Keywords: Application – Reverse logistics – Humanitarian logistics – Mixed methods UNIVERSITY OF GRONINGEN/NEWCASTLE UNIVERSITY
‘Reverse Humanitarian Logistics’:
Exploring the application of reverse logistics in a humanitarian context
Kornelis Pieter Stuut – s1989588/b3061477 18-12-2014
Abstract - Non-governmental organisations (NGOs) face an increasing pressure to be sustainable in their humanitarian efforts. This rise of green concerns makes reverse logistics a time-demanding and relevant area of interest to face these challenges of sustainability. However, the actual state of reverse logistics and governing factors influencing its application are unidentified in this unique context. This research fills this gap in executing an explorative study using concurrent mixed methods among NGOs in their recovery efforts. Using survey and interview methods, it was found that reverse logistics is not intensively applied by NGOs. Rather, there is a more contingent approach towards reverse logistics where NGOs assist communities to perform these activities themselves. Resource commitments and beneficiary opportunism are main antecedents in applying reverse logistics in this context. Furthermore, it was found that NGOs make upstream considerations relating to reverse logistics and logistics in general which are clear opportunities for academics and practitioners to draw upon.
MSc Technology & Operations Management University of Groningen -
Faculty of Economics and Business Lead supervisor: N. Dube
MSc Operations & Supply Chain Management Newcastle University -
Business School
2 Preface
This master thesis contains the result of research undertaken at the Faculty of Economics and Business of the University of Groningen and the Newcastle University Business School. This research was realised within the double degree programme ‘Technology and Operations Management’ at the University of Groningen and ‘Operations and Supply Chain Management’ at Newcastle University.
This research was a real journey for me in which I learned a lot about performing research and gained a lot of knowledge on the interesting areas of reverse logistics and humanitarian operations which were both new research topics for me.
In performing this thesis, I really experienced the iterative nature of research. Ironically, the iterative nature of doing research confronted me with several ‘reverse flows’ in reading new literature throughout the whole research, revising the methodology and continuously reviewing the results. Performing this research confronted me with several difficulties and challenges which were opportunities for me to show my capabilities as a post-graduate student. I experienced a major difficulty in gaining access to non-governmental organisations and employees. Fortunately, some organisations and people showed great interest in this research and the use of two different research methods supported the emergence of relevant and representative findings to be used in this research.
This way, I would like to thank some persons in supporting me throughout this journey. Firstly, I would like to thank my main supervisor, miss N. Dube for her guidance and critical feedback and for helping me getting familiar with logistics in the humanitarian setting. Secondly, I would like to thank my second supervisor and coordinator of the study programme at Newcastle University, Mrs. dr. Y. Yang, for guarding the process, her feedback and helping me to understand the general requirements of performing research. Thirdly, I would like to thank participating respondents for sharing their knowledge and story. Each story contributed to this research in its own way and motivated me in performing this research. Lastly, I would like to thank my family, friends and fellow students for their ongoing support and belief in me. Sharing my story with them helped me to stay in control of the research.
3 Contents
1.Introduction ... 5
2. Literature review ... 8
2.1. Recovery activities ... 8
2.2. Reverse logistics concept ... 9
2.3. Reverse logistics activities ... 10
2.4. Antecedents and influencing factors ... 12
2.5. Theoretical framework ... 15 3. Methodology ... 16 3.1. Instrument development... 16 3.2. Survey ... 17 3.3. Interviews ... 21 3.4. Comparative analysis ... 23 4. Results ... 24 4.1. Survey ... 24 4.2. Interview ... 28 4.3. Comparative results ... 35 5. Discussion ... 37
5.1. Actual state reverse logistics ... 37
5.2. Theoretical implications ... 40 5.3. Managerial implications ... 40 5.4. Research limitations ... 41 5.5. Future research ... 42 6. Conclusion ... 43 References ... 44 Appendices ... 55
Appendix I: Survey template ... 55
Appendix II: Interview protocol ... 61
Appendix III: SPSS output ... 64
Appendix IV: Code list ... 75
Appendix V: Co-occurrence tables Atlas.ti ... 80
Appendix VI: Case-ordered effects matrix ... 81
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List of figures
Figure 2.1.: Theoretical framework………15
Figure 4.1.: Coding tree interview results……….………..29
List of tables
Table 2.1.: Antecedents reverse logistics………....12Table 2.2.: Potential internal capabilities………13
Table 2.3.: Potential external forces………...14
Table 3.1.: Distribution survey sample………...…………18
Table 3.2.: Classification scheme organisational size………20
Table 3.3.: Interviewee group……….…21
Table 3.4.: Integrated data display design………..………23
Table 4.1.: Motives of applying reverse logistics………...……24
Table 4.2.: Descriptive statistics variables………..…25
Table 4.3.: Cross-tabulation significance correlation coefficients……….27
5 1.Introduction
Despite the obvious primary concerns of providing aid and relief, humanitarian operations are increasingly required to incorporate sustainable practices (Vivian, 1994; Gunasekaran and Spalanzani, 2012) from economic, ecological and social perspectives (Kovács and Spens, 2011). Sustainability focuses on safeguarding natural resources against exploitation which relates to thinking about the impact of products and services during their manufacturing, use and end-of-life (Gunasekaran and Spalanzani, 2012). Nowadays, this includes reverse logistics to further safeguard natural resources and protect the environment (Kumar and Putnam, 2008). This rise of green concerns makes reverse logistics a time-demanding and relevant area of interest to face these challenges of sustainability (Lambert et
al., 2011). Reverse logistics can be defined as “the process of planning, implementing and controlling backward flows of raw materials, in-process inventory, packaging and finished goods, from a manufacturing, distribution or use-point, to a point of recovery or point of proper disposal” (Rubio, Chamorra and Miranda, 2008). According to Worldvision, an
international NGO operating in disaster relief and development activities, opportunities exist in applying reverse logistics in humanitarian aid in downscaling of activities, closure of programs or handover of emergency response programs, product recalls, rejected goods returned to the vendor and back-trucking of packaging materials for reuse or disposal (Logistics Cluster, 2014). It should be noted that these opportunities are not only related to consumables. The handling of non-food items must also be considered such as spare parts of maintenance, hand tools, tents, containers and packages (Long and Wood, 1995; Dignan, 2005).
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largely depending on the industry (de Brito and Dekker, 2004). The application of reverse logistics has already received attention in several commercial industries such as automotive, automobile, electronics, plastics, chemicals and paper industries (Sarkis, Helms and Hervani, 2010). In the humanitarian context however, reverse logistics is yet to be researched (Kovács and Spens, 2011).
