Women in control or Libresse partnering with Oxfam Novib for better hygiene for women). Firms should partner with a cause that has the same beneficiaries to the firm´s customer base or that there is goal alignment (Thomas, Mullen & Fraedrich 2011).
These two elements appear to moderate consumer scepticism of company motives and enhance perceptions of company commitment while sponsoring a valuable cause that benefits society. Therefore the following hypothesis is proposed, where cause brand fit is taken in general:
H2: There will be a positive relationship between cause-brand fit and consumers’ attitude towards the partnership
2.5.2 Cause affinity
Still, it remains unclear what exactly a cause/consumer fit should look like. It is difficult for companies to decide which causes they should partner with in order to appeal to their customers (Maignan 2001). As there are so many different causes which profit organizations could partner with, one variable that could influence the fit is the relative importance of the cause. It could influence the attitude towards the partnership and the intent to purchase the brand if the cause is considered to be important/good by a consumer.
Furthermore, many studies have shown that consumers are more favourable towards brands that have certain social/cause affiliations. Identification with the cause or feelings of affinity with the cause are often the drivers of these favourable ratings (Bhattacharya & Sen 2003, Prajecus & Olsen 2004). As a result the following hypothesis is formulated:
H3: There will be a positive relationship between cause affinity and consumers’ attitude towards the partnership
2.5.3 Familiarity of the cause and partnership
Literally hundreds of charitable causes could partner with a brand. When choosing one, the familiarity of the cause and name recognition is often considered (Lafferty 2009).
The literature on attitude strength suggests that familiarity can moderate attitudinal relationships (Fazio et al. 1989). These results imply that consumers think more positively about a partnership when the cause is well known.
Therefore, it is expected when a familiar brand partners with a highly familiar cause, the effect on the attitude towards the partnership will be positive. Consequently the following hypothesis is formulated:
H4: There will be a positive relationship between familiarity and consumers’ attitude towards the partnership
2.5.4 Attitude towards the brand and the cause
Most of the cause-related marketing studies found that the attitude towards the brand and the cause have a major influence on both cause-brand fit and the attitude towards the partnership (Lafferty, Goldsmith & Hult 2004, Olsen & Pracejus 2004, Webb & Mohr 1998).
The attitude towards a brand or cause can be defined as: “Is the consumer aware of the existence of the brand/cause, has the consumer got a attitude towards the brand/cause”.
Both the attitude towards the brand and the attitude towards the cause should be positive and both the parties should benefit from the repeated and consistent combination in the minds of the consumers. It is expected that both the attitude towards the brand as the attitude towards the cause will have a direct influence on cause brand fit and a direct influence on the attitude towards the partnership. Therefore the following hypotheses are proposed:
H5a: There will be a positive relationship between consumers’ attitude towards the brand and perceived cause-brand fit
H5b: There will be a positive relationship between consumers’ attitude towards the brand and consumers’ attitude towards the partnership
H5c: There will be a positive relationship between consumers’ attitude towards the cause and perceived cause-brand fit
H5d: There will be a positive relationship between the consumers’ attitude towards the cause and attitude towards the partnership
2.5.5 Credibility in the context of a CRM campaign
According to Varadarajan and Menon (1988) and Trimble and Rifon (2006) credibility in a CRM message is one of the most powerful indicators for helping consumers to deactivate suspicious judgments about the brand, playing a leading role in the mechanism which makes a CRM campaign more persuasive and influential on consumer response (Bigné-Alcaniz, Currás-Pérez & Sánchez-García 2009).
According to Bigné-Alcaniz, Currás-Pérez & Sánchez-García (2009) credibility in the context of a CRM campaign could be defined as: the extent to which a consumer perceives that the brand expresses sincerity and goodwill (trustworthiness) and has the skill and experience necessary (expertise) to associate to the specified social cause.
A variety of studies have analysed that cause-brand fit, brand image and altruistic attributions are possible antecedents of brand credibility in a partnership (Becker-Olsen et al. 2006, Lafferty 2007, Lafferty & Olsen 2004). Becker-Olsen et al. (2006) argue that cause- brand fit is likely to influence on brand credibility directly in a partnership.
When the compatibility between the brand and cause increases, consumers will probably find the brand as having more expertise when it comes to associating with the cause.
Additionally it can be used directly as an indicator to assess brand sincerity and honesty in a CRM message because greater cause-brand fit reduces the generation of egoistic judgments.
Web & Mohr (1998) argued that half of their respondents are sceptical about the firm’s motives. They perceived the firm’s motive as self-serving. Scepticism with regard to corporate social responsibility in the literature mostly focuses on the motives of the firm integrating corporate social responsibility initiatives like cause related marketing (Becker- Olsen et al., 2006; Forehand & Grier, 2003; Mohr et al., 1998; Gupta & Pirsch 2006; Webb &
Mohr, 1998). Companies have several reasons to form a partnership with a cause. It is possible to distinguish between motifs derived from the interest of the company and motifs derived from involvement in a particular social issue (Mohr et al. 1998). According to Web &
Mohr (1998) it is almost impossible to influence the opinion of cynics, because of continuing beliefs. Nevertheless they state that it is possible to decrease scepticism through increasing knowledge. Consumers do not only want to hear that brands are socially responsible, they also want to know why they take this initiatives(Barone, Miyazaki & Taylor, 2000).
Forehand & Grier (2003) argue that scepticism mainly occurs when there is discrepancy between goals and actual actions. They conclude that it is wise for companies to communicate both social and economical benefits for the brand when consumers doubt the motives of the company. The following hypotheses have been formulated:
H6a: There will be a positive relationship between credibility of the partnership context and consumers’ attitude towards the partnership
H6b: In a CRM campaign, consumer attribution of altruistic brand motivations has a direct positive impact on credibility
H6c: There will be a positive relationship between cause-brand fit and credibility in a partnership context
It can be concluded that the perception of consumers regarding the motivation of a company forming a partnership with a cause will affect consumer response. Being socially responsible can contribute to the image and reputation of the company, but it is also possible that consumers are sceptical and the attitude towards the partnership is negative.
2.6 Conceptual model
The hypotheses can be visualised in a conceptual model (figure 2). In this model one can see the influence of each element of this research on the final conclusions and recommendations which aspects should be managed in order to achieve a successful partnership between Spa Reine and UNICEF.
Fig 2. Conceptual model
Cause-
Brand Fit
Credibility Attitude
towards the partnership
General attitude towards CRM/CSR Cause affinity
Altruistic attributions
Familiarity Attitude
towards brand
Attitude towards cause
3. Research methods
This chapter will present an overview of the research method that will be used to test the hypotheses. A conceptual model was build from the qualitative research in chapter. This chapter ends with how the data will be collected and the plan of analysis.
3.1 Research design
In order to address the hypotheses, a survey will be conducted among respondents with high education level as the questionnaire is mainly made by other WO/HBO students or relatives. According to Malhotra (2007) research can be classified as being either exploratory or conclusive. When the purpose is to test hypotheses and relationships, a conclusive research design is used, as is the case for this thesis. A conclusive research is based on large, representative samples, and the data obtained are subjected to quantitative analysis (Malhotra 2007). Additionally the used constructs and research process will be defined and structured. According to Malhotra (2007), the analysis should therefore be based on quantitative data and the results of the research will be used to make conclusions and recommendations. A conclusive research can be either causal or descriptive. This study will perform a descriptive conclusive research. According to Malhotra (2007) a descriptive conclusive research is characterized by the preceding formulations of hypotheses, therefore stressing the importance of clearly defined research problems.
In the present research, the objective is to determine the influence of the elements on consumers’ attitudes towards a partnership. Thereby the study wants to verify the degree to which variables are related to this successful partnership. Given that most questions are based on a 7-point Likert scale, the data is based on an interval scale (Malhotra 2007). Three questions, about the respondent themselves (gender and age) and the grade they would give to this partnership, are nominal (Malhotra 2007)
3.2 Constructs, measurements and scales
The survey consists out of several questions to quantify the variables in the conceptual model. For constructing the survey, choices have to be made on which items and scales will be used. In order to make this research as reliable and valid as possible, only proven measurement scales will be used from other studies. Steenkamp & Baumgartner (2000) state that multiple items should be used to measure the antecedents in order to account for measurement error. A likert scale will be used ranging from 1 to 7 with endpoints associated with bipolar labels. This 7 point scale was chosen in order to generate more variance in the answers of the respondents. The respondents will be asked to answer the statements by marking the number on the scale that best agrees with their opinion. Table 2 contains an overview of the used constructs and items. The items used in the survey are described in the following paragraphs:
General attitude toward CRM
Respondents will indicate their attitude toward CRM in general in five questions (“totally disagree/totally agree”) conform Lichtenstein, Drumwright & Braig (2004) and Yuon & Kim (2008). These items will include questions about whether they find it important if brand support good causes, when price and quality are the same, they would choose to buy a brand that supports a good cause, they are willing to pay more for a product when they know the company is socially responsible, they believe claims of companies that are socially responsible, they would switch from brand if a brand with even high quality would support a cause.