The actual state of reverse logistics in humanitarian operations is underexplored in academic literature: It is unknown how reverse logistics is applied and how its application is influenced. From a variety of commercial contexts, several influencing factors relating to reverse logistics application have been identified. However, no attempts have been made to derive these factors from a humanitarian context, nor have attempts been made to relate already identified factors to this context. This is important given the differences between humanitarian and commercial supply chains (Van Wassenhove, 2006). For instance, organisations are subject to higher levels of uncertainty in this context since demand and supply requirements cannot be anticipated (Long and Wood, 1995; Van Wassenhove, 2006). Furthermore, in humanitarian operations, supply chains need to be designed and deployed at once when a disaster strikes, even though the knowledge of the situation is very limited (Kovács and Spens, 2007).
In addressing these gaps and to establish a further understanding of applying reverse logistics, an explorative research concerning concurrent mixed methods was performed. This research tried to explore the reality of reverse logistics in the humanitarian context and also tried to make sense of this reality in looking at antecedents and influencing factors. Therefore, the research question is stated as: “To what extent is reverse logistics applied and which
antecedents and influencing factors towards successful application exist in the humanitarian context?” In addressing the main question, this research tackles several aspects relating to the
implementation of reverse logistics in the humanitarian context. The research aims at identifying the actual state, motives, antecedents and influencing factors in terms of internal capabilities and external forces in applying reverse logistics.
The focus of this research is on non-governmental organisations (NGOs), which can be described as “voluntary associations independent of government control that seek to
provide humanitarian assistance according to need” which are, in the humanitarian context,
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explained in the theoretical framework. The scope of this research is also narrowed down to more specific reverse logistics activities as it is too exhaustive for this research to examine all reverse logistics activities. This research will focus on reuse and disposal activities as these activities have clear opportunities in a humanitarian context. A more detailed elaboration on these activities is provided in the literature review.
The main contribution of this research is the re-contextualisation of reverse logistics – that is, applying a practice in a new context. The identification and explanation of the actual state of reverse logistics in the humanitarian context extends our knowledge of reverse logistics as it is explored in an unique context. According to Bamberger and Pratt (2010), there is a growing appreciation towards unique contexts which often demonstrate extreme situations as it can provide critical insights of the target phenomenon’s characteristics, here reverse logistics. Furthermore, the exploration of reverse logistics in humanitarian operations could provide opportunities for further research which contributes to the academic field of humanitarian logistics.
8 2. Literature review
This section provides an overview of relevant literature regarding the topics of interest. First, recovery activities within humanitarian operations are discussed. Secondly, literature on reverse logistics is discussed regarding activities, motives, antecedents and influencing factors. Lastly, the theoretical framework is presented which integrates the related aspects to reverse logistics application in a single model.
2.1. Recovery activities
NGOs and other organisations face several unique challenges in operating in a humanitarian context. In responding to disasters, it is generally agreed that there are different phases falling within the disaster management cycle. This distinction is important as these different phases are subject to different challenges and operational environments (Holguín-Veras et al., 2012). This research focuses on recovery activities which is the phase after immediate response when a disaster strikes (Safran, 2005). This recovery phase is concerned with ‘building back better’ and covers a broad spectrum of activities. Or in terms of Adie (2001), “Recovery is not a set of orderly actions triggered by the impact of a disaster upon a
community. Rather, it covers a set of loosely related activities that occur before, during, and after a disastrous event”. Examples of related activities are warning and ongoing public information, evacuation and sheltering, search and rescue, damage assessments, debris clearance, removal and disposal, utilities and communications restoration, re-establishment of major transport linkages, temporary housing, financial management, economic impact analyses, detailed building inspections, redevelopment planning, environmental assessments, demolition, reconstruction, hazard mitigation and preparation for the next disaster (Adie, 2001; Holguín-Veras et al., 2012).
9 2.2. Reverse logistics concept
Reverse logistics is an increasingly popular topic in logistics management (Walters, 2010). Generally, reverse logistics focuses on waste management, material recovery, parts recovery or product recovery (Pokharel and Mutha, 2009). Key to reverse logistics is the existence of a ‘backward flow’. In their extensive literature review on this concept, Rubio, Chamorra and Miranda (2008) point out that the definition proposed by the European Working Group on Reverse Logistics appears to be the most complete. This definition is stated as “the process of planning, implementing and controlling backward flows of raw
materials, in-process inventory, packaging and finished goods, from a manufacturing, distribution or use-point, to a point of recovery or point of proper disposal” (Rogers and
Tibben-Lembke, 2001; de Brito and Dekker, 2004; Rubio, Chamorra and Miranda, 2008). As Rogers and Tibben-Lembke (1999) point out, reverse logistics could more precisely be seen as “the process of moving goods from their typical final destination for the purpose of
creating or recapturing value or proper disposal”.
Given the main purpose of reverse logistics – recapturing value – it is important to define the concept of ‘value’ and its counterpart ‘waste’. Hicks et al. (2004) explored the classification of waste and concludes with a holistic definition, namely “anything that adds
costs but not value” (Hicks et al., 2004). It is the interpretation of value that determines
whether something is seen as waste or not – that is ‘waste’ is relative. According to Bontoux and Leone (1997), waste in one context could be used as input in another context, so the perception of waste may be relative to the owner or process (Bontoux and Leone, 1997).
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strategic weapon. For NGOs, profit is not an objective, objectives of NGOs go beyond profits in supporting people and embrace development activities (Kovács and Spens, 2007). It is therefore questionable whether first mover advantages are drivers in implementing reverse logistics. Lastly, good corporate citizenship is a potential reason to implementing reverse logistics (Chan and Chan, 2008). In length of environmental benefits, Chan and Chan (2008) argue that firms are unlikely to incorporate reverse logistics in their business merely because of environmental benefit. It is argued that social responsibility could also be a tool to gain publicity and fosters brand image within the society.
2.3. Reverse logistics activities
Still, there is no uniform agreement on the range of activities that reverse logistics entails. In the light of environmental (ecological) sustainability, which is one of the reasons to conduct this research, a critical discussion can be made on what kind of activities are covered by reverse logistics. Some authors distinct reverse logistics from what is called ‘green logistics’ whereas other authors do not make this distinction. Rogers and Tibben-Lembke (2001) argue that activities primarily motivated by environmental considerations might be better labelled as ‘green logistics’ or ‘environmental logistics’ which then could be defined as “efforts to measure and minimise the environmental impacts of logistics activities”. Examples of activities concerning ‘green logistics’ are packaging reduction, air and noise emissions and environmental impact of mode selection (Rogers and Tibben-Lembke, 2001). Contrastingly, reverse logistics is more related to those activities taking into account the ‘wrong way on a one-way street’ of products and materials such as reuse, recycle, remanufacturing and proper disposal. However, as Rogers and Tibben-Lembke argue (2001; 2009), there are many activities which could equally be referred to as reverse logistics and green logistics. For instance, the disposal of biodegradable packages could refer to both practices.
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Macarthur, 2012). These activities are identified as resource reduction, reuse, remanufacture, recycle and disposal (with energy recovery and disposal with landfill).
Reusing could be simply defined as using good components from retired assemblies (Kumar and Putnam, 2008). Within reusing, repair operations are not necessary besides cleaning and minor maintenance of products. This in contrast with remanufacturing and recycling in which more intensive processing takes place on spare parts or materials (repairing, replacing, reconditioning, disassembly). Reusing opportunities are apparent for non-consumable products and packages. In a humanitarian context, several opportunities exist for reuse. Examples relate to vehicles, tents, books, bottles, containers, pallets and other packages (Dignan, 2005). If reusing, remanufacturing or recycling is no longer viable – that is, extending the life cycle of products or materials – proper disposal is the final option. Within disposal a distinction can be made between disposal with energy recovery and disposal in landfill (Carter and Ellram, 1998). The first entails an incineration process in which some energy recovery may be possible. The latter entails biodegradable disposal in which materials can be used as landfill.
12 2.4. Antecedents and influencing factors
This subsection elaborates on antecedents and influencing factors of applying reverse logistics. According to González-Torre et al. (2010), literature on identification of influencing factors may be grouped into two differentiated groups, namely industry specific (external) and organisation-specific (internal) factors. These factors have been examined in several commercial settings such as the automobile (Ravi and Shankar, 2005), the automotive (González-Torre et al., 2010) and the mobile phone industry (Chan and Chan, 2008) and at regional levels such as the United States (Rogers and Tibben-Lembke, 2001) and Hong Kong (Ho et al., 2012). What follows is an overview of these antecedents, internal capabilities and external factors relating to the humanitarian context.
Antecedents
Jack, Powers and Skinner (2010) identified several antecedents in applying reverse logistics. Their research was concerned with retailer relationships in commercial industries. The identified antecedents include contractual arrangements, customer orientation, customer opportunism and resource commitments. It should be noted that in a humanitarian context no real ‘customers’ are apparent, rather beneficiaries are in place who receive distributed supplies (Kovács and Spens, 2007). Therefore these concepts as identified from Jack, Powers and Skinner (2010) need some adjustments. In table 2.1: ‘Antecedents reverse logistics’ below these antecedents are displayed.
Antecedent Explanation Source(s)
Beneficiary opportunism Occurs when a beneficiary acts in its own self-interest in returning products
Williamson, 1975; Skinner et al., 2008; Jack, Powers and Skinner, 2010
Beneficiary orientation NGO’s attitudes and activities that work towards satisfying beneficiary needs. Includes product and service development based on beneficiary-focused information and a sense of how beneficiaries value its products and services
Daugherty et al., 2005; Petersen and Kumar, 2009; Jack, Powers and Skinner, 2010
Contractual arrangements Promoting partnerships with other channel members towards effective reverse logistics
Breen, 2006; Jack, Powers and Skinner, 2010
Resource commitments Consists of the financial, technical and managerial resources committed to reverse logistics capabilities
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Still, this list is incomplete – perhaps other antecedents emerge from the research that are apparent in a humanitarian context.
Internal capabilities
Besides antecedents, several other factors which influence successful application of reverse logistics can be identified from commercial contexts. An overview of these internal factors as identified from commercial context is given in table 2.2.: ‘Potential internal capabilities’ below.
Factor Explanation Source(s)
Company policies Overly restrictive policies could prevent reverse logistics from operating effectively and efficiently
Rogers and Tibben-Lembke, 2001; Ravi and Shankar, 2005
Financial resources Finance supports the infrastructure and manpower requirements for reverse logistics. Training, education and information systems all require financial support
Rogers and Tibben-Lembke, 2001; Stoddard, 2003; Ravi and Shankar, 2005; González-Torre et al., 2010; Jack, Powers and Skinner, 2010; Ho et al., 2012 Information systems Supports efficient reverse logistics
programs with tracking and tracing and fast response
Rogers and Tibben-Lembke, 2001; Daugherty et al., 2002; Ravi and Shankar, 2005; González-Torre et al., 2010; Jack, Powers and Skinner, 2010 Management support Top management support is a dominant
driver of corporate endeavours. Leadership and vision are needed to achieve commitment towards reverse logistics
Carter and Ellram, 1998; Ravi and Shankar, 2005; González-Torre et al., 2010
Personnel resources Personnel could exhibit resistance to change, training and education are needed
Rogers and Tibben-Lembke, 2001; Richey and Wheeler, 2004; Ravi and Shankar, 2005; González-Torre et al., 2010; Jack, Powers and Skinner, 2010; Ho et al., 2012
Relative importance Compared to other issues, reverse logistics could be seen as a valuable contribution or not
Rogers and Tibben-Lembke, 2001; Chan and Chan, 2008
14 External forces
Besides internal capabilities, a look can be placed on external factors influencing the implementation of reverse logistics. An overview of external factors influencing the implementation of reverse logistics systems in provided in table 2.3.: External factors influencing implementation of reverse logistics below.
Factor Explanation Source(s)
Cooperation supply chain members and other actors
Cooperation with supply chain members as donors, service logistics providers, military forces and beneficiaries is important in executing reverse logistics
Carter and Ellram, 1998; Ravi and Shankar, 2005; González-Torre et al., 2010; Ho et al., 2012
Government support The use of economic support, tax policies and intervention can influence implementation of reverse logistics
Carter and Ellram, 1998; Rogers and Tibben-Lembke, 2001; González-Torre et al., 2010; Ho et al., 2012
Infrastructure Accessibility of roads and warehouses and other modes of transportation
Van Wassenhove, 2006; Tomasini and Van Wassenhove, 2009
Legal issues Regulations could inhibit the successful application of activities in the humanitarian context.
Clarke, 1998; Holzgrefe and Keohane 2003
Uncertainty environment Uncertainty in demands, supply, assessment and knowledge of the situation could harden reverse logistics implementation
Carter and Ellram, 1998; Stephenson Jr, 2005
Table 2.3: Potential external factors
15 2.5. Theoretical framework
In exploring reverse logistics in a humanitarian context, a single theoretical framework is illustrated in table 2.1. which integrates the topics of interest into a single model.