Cause brand fit
Cause-brand fit concerns the degree of fit of the partnership between Spa and UNICEF as it is perceived by consumers. To measure fit the three-item, seven point bipolar scales based on Simmons & Becker-Olsen 2006. Three 7 point scales will be used to assess cause-brand fit:
“doesn’t make sense/does make sense”, “very incompatible/very compatible”, “not very believable/believable”.
Cause affinity
To measure the feelings of affinity with the cause, respondents will complete a four-item, seven-point scale (Maheswaran & Meyers-Levy 1990) identifying whether the cause is
“unimportant/important to me”, “means nothing to me/means a lot to me”, “is irrelevant/relevant to me”, “doesn’t/does matter a great deal to me”, “is of no/great concern to me”. As there is no clear difference in Dutch between the items
“unimportant/important to me” and “means nothing to me/means a lot to me”,
“unimportant/important to me” will not be included.
Familiarity of the cause and partnership
In order to find out whether consumers even are familiar with UNICEF, the familiarity of the cause will be measured through a two seven-point scales: “unfamiliar/familiar” and “had not heard of/had heard of” conform Simonin & Ruth 1998.
Attitude towards the partnership
To find out what the attitude towards the partnership is, this thesis uses three seven-point bi-polar adjective scales; “negative/positive”, “unfavourable/ favourable” , “not credible/credible” conform Burnkat & Unnuva 1995, Lafferty Goldmith & Hult 2004, Mac Kenzie & Lutz 1989, Lafferty & Goldsmith 2005. Furthemore respondents have to grade the partnership between SPA and UNICEF.
Attitude towards the brand and the cause
To measure the attitude towards NIVEA and PLAN the already developed scale by Simmons
& Becker-Olsen (2006) will be adopted. Respondents are asked to rate on three seven point scales measuring the attitude of the respondents: “negative/positive”, “unfavourable/
favourable”, “not credible/credible” conform MacKenzie & Lutz 1989. As there is no clear difference in Dutch between “good/bad” and “positive/negative”, the items “good/bad” will not be included.
Credibility of the partnership
The credibility of the partnership is measured by adapting three items; 7 point likert scale suggested conform Newell & Goldsmith (2001): “not sincere/sincere”, “not credible/credible”, “not convincing/convincing”.
Altruistic attributions
Altruistic attributions will be measured on a three-item seven point bipolar scale based on Strahilevitz (2003) and Becker-Olsen et al. (2006): “motivated by self interest/motivated by interest in society”, “profit motivated/socially motivated”, egoistically motivated/altruistically motivated”.
Construct Source of measure Items General attitude towards CRM/CSR Lichtenstein, Drumwright &
Braig (2004) and Yuon & Kim (2008)
I find it important if brands support good causes
When price and quality are the same, would you choose to buy a brand that supports a good cause I am willing to pay more for a product when I know the company is socially responsible
I believe claims of companies that are socially responsible
I would switch from brand if a brand with even high quality would support a cause
Cause brand fit Simmons & Becker-Olsen (2006) What is your attitude towards the partnership? (3 items)
Cause affinity Maheswaran & Meyers-Levy
(1990)
What is your affinity with UNICEF?
(4 items)
Familiarity Simonin & Ruth (1998) Are you familiar with UNICEF (2 items)
Are you familiar of the partnership between Spa Reine and UNICEF (2 items)
Attitude towards the partnership If you would have to grade the
partnership between SPA and Unicef which grade would you give? (1 item)
What is your attitude towards the partnership? (4 items)
Attitude towards the brand Simmons & Becker-Olsen (2006) What is your attitude towards Spa Reine? (3 items
Attitude towards the cause Simmons & Becker-Olsen (2006) What is your attitude towards UNICEF? (3 items)
Credibility Newell & Goldsmith (2001) What is your attitude towards the partnership? (3 items)
Altruistic attributions Strahilevitz (2003) and Becker- Olsen et al. (2006)
When it comes to making this campaign, do you think that Spa was (3 items)
Table 2: Overview constructs and items
3.3 Pretest
Malhotra (2007) argues that pre-testing is beneficial in order to test the validity and reliability of the survey and identifying and eliminating possible problems. Therefore a pre- test was conducted by several respondents, consisting of 8 friends and relatives who checked and evaluated the survey. On basis of the suggestions alterations were made in order to make the survey better understandable.