Figure 2.1.: Theoretical framework (adapted from Van Wassenhove and Pedraza Martinez, 2012)
It should be noted that this theoretical framework is incomplete – other factors and antecedents could be identified in this context, which is one of the objectives of this research. Despite concerning explorative research, some key assumptions emerged given the previous discussion of relevant literature.
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dedicated to other activities that are more prioritised such as capacity-building and providing support (Vakil, 1997). This could be problematic for implementing reverse logistics since NGOs already face general challenges in attaining resources in terms of finance, trained personnel and information technology which are needed in designing a reverse flow of distributed supplies (Stoddard, 2003; Van Wassenhove, 2006; Van Wassenhove and Pedraza Martinez, 2012). These resources are reflected in the resource commitments which could act as a possible antecedent of applying reverse logistics (Jack, Powers and Skinner, 2010).
3. Methodology
This section starts with an elaboration of the research approach using concurrent mixed methods. Next, a detailed look is placed on the survey and the interview method regarding sampling, design and analysis. Lastly, the way in which data of the survey and interviews are integrated is explained.
3.1. Instrument development
This research tried to explore the reality of reverse logistics in the humanitarian context and also tried to make sense of this reality in looking at antecedents and influencing factors. According to Yin (2009), the purpose of exploration is to uncover areas for research and theory development.
In exploring the application of reverse logistics in this unique context, this research was performed using mixed methods in which both survey and interview methods were used. Mixed methods research is concerned with collecting and analysing both quantitative and qualitative data in the context of a single study (Driscoll et al., 2007). This combination provides both breadth and depth of analysis within a single research (Patton, 1990) This has the potential to offer insights that could otherwise not be gathered (Bryman, 2007). It was hoped to benefit from this combination as the collection and analysis of structured survey and open-ended interviews can provide important information on emergent and unexpected themes (Driscoll et al., 2007).
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given an insufficient amount of responses and valid responses and a lack of time to conduct the research, it was not justified to proceed with sequential research where the interview design is based on the survey findings. Therefore, this research took a concurrent approach which is concerned with validating one form of data with the other form to transform the data for comparison or to address different types of questions (Driscoll et al., 2007). More specifically, this research is concerned with a ‘concurrent nested design’ in which both quantitative and qualitative data are collected during the same stage, although one form of data is given more weight over the other (Creswell et al., 2003; Castro et al., 2010). In this research, the interview method is the dominant method as it allows for a greater elaboration of emerging themes relating to the goal of this research – exploration. Besides identifying which activities and factors govern the application of reverse logistics, the opportunity is created to elaborate on ‘how’ and ‘why’ this occurs.
In using a survey method and interviewing as mixed methods, methodological triangulation is achieved (Thurmond, 2001). In terms of Kopinak (1991), methodological triangulation entails “gathering information pertaining to the same phenomenon through
more than one method, primarily in order to determine if there is a convergence and hence, increased validity in research findings” (Meijer, Verloop and Beijaard, 2002). In using mixed
methods, it was hoped to achieve valid findings in exploring the application of reverse logistics in the humanitarian context.
3.2. Survey
A survey design was chosen to elicit perceptions of people working in the humanitarian context towards implementing reverse logistics. This section will review the sample, data collection, measures and analysis of the survey method.
Sample and data collection
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telephone and social media. Snowball sampling was used to increase the level of participation by asking respondents to forward the research request to their own contacts.
Organisational employees with knowledge of operations and logistics were approached in performing the questionnaire. 32 respondents working for NGOs initiated the survey. Of these respondents, 13 respondents finished the whole survey and five respondents to a large extent. An overview of the positions these respondents occupy is given in table 3.1.: ‘Distribution survey sample’ below.
Function in organisation Number of respondents Operations/logistics manager 7
Program Coordinator 4 Area Representative 2
Other 5
Table 3.1.: Distribution survey sample
It should be noted that the amount of responses is rather small. It appears that online surveys achieve lower response rates compared to other technologies as a mailed survey or telephone survey (Miller, 1991; Voss, Tsikriktsis and Frohlich, 2002). However, the web-survey technique made impressive improvements that made its conduction much less problematic in terms of response rate and non-respondent bias (Voss, Tsikriktsis and Frohlich, 2002; Dillman, 2007). In this research, an online survey was seen as a proper tool as it is the least expensive communication method with the most rapid (simultaneous) data availability (Blumberg, Cooper and Schindler, 2005). Due to the physical dispersion of respondents, the ability to contact a lot of NGOs at low cost and the limited time for carrying out the research, these advantages were seen as profound reasons to conduct an online survey.
Participants filled in the online survey on their own occasion and was completed in around ten minutes. Participants were informed about the survey beforehand and some participants consented to participate. However, given the low response of these requests and corresponding reminders, consented and potential participants were asked to distribute the survey to their own contacts.
Measures
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one his own survey. Advantages relate to savings in both time and money and the removal of any need for question testing. The two primary pre-existing surveys that were drawn upon are the survey as initiated by Rogers and Tibben-Lembke (1999) and the ‘Global Survey on Reverse Logistics’ designed by the Reverse Logistics Association (RLA) in collaboration with the Open University of The Netherlands. Both surveys were addressed in commercial industries and attempted to provide a holistic view of reverse logistics.
In doing so, predefined variables of applying reverse logistics were identified from these surveys which are already elaborated in the literature review. In applying these motives and influencing factors to the humanitarian context, preliminary insights of reverse logistics in this context were created. Furthermore, given the uniqueness of the humanitarian context, the opportunity was given to respondents to mention other factors that are perceived to be relevant in this context.
The questionnaire comprised five sections. The first section consisted of introducing the topic along with a short explanation of key concepts and definitions. The second section consisted of identifying the motives of applying reverse logistics and a measurement of the extent to which reverse logistics in terms of reuse and disposal is applied by the organisation. The third section was dedicated to identifying and measuring the extent of influence of internal capabilities, whereas the fourth section was dedicated to external factors. Lastly, some general information of the organisation and respondent were asked.
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funding and do not actually ‘sell’ products to make a profit/gain turnover (Kovács and Spens, 2007).