3.4 Participants and sample
The complete questionnaire can be found in Appendix A. The online survey is constructed through the free services of www.thesistools.com. According to Malhotra (2007) online surveys provide lower costs and faster response. The snowball sampling technique was used to find respondents for this experiment. In total 176 respondents filled in the questionnaire.
First the survey was sent to a group of friends, family and acquaintances through email and through social networks such as Facebook and Linkedin. They were asked to forward the link of the survey to their friends, family, and acquaintances in order to reach enough respondents.
Of the 176 respondents who filled in the online questionnaire, 13 respondents were excluded because of too many missing values. The online survey has captured the age and gender of the respondents. 85 percent of the respondents is below 35 years. Therefore, the sample is not representative for the whole population. The larger amount of younger respondents could be due to the fact that the sample was created through the use of snowball sampling, and by using social media.
Frequency Percent Cumulative percent
<25 68 41,7 41,7
26-35 70 42,9 84,6
36-45 6 3,7 88,3
46-55 2 1,2 89,5
56-65 11 6,8 96,3
>66 6 3,7 100
Total 163 100
Table 3: Sample representatives age
As can be seen more women took part in this survey. Of the respondents 58 were men and 105 were women.
Frequency Percent Cumulative percent
Man 58 35,6 35,6
Woman 105 64,4 100
Total 163 100
Table 4: Sample representatives gender
As age and gender are categorical and not continuous and in order to analyze if the effects differ per gender or age group a two-way ANOVA (analysis of variance) is conducted. An ANOVA is used as a test of means for two or more groups. The null hypothesis is that all means are equal (Malhotra, 2007). It can be seen that there is no significant difference between the age categories and the gender categories (Appendix B).
3.4 Plan of analysis
In order to explore the data and test the hypotheses some descriptive statistics in SPSS will be used. First of all a Cronbach´s Alpha test will be performed in order to test the internal validity of the questions used in this research. The Cronbach´s Alpha is calculated because in some cases, multiple questions will determine one variable. The Alpha is the average of all possible split-half coefficients resulting from different ways of splitting the scale items. This coefficient varies from 0 to 1. For every construct the alpha is calculated and has to be 0.6 or higher for internal consistency reliability (Malhotra 2007).
Construct Cronbach´s Alpha Number of items
General attitude towards CRM/CSR 0,718 5 Attitude towards the partnership 0,870 5
Cause affinity 0,871 4
Cause brand fit 0,794 3
Familiarity 0,636 4
Attitude toward brand 0,805 3
Attitude toward cause 0,833 3
Credibility 0,870 3
Altruistic attributions 0,749 3
Table 5: Internal reliability test constructs
The Cronbach’s alpha for all nine constructs is above 0.6 and thus the scale validity for this research is adequate. As this research entails hypotheses with one dependent variable and one independent variable first a simple linear regression must be performed (Malhotra 2007).
For the attitude towards CRM in general an independent samples t-test will be performed in order to find out whether there is a difference between men and women.
Model fit is measured with the multiple R and R². The multiple R is the correlation coefficient for the regression between the independent variables and the dependent variable (for example attitude towards the CBA). The R² indicates the percentage of total variation of the dependent variable explained by the model (Hair et al., 2006). The standardized coefficient (frequently called Beta and given the symbol β) signifies the correlation between the independent variable and the dependent variable (Malhotra 2007) in the case of a simple linear regression. This also shows whether the relation is positive or negative. ‘Sig’ indicates whether it is significant or not. The value is significant when it’s lower than 0.05. The results of the hypotheses will be discussed and explained in this chapter. An independent samples T-test will be performed in order to find out the difference between men and women in attitude towards CRM/CSR in general.
Finally, a multiple regression will be performed in order to learn about the relationship between the dependent variable and several independent variables. Multiple regression analysis is complex because of multicollinearity, which is “a state of very high intercorrelations among independent concepts” (Malhotra 2007). Multicollinearity decreases the size of the multiple correlation, this occurs when the predictors correlate so closely that one cannot distinguish which predictor is doing the real predicting. To check for multicollinearity the VIF values and tolerance will be taken into account.
4. Results
4.1 Binary regression
The results of the analysis will be presented in this chapter. The results will lead to either accepting or rejecting the stated hypotheses in chapter 2. In table 6 a summary of the findings of the binary regression analyses can be seen.
Construct R² Β Sig.