Headcount Yearly funds available
Micro < 10 ≤ €2 million / $2,5 million
Small < 50 ≤ €10 million / $13 million
Medium-sized < 250 ≤ €50 million / $64,5 million
Large > 250 > €50 million / $64,5million
Table 3.2.: Classification scheme organisational size - European Commission (2003)
Data Analysis
Quantitative analysis was performed with the use of Statistical Package for Social Sciences software (SPSS) that assist in relationship testing and performing descriptive statistics. As the survey is concerned with a small sample size, it is important to test the assumption of normality before proceeding with further analysis (Tan et al., 2005). In testing for normality, the Shapiro-Wilk test, QQ-plots and histograms are used as the Shapiro-Wilk test is useful for small sample sizes and the QQ-plots and histograms allow a visual representation for normality (Shapiro, Wilk and Chen, 1968). These tests are performed on the dependent variables ‘reuse’ and ‘proper disposal’ as these concern the scope of the research. Given the low sample size and the violation of a normal distribution, nonparametric methods are used as these are most appropriate when the sample sizes are small.
After testing for normality, preliminary analysis was performed in deriving descriptive statistics by checking for central tendencies, dispersions, frequency distributions and correlations (Forza, 2002). However, when data are not normally distributed, then computing the standard descriptive statistics is sometimes not the most informative way to summarize the data. Therefore, nonparametric measures such as mean, median and mode were used to provide a more complete picture of the data.
In examining correlations, the Spearman rank correlation coefficient was used as it is a nonparametric method assuming that variables are on at least an ordinal level. Therefore, the Spearman rank test seems appropriate for this data set. Besides looking at the significance of the correlations, a look was also placed on the strength of the correlations as these provide a completer picture of the data with a small sample size.
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dependent samples. It is used to compare two sets of scores that come from the same participants. Since all respondents scored the extent of reverse logistics application on reuse and proper disposal, this test seems appropriate.
3.3. Interviews
Interviews were used to explore reverse logistics more in depth. This section elaborates on the sample group, data collection, coding process and analysis of the interview method.
Sample
From the survey respondents, a subsample was created to perform the interviews. In doing so, nine respondents working for different NGOs were approached for a follow-up interview of which six respondents agreed to participate. Initially, the plan was to deliberately select a variety of NGOs for follow-up research based on the extent of reverse logistics application as identified from the survey and organisational size (in terms of staff count and available yearly funds) which was based on the survey. However, given the low amount of participants willing and able to perform follow-up research, all nine respondents were invited for conducting the interview. An overview of the final interviewee group is displayed in table 3.3: ‘Interviewee group’ below.
Organisation type Position held RL application Organisational size NGO A Regional representative Reuse: Moderate
Disposal: Some
Staff count: Medium Yearly funds: Medium NGO B Coordinator emergency
response
Reuse: None Disposal: None
Staff count: Large Yearly funds: Large
NGO C Head of operations Reuse: Moderate Disposal: Moderate
Staff count: Large Yearly funds: NA
NGO D Chief operating officer Reuse: A little Disposal: None
Staff count: Medium Yearly funds: Micro NGO E Global disaster response
coordinator
Reuse: A little Disposal: Moderate
Staff count: Large Yearly funds: Medium NGO F Chief technical advisor Reuse: Moderate
Disposal: Moderate
Staff count: Small Yearly funds: Micro
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As can be seen from this table, the cases show similar and differing results on several dimensions. The performed interviews were seen by the respondents as a nice opportunity to add value to academic research in humanitarian operations.
Data collection
The interviews were semi-structured to ensure that, while the same questions were asked of each participant, individuals were free to discuss those issues which they considered particularly important in detail. This way, interesting emerging topics could be identified and discussed in exploring reverse logistics and its challenges. In doing so, open questions were asked relating to the main topics of interest regarding the application of reverse logistics such as motives, influencing factors and antecedents. Furthermore, the interviews gave the opportunity to ask ‘how’ reverse logistics is applied an how factors influence its application. The whole questionnaire can be found in Appendix II: Interview protocol’. This interview approach meant the researcher was able to develop a richer understanding of the different perceptions on the application of reverse logistics and the challenges respondents saw in doing so.
Due to the geographical dispersion of respondents, the interviews were performed using Skype. The interviews lasted approximately thirty minutes and were tape-recorded with each participant’s consent for two reasons. First and foremost, these audio-recordings allowed for better guidance during the interview. As the interviews were performed by one interviewer, audio-recording allowed the interviewer to direct his attention fully on the content of the interview. This allowed for a better in-depth discussion of information that emerged during the interviews. Secondly, the recordings allowed to transcribe the interviews verbatim so that no important information was overlooked.
An interview-protocol was developed as it is argued that a well-designed protocol will enhance the reliability and validity of research data (Stuart et al., 2002; Yin, 2009). This protocol can be found in Appendix II: ‘Interview protocol’. The protocol offered clear instructions to the researcher and the participant in performing the interviews. Moreover, by distributing the protocol and the survey response to respondents before the interview, the opportunity was given for preparation of the interview to direct the interview in a better way.
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The transcribed interviews were subject to a coding process which structured the information that emerged from the interviews (Voss, Tsikriktsis and Frohlich, 2002). Atlas was used as a tool to facilitate this process. The coding scheme as suggested by Strauss and Corbin (1990) was used in which a process of open, axial and selective coding takes place. Firstly, open coding took place in which initial codes emerged from which different categories can be made. In doing so, the main themes of this research were developed. Next, axial coding allowed regrouping these categories in which more specific codes were identified relating to emerging categories. Finally, selective coding was executed which aims at relating categories to each other (Heath and Cowley, 2004). The resulted list of codes can be found in Appendix IV: ‘Code list’.
Based on the emerged codes and corresponding quotations, analysis of the qualitative data was performed. First, content analysis was executed in designing a coding tree that visually grouped themes and emerging codes together. This way, the main emerging concepts of the research are clearly identified. Next co-occurrence tables were used to examine interrelations between emerged codes. In doing so, related concepts could be examined. Lastly, a case-ordered selection matrix was designed in order to structure the data to assist in within case-analysis and searching for cross-case patterns (Eisenhardt, 1989). In performing the analysis, quotations from respondents relating to the several codes were reviewed and explicitly used in stating the findings of the analysis.
3.4. Comparative analysis
In bridging the separate findings of the two methods, the survey results and interview results are compared. In doing so, integrated data displays were used which visually present both quantitative and qualitative results within the same display (Lee and Greene, 2007). This display is illustrated in table 3.4.: ‘Integrated data display design’.
Subject Survey (Quan.) Interview (Qual.) Reverse logistics activities … …
Motives … …
Influencing factors … …
Antecedents … …
Table 3.4.: Integrated data display design
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more valid and reliable, whereas conflicting results can provide more complex context-respective explanations. Therefore, both kinds of results ultimately provide more insight in the application of reverse logistics in the humanitarian context.
4. Results
This part of the research shows the results of the collected data. As this research consists of two differing research methods, a distinction is made between the survey results and the interview results. In doing so, this section starts with describing the results of the survey after which the qualitative interview results are elaborated. Lastly, the results of both method are compared in order to derive consistent and conflicting findings.
4.1. Survey
This section elaborates on the quantitative results in analysing the survey data. First, the normality of the data is examined after which preliminary analysis is performed by checking for central tendencies, frequency distributions and correlations (Forza, 2002).
Normality testing
In testing for normality of the dependent variables ‘reuse’ and ‘proper disposal’ application, the Shapiro-Wilk tests show that proper disposal is normally distributed as opposed to reuse which is not normally distributed. The corresponding results output can be found in Appendix III: ‘SPSS output – normality’. Furthermore, the QQ-plots and histograms also show that the responses relating to reuse and proper disposal are not normally distributed. Given the violation of normality and the small sample size (N = 18), nonparametric tests were used in case of proper disposal as well.
From preliminary analysis, it appears that reverse logistics is applied for a variety of reasons in the humanitarian context. The frequencies of these reasons to apply reverse logistics are given in table 4.1.: ‘Motives of applying reverse logistics’ below.
Motives reverse logistics Frequency
Clean channel 33,3%
Recapture value 27,8%
Recover assets 22,2%
Legal disposal issues 50,0%
No reason 16,7%
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From this table, it appears that ‘legal disposal issues’ and ‘clean channel’ are evident reasons for applying reverse logistics. It should be noted however that several NGOs did not have a clear explicit reason to deliberately apply reverse logistics.
Frequencies and other descriptive statistics relating to the dependent (reuse and proper disposal) and independent variables (internal capabilities and external forces) are stated in table 4.2.: ‘Descriptive statistics variables’ below. As the assumption of a normal distribution is violated, the mean, standard deviation, median and mode are given to provide a more complete picture of the data.
Variable Frequency Mean St. Dev. Median Mode Dependent variables: Reuse 83,3% 2,72 1,13 3 4 Proper disposal 77,8% 3,33 1,46 4 4 Independent variables: Internal capabilities: Company policies 27,8% 4,25 1,50 5 5 Financial resources 50,0% 4,50 0,76 5 5 Relative importance 66,7% 4,55 0,69 5 5 Lack of IS 27,8% 3,50 0,58 3,5 3 Lack of MS 11,1% 4,00 0,00 4 4 Personnel resources 38,9% 4,00 0,63 4 4 External factors: Cooperation issues 22,2% 3,5 0,58 3,5 3 Infrastructure 27,8% 4,4 0,55 4 4 Lack of GS 44,4% 3,5 1,60 4 4 Legal issues 16,7% 4 1,73 5 5 Uncertainty env. 38,9% 4 1 4 4
Table 4.2.: Descriptive statistics variables
First, a look is placed on the dependent variables, namely the extent of reuse and proper disposal application. Regarding proper disposal, it appears that both the mean and the median show higher values compared to reuse. However, a Wilcoxon signed-rank test showed that the application of reuse and proper disposal did not elicit a statistically significant difference (Z = -1,816, p = 0,069). Therefore, it can be concluded from these results that proper disposal is not significantly performed more than reuse.
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factors with a frequency of 66,7 per cent and 50 per cent among the respondents respectively. In contrast, company policies, lack of information systems and lack of management support were not checked that often as apparent influencing factors. When looking at the degree of influence these factors exert, it appears that all factors exert moderate till high influence, except for a lack of information systems which has the lowest mean and median. Company policies, financial resources and relative importance exert the highest influence. Paradoxically, company policies are not apparent frequently, but it exerts moderate till high influence on successful reverse logistics application when it is apparent.
Regarding external factors, it appears that lack of government support and uncertainty of the environment are mostly apparent as influencing factors on the application of reverse logistics. Paradoxically, lack of government support exerts the lowest degree of influence on successful reverse logistics application (Mean = 3.50) of all external factors. The factor exerting the highest degree of influence is infrastructure (Mean = 4.40). On the contrary, it appears that cooperation with other organisations is a minor influencing factor, as this factor is not apparent frequently (14,3 per cent of the respondents) and exerts only some influence (Mean = 3,5).
27 Variable 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 1. Company policies - 2. Financial resources - 3. Relative importance 0,83 - 4. Lack of IS 0,67 - 5. Lack of MS - 6. Personnel resources 0,39 0,09 - 7. Cooperation issues 0,33 0,42 - 8. Infrastructure 0,67 0,46 - 9. Lack of GS 1,00 1,00 0,67 - 10. Legal issues 0,67 0,33 - 11. Uncertainty env. 0,29 0,56 - 12. Reusea 0,73 0,92 0,12 1,00 1,00 0,42 0,27 0,78 0,67 0,20 - 13. Proper disposala 0,18 0,97 0,71 0,11 0,76 0,62 0,13 0,38 0,03* - a Dependent variable
* Correlation is significant at the 0,05 level (2-tailed)
Table 4.3.: Cross-tabulation significance correlation coefficients
Given the low sample size, the significance of many associations between variables could not be computed. Most correlations coefficients had to be computed with lower than four responses. Mainly between independent variables, there were too few responses to compute a significance. Still, a significant correlation was found between the two dependent variables, reuse and proper disposal (r = 0,031, N = 18)). The correlation is quite strong (P = 0,51). The strengths of the Spearman correlations can be found in Appendix III: ‘SPSS output – Strengths Spearman correlations’.
When looking at the strength of other correlation coefficients, which can be found in Appendix III: ‘SPSS output – strength correlation coefficients’, it was found that some perfect correlations exist between several independent variables and between an independent and dependent variable. These correlating variables are stated in table 4.4.: ‘Perfectly correlating
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Perfectly correlating variables N Financial resources Company policies 3 Personnel resources Lack of GS 3 Infrastructure Lack of IS 2 Infrastructure Lack of GS 3 Infrastructure Uncertainty env. 3 Legal issues Proper disposal 3 Legal issues Personnel resources 2 Legal issues Infrastructure 2 Uncertainty env. Cooperation issues 2 Uncertainty env. Infrastructure 3 Uncertainty env. Lack of GS 2
Table 4.4.: Perfectly correlating variables
Interestingly, it appears that legal issues perfectly correlates with proper disposal. Furthermore, uncertainty of the environment correlates perfectly with cooperation issues, infrastructure and lack of government support.
4.2. Interview
This subsection elaborates on the qualitative findings from the interviews. First, a coding tree is displayed which visually provides an overview of the emerged codes and topics from the analysis. Next, interesting and relevant findings relating to these topics are stated with the use of specific quotations of several respondents.