Attitude towards partnership & general attitude towards CRM/CSR
0,180 0,424 0,000
Attitude towards
partnership & cause brand fit
0,605 0,778 0,000
Attitude towards
partnership & cause affinity
0,244 0,494 0,000
Attitude towards
partnership & familiarity
0,083 0,288 0,000
Cause brand fit & attitude towards brand
0,068 0,261 0,001
Attitude towards partnership & attitude towards brand
0,144 0,379 0,000
Cause brand fit & attitude towards cause
0,067 0,258 0,001
Attitude towards partnership & attitude towards cause
0,074 0,273 0,000
Attitude towards
partnership & Credibility
0,508 0,713 0,000
Credibility & altruistic attributions
0,287 0,535 0,000
Credibility & Cause brand fit 0,665 0,815 0,000
Table 6: Summary of regression results
H1: Consumers’ attitude towards CRM/CSR in general is positively related to consumers’
attitude towards the partnership
Hypothesis 1 stated that attitude towards CRM/CSR is positively related to attitude towards the partnership between Spa Reine and UNICEF. General attitude towards CRM/CSR has a R² of 0,180 indicating 18.0% of the variation in attitude towards the partnership between Spa and UNICEF can be explained by the attitude towards CRM/CSR. The mentioned results of the binary regression analysis state that this hypothesis is supported (ß = 0.424, p < 0.05).
To find out the difference between the attitude towards CRM/CSR in general, between men and women, an independent samples t-test is performed. The independent samples t-test will be performed because two independent groups will be compared.
The mean difference between men and women is quite big (-,65000), women score a mean of 5,1333 and men score a mean of 4,4833 and p < 0.05. Therefore it can be concluded that women’s attitude towards CRM/CSR in general is more positive than for men.
H2: There will be a positive relationship between cause-brand fit and consumers’ attitude towards the partnership
Hypothesis 2 stated that cause-brand fit is positively related to the attitude towards the partnership between Spa Reine and UNICEF. Cause-brand fit has a R² of 0,605 indicating that 60.5% of the variation in attitude towards the alliance between Spa and UNICEF can be explained by the cause-brand fit. The mentioned results of the regression analysis state that this hypothesis is supported (ß = 0.778, p < 0.05).
H3: There will be a positive relationship between cause affinity and consumers’ attitude towards the partnership
Hypothesis 3 stated that cause affinity is positively related to the attitude towards the partnership between Spa Reine and UNICEF. Cause affinity has a R² of 0,244 indicating that 24.4% of the variation in attitude towards the partnership between Spa and UNICEF can be explained by the cause affinity. The mentioned results of the regression analysis state that this hypothesis is supported (ß = 0.494, p < 0.05).
H4: There will be a positive relationship between cause familiarity and consumers’ attitude towards the partnership
Hypothesis 4 stated that a higher level of familiarity is positively related to the attitude towards the partnership between Spa Reine and UNICEF. Cause familiarity has a R² of 0,083 indicating that 8.3% of the variation in attitude towards the partnership between Spa and UNICEF can be explained by the cause familiarity. The mentioned results of the binary regression analysis state that this hypothesis is supported (ß = 0.288, p < 0.05). Familiarity is the variable with the lowest alpha (0,636). This is due to the fact that the answers to the question “are you familiar with UNICEF?” 90% answered a 6 or 7 (totally know / have heard of). But the question “Are you familiar with the alliance between Spa Reine and Unicef” 50%
answered a 1 (totally unknown / never heard of). Looking at the “item-total correlation”
table from familiarity, it can be seen that there is a strong relation with the combined total in the question “are you familiar with UNICEF?” and not a strong relation between “Are you familiar with the alliance between Spa Reine and Unicef” and the combined total.
H5a: There will be a positive relationship between consumers’ attitude towards the brand and perceived cause-brand fit
Hypothesis 5a stated that the attitude towards the brand is positively related to perceived cause-brand fit. Attitude towards the brand has a R² of 0,068 indicating that 6.8% of the variation in cause-brand fit can be explained by attitude towards the brand. The mentioned results of the binary regression analysis state that this hypothesis is supported (ß = 0.261, p <
0.05).
H5b: There will be a positive relationship between consumers’ attitude towards the brand and consumers’ attitude towards the partnership
Hypothesis 5b stated that attitude towards the brand is positively related to the attitude towards the partnership between Spa Reine and UNICEF.
Attitude towards the brand has a R² of 0,144 indicating that 14.4% of the variation in attitude towards the partnership between Spa and UNICEF can be explained by attitude towards the brand. The mentioned results of the regression analysis state that this hypothesis is supported (ß = 0.379, p < 0.05).