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Figure 4.1.: Coding tree interview results
As can be seen from this coding tree, several ‘twigs’ are apparent which basically cover the different aspects of reverse logistics application, namely performed reverse logistics activities, motives, antecedents and influencing factors. Upstream consideration relating to reverse logistics emerged as another twig in exploring the application of reverse logistics in a humanitarian context.
Actual state reverse logistics
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“We do not as some refugees who take the initiative themselves and reuse metal parts or tin roofs or wood, whatever salvageable wood there is, and quite good disappears in the community themselves. But there is no
structured effort from our end to do anything”.
So it appears that communities themselves extract value out of used products and materials which indicates the presence of beneficiary opportunism. Besides reuse and disposal, recycling emerged as another reverse logistics activity as communities are often trained to recycle materials from distributed products or packages as cement bags, food bags, plastic bags, cartons, tin roofs and wood. This way, beneficiaries themselves are trained to extract value out of distributed supplies, which is supported by the next quotations:
R.NGO A: “[…] we have as part of youth income generation […] some recycling of plastics into new materials or reusing assets. Food bags and big bags are quite useful and turning them into bags or various different kinds
of cases that you can relatively easy do and then market and sell onwards”;
R.NGO E: “We train the community to use the waste that exist in the community […] but we do have recycling programs where communities are trained to reuse and recycle plastic products into attributes as bags or things
like that and sell them for their livelihood”.
In case NGOs are performing reverse logistics activities themselves, it is usually related to organisational equipment. Besides training and encouraging communities to extract value out of distributed supplies, it appears that NGOs make several upstream considerations relating to reverse logistics. These considerations relate to product/package design, lean management and local sourcing. Some quotations are given to elaborate on these upstream considerations, starting with product and package design:
R.NGO B:“[…]it states that even the package, those kits are put in some kind of bag, is made of the same material as from the covers that are used in international humanitarian assistance and even this bag where it’s
in is used as a sleeping bag”;
R.NGO C: “[…] so we don’t use cloak and we don’t use paper on the main[…]packing so it could be resistant to water so we kind of save on these goods being wasted”.
From these quotations, it appears that NGOs deliberately think about the materials that are used for packing supplies in a way that it provides additional benefit for communities in reusing or recycling these products and materials. Secondly, lean principles and practices are performed as can be seen from the following quotations:
R.NGO B: “That you are working as much ‘lean and mean’ as possible, you are not distributing an abundance to the field because it already cost a lot to get those stuff there, so you are trying to, as customized as possible, to
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R. NGO F: “So you know, when we are not efficient then what happens on plastic bags? Tons and tons, even the food items also get waste. And many places they don’t get. So for that efficiency systematic approach it is a must.
Without that you can’t do better help. You can do help but cannot better help. You cannot make your resources most effective, most efficient, most ready.
It appears that NGOs strive to be efficient and effective in their distribution of supplies so that less waste is created. Lastly, local sourcing emerged as an upstream consideration as some NGOs deliberate plan to source and distribute supplies in close proximity to a disaster site. Two quotations are given to support this:
R.NGO A: “We have very clear policy on purchasing locally wherever possible and using local materials especially in construction […] You don’t want to transport from far away but also don’t want to contribute to
deforestation or other environmental degradation that comes with humanitarian assistance[…]So we try to source locally to try to support the local economy or as close to the camp or so close to the humanitarian setting
as possible”;
R.NGO D: “[…]we’re increasingly looking to see what is it that’s really available, you know, within close proximity to the program area disaster site that we can attain that one builds value in the local economy about by placing the money there to you know, being able to transport there quickly where it’s needed and buying[…]
and or any as much that we need rather than by putting your finger in the air and getting where the wind is blowing, guessing that what the need is”.
That is, sourcing in close proximity assists in providing more effective logistics operations regarding the distribution of supplies.
Motives reverse logistics
Different motives emerged from the qualitative analysis, varying from more general motives as environmental friendliness, efficiency and cost-effectiveness to more specific reasons as recapturing value and recovering assets. Of these motives, environmental friendliness appeared most frequently as five out of six respondents mentioned this as a contribution of applying reverse logistics. This can be illustrated with the following quotation:
R.NGO B: “Yes, for example pollution[…] if something is really polluting, say these cement bags, you don’t want to have those things laid down in the area[…] well than that could be a reason to apply reverse
logistics”.
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R.NGO D:“[…]how we can utilise for additional benefit whether it be repurposing or looking at disposal or energy issues pertaining to fill the downstream use of that, you know to extract maximum benefit”.
Antecedents
Some predefined and new antecedents emerged from the analysis. Starting with the predefined antecedents, it appears that resource commitments, beneficiary opportunism and beneficiary orientation are apparent in the humanitarian context. Regarding resource commitments, it appears that the availability of resources in terms of finance and personnel is an issue in applying reverse logistics. To illustrate this, some quotations of several respondents are given:
R.NGO C:“[…]definitely I think challenges come where budgets come.[…] we have the funding, we can go ahead and we can do more. If we don’t have the funding, we have to downsize”;
R.NGO D“[…]resources internally are not managed so tightly, we operate on such a thin budget that that can have a huge influence on the viability of the organisation”;
R.NGO F: “One resource is that trained human resources[…]working in these types of situations. So they need[…]understanding of the communities[...] So understanding that community, understanding their language, understanding their behaviour[…] So if local human resources and people are not coordinating in a proper way
then that makes not appropriate use of all efforts”.
Interestingly, a lack of information systems did not appear in the interviews. Besides these resource commitments, beneficiary opportunism is also apparent as communities and beneficiaries are already reusing and recycling distributed products and materials themselves so that opportunities for NGOs for collecting used products and materials are forgone. A quotation of respondent NGO B is stated in supporting this finding:
“[…] I assume that some waste remains there, but definitely in the settings in which we work and that’s mainly with really poor communities, every type of material that remains is usually reused on short notice by someone
else, so we don’t have to take that back”.
Relating to beneficiary orientation, is was already mentioned that product and package design as an upstream consideration of NGOs could encourage beneficiaries to extract more value out of distributed supplies in reusing or recycling activities.
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R.NGO C:“So there’s not, you know, a lot of things are not very much aware[…] a lot of ignorance to people where lack of awareness is there. How you can, you know, save things or combine things[…]But a lot of things
come on to the people, because we have to be aware, we need to understand the benefits. It doesn’t only helps the world, but it directly helps you, your individual benefit[...]then you begin to do it more effectively, more
deliberately”;
R. NGO F: “No, you can’t control the packaging but[…]you can be creating awareness in advance. For example[…] this types of network of humanitarian organisations[…]donors[…] government, they have to work
in advance.”
So awareness of reverse logistics and its benefits are necessary for reverse logistics to become a practice in this context. Secondly, it appears that donors have a profound influence on the activities that are performed by NGOs as can be seen from the following quotations:
R.NGO A: “[…]we are under pressure for value for money is the next thing.. to show that we are doing as much as we can with the little funding that we receive or with what we receive. So this (reverse logistics), on the list of
donor priorities, is quite low”;
R.NGO B:“[…]we are financed to get stuff to the target group. So if you want to return stuff, then you need to have a really good motive to do so, a really clear motive as well because you want to get paid by your donor to
realise that or it has to yield something.”;
R.NGO D “For example many NGOs’ funding is coming based on the donors’ own target, not based on the community target. So these types of situations are always driving here and there”.
So, donors could dictate the kinds of activities that are performed by NGOs such as applying reverse logistics. However, donor acceptance and awareness are also interrelated as donors are in some cases more concerned with other issues than thinking about reverse logistics as can be seen from the following quotation:
R.NGO F: “Another part is, you know, sometimes some donors, they also don’t care about all those things. They want to give, just give”.
In these cases, donors are not aware about the downstream use of supplies that are donated. In these cases it is the responsibility of NGOs to be aware of opportunities in applying reverse logistics.
Influencing factors
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in terms of organisation-specific and external factors emerged from the analysis, as well as a new external factor: culture.
Starting with organisation-specific factors, it was already mentioned that NGOs deal with a lack of resources in terms of finance and trained personnel. Furthermore, relative importance emerged often as a limiting factor in applying reverse logistics as becomes clear from the next quotation of respondent NGO A:
“[…] these types of programs are viewed as non-life saving, someone waving baskets out of used plastic is not food or is not water or hygiene”.
Besides internal organisation-specific factors, some external factors emerged that also have a profound impact on reverse logistics activities. Interestingly, culture emerged as a new external factor influencing the application of reverse logistics. It was found that the perception on waste and value differs is subject to culture. To support this relevant and interesting finding, a narrative of one of the respondents is given which clearly shows the cultural influence on the perception of waste.
NGO D: “I worked in situations where, like in Uganda, having the container pulled up and all they knew it was donations from a large retail chain, clothing chain in the U.S. so they thought they’ll be given t-shirts and things
of that nature but it was women’s underwear. Stuff that was totally culturally inappropriate and it was just a waste… But, they were laughing, they were quite happy with it but it was hugely embarrassing for the
non-profits who did that”.
R. NGO A: “[…] it is also cultural in some settings, […] some[…] refugees[…] they are much more prone. They want to do things with their hands, they are very good with crafts. […].on the other hand, not so much . They are not so interested in recycling.. they want new things so this kind of program was not very successful[...]
So it depends on how people view waste and if they see value in what is potentially waste in one area of the operation and if it’s cultural acceptable to reuse that for other purposes.”
So, this cultural perception of value and waste can have implications on the extent of reuse and recycle application and beneficiary opportunism. Besides culture, also predefined factors emerged from the analysis, namely uncertainty of the environment, government support and infrastructure. Some quotations are stated to illustrate these challenges.
R. NGO B: “[…]well, there are some complexities obviously. ‘a’ take a look at safety. Especially in conflict situations it can be really difficult to get your stuff on a dedicated place safely. ‘b’ just the physical circumstances […] a large part of the year, South-Sudan is under water, literally, it’s just a swamp. You can
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R.NGO D: “[…]and even in a lot of these third-world countries where you think the need is desperate, you know, there often is some kind of little official who loves his uniform and loves his whistle and his rulebook and
so being out to reclaim even containers and things like that, can be a little challenging”.
From these quotations it can be seen that NGOs find themselves in complex situations that influence their capabilities and opportunities in applying reverse logistics. However, as became clear from data-analysis, it is the interrelatedness of antecedents, internal and external factors that really influence the state of application of reverse logistics in this new context. Co-occurrence tables clearly showed some interrelationships between several factors, which can be found in Appendix V: ‘Co-occurrence tables’. Factors that were often co-occurring were donor influence and financial resources, financial and personnel resources, financial resources and infrastructure. Some quotations are given to support this interrelatedness of influencing factors.
R.NGO A:“[…] generally if it doesn’t cost a lot then they (donors) are happy to have us do it and if it expensive or difficult or causes security risk then it drops off the list of priorities almost completely”;
R.NGO B: “[…]difficulty of access, that’s an issue[…]That’s why transport, as part of logistics, is a huge cost driver of your whole operation”;
R.NGO A: “And the extra security risk of moving supplies that are not essential to anyone, they are not going to save any lives, is just too high to risk putting them[…] making staff move by road in a truck to move
them out”.
4.3. Comparative results
As this research is concerned with mixed methods, it is important to bridge the findings of both methods with each other. In doing so, consistent and conflicting findings of both methods are presented which reflect on the reliability and validity of both instruments and offers new insights towards the application of reverse logistics. The integrated data displays which were used to identify corresponding and conflicting results are displayed in Appendix VII: ‘Integrated data displays’.
Consistent results
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Furthermore, certain influencing factors consistently appear throughout the survey and interview methods in general and within participant responses. Uncertainty of the environment and infrastructure are consistently appearing predefined external factors influencing the application of reverse logistics. The quantitative results showed perfect correlations between these external forces which is supported by the qualitative results. Consistent internal factors are financial resources and relative importance of reverse logistics activities next to other issues. From the interviews, these internal factors emerged often and were also most frequently apparent from the quantitative results.
Conflicting results
Some general discrepancies emerged between the methods, as well as inconsistent findings originating from the same respondent. Most importantly, from the interviews it was found that reverse logistics activities are often performed by communities themselves and that NGOs train the community in doing so. This beneficiary opportunism did not emerge from the survey, which clearly was focused on organisational reverse logistics.
Furthermore, some discrepancies emerged as the interviews provided more general motives in applying reverse logistics as opposed to the survey, which included more specific motives. Cost-effectiveness and efficiency emerged as general motives in the interviews whereas specific motives as recover assets and recapture value were apparent in the survey. Environmental friendliness emerged several times from the interviews despite being not embedded in the survey.
In looking at influencing factors, culture emerged as an external factor from the interviews despite not being identified from the surveys. In the interviews, culture was mentioned by four out of six respondents as an influencing factor. This is interesting as respondents had the opportunity in the survey to mention other factors that were not predefined.
