THE EFFECT OF A SOCIAL STATUS MOTIVE ON
CONSPICUOUSNESS, RISK TAKING AND WILLINGNESS TO PAY
- WITH GENDER AS A MODERATING VARIABLE -
Jildau van der Pal
THE EFFECT OF A SOCIAL STATUS MOTIVE ON
CONSPICUOUSNESS, RISK TAKING AND WILLINGNESS TO PAY
- WITH GENDER AS A MODERATING VARIABLE -
Master thesis, Msc Marketing, Specialization Marketing Management University of Groningen, Faculty of Economics and Business
July, 2013
Number of Words: 6783
How does a social status motive influence consumer behavior? This research focused on the effect of the ancestral human wish for social status on today’s consumer behavior. It was investigated whether a social status motive influences males’ and females’ conspicuous behavior, willingness to pay and risk taking.
Research in evolutionary psychology suggests that fundamental motives that were important to survive in ancient times continue to influence modern behavior. Social status, one of these fundamental motives, was central in this research. Higher social status has brought benefits for humans in ancient times, which still is the case nowadays. When a social status motive is present, people tend to behave in ways that leads them to be respected and admired in a group. Previous research found evidence that a social status motive influences consumer behavior. In this research, the influence of a social status motive on three aspects of consumer behavior that yet had to be tested were included: conspicuous behavior, willingness to pay and risk taking. Conspicuous behavior was tested by three indicators: the evaluation of scarce products, clothing choices and behavior on social media. Two types of risk taking were distinguished: financial risk taking and social risk taking. Furthermore, the moderating effect of gender on the influence of a social status motive on the three aspects of consumer behavior was tested.
It was hypothesized that a social status motive decreases social risk taking and increases conspicuous behavior, willingness to pay and financial risk taking. The influence of a social status motive on these aspects was expected to be larger for males compared to females. The hypotheses were tested by an experiment. One hundred and sixty-six persons participated in a 2 (social status motive activation: yes vs. no) × 2 (gender: male vs. female) post-test randomized between-subjects factorial design. The results showed that the influence of a social status motive on the evaluation of scarce products was larger for females compared to males. In case of clothing choices, no influence was found on females while males were more likely to choose a shirt with outstanding colors when a social status motive was activated. No other hypothesized effects revealed significance.
This report is my master thesis for the conclusion of the Master Marketing program at the Faculty of Economics and Business, University of Groningen. Five months ago I started this research and today I proudly present the result that is lying in front of you. In line with the words Dr. L. Voerman spoke at the Msc Marketing introduction day “We have never promised you a rose garden”, finishing the program has gone through ups and downs. I believe, this is exactly how it should be to get the most out of myself and this research project. The possibility to write my master thesis on the topic of
Fundamental Motives in Consumer Choice opened my eyes for the scientific field of evolutionary
psychology. I find it interesting to realize that fundamental motives which made my ancestors survive, drive me today.
I really appreciated many people who helped me at the research. First I like to thank my supervisor Prof. Dr. B. M. Fennis for the valuable input given. His instructions created structure and clarity throughout the process which improved my research and increased my productivity. I also want to extend my gratitude to my second supervisor Dr. D. Trampe for her suggestions on the methodology of the master thesis. Also thanks to Dr. V. Griskevicius, one of the founders of this research field, for providing me the stories for the priming procedure. Moreover, Marije and Talisa were truly important in the process. As a team, we discussed content related topics and we shared both ups and downs. To my parents and Menno and Jolanda, thanks for always being there for me to support me. Last but not least, I really appreciated my fellow student and friend Amanda for her support, she made me see the light again when I got stuck with my research.
INTRODUCTION ... 1 1. LITERATURE REVIEW ... 3 1.1 Social Status ... 3 1.2 Conspicuousness ... 3 1.3 Willingness to Pay ... 5 1.4 Risk Taking ... 5 1.5 Gender ... 6 1.6 Conceptual model ... 7 2. RESEARCH METHODS ... 8 2.1 Design... 8 2.2 Participants ... 8 2.3 Procedure ... 9 2.4 Independent Variables ... 10 2.5 Dependent Variables ... 10 3. RESULTS ... 12 3.1 Conspicuousness ... 12 3.2 Willingness to Pay ... 15 3.3 Risk taking... 16 4. DISCUSSION ... 17 4.1 Conclusion ... 17 4.2 Reflection ... 18
4.3 Implications and Future Research Directions ... 19
REFERENCES ... 21
APPENDICES
INTRODUCTION
Innumerable luxury products and premium brands are available on today’s market. Products that are functionally identical are sold for prices that largely differ. Premium branded electronics, and designer watches, eyewear and handbags, are imposing products that run the show on the street. Displaying luxurious and prestigious goods to others is related to the wish of humans to obtain social status (Griskevicius & Kenrick, 2013). At first glance, social status may seem to be a modern phenomenon. However, research provides evidence that modern behavior is influenced by ancestral fundamental motives (Griskevicius & Kenrick, 2013; Neuberg, Kenrick, & Schaller, 2010). How will the social status motive influence consumer preferences and behavior? That will be the question underlying the present research.
Researchers have made progress in understanding the influence of the deep-seated ancestral motives on modern behavior. “The fundamental motives framework maintains that the specific ancestral social challenges faced by humans map onto fundamental motivational systems that function to help solve each challenge” (Griskevicius & Kenrick, 2013: 9). Fundamental motives, also called instincts, let people process information effortlessly and automatically (Tooby & Cosmides, 2005). People are not aware of the existence of instincts and its operation disappears unnoticed into the background because they work so well (Tooby & Cosmides, 2005). However, fundamental motives are important to take into consideration because consumer preferences can change dramatically depending on which motive is active and because the active motive guides the decision process of consumers (Griskevicius & Kenrick, 2013). Fundamental motives can be activated or primed by both internal and external cues related to specific evolutionary challenges (Griskevicius & Kenrick, 2013). This knowledge is valuable for marketers because activating such a fundamental motive provides opportunities to influence consumer behavior. Marketers can use external cues related to social status challenges to activate a social status motive. Since activating a fundamental motive guides consumer preferences and the decision process, the activation of a social status motive gives marketers the opportunity to influence consumer behavior.
1. LITERATURE REVIEW 1.1 Social Status
Humans seek to gain social status in their groups (Griskevicius & Kenrick, 2013). The wish for social status is rooted in the natural selection over evolutionary time to promote the survival of genes (Symons, 2005). Principles derived from evolutionary theories suggest social status as an important asset for people judging ideal partners (Buss & Schmitt, 1993; Gangestad & Simpson, 2000). Higher social status has always brought benefits for human and animal group-living species (Griskevicius & Kenrick, 2013; Neuberg et al., 2010). In modern times, the benefits of social status continue. For example, people with higher social status have greater interpersonal influence (Miller, Collins, & Brief, 1995) and more material resources (Cummins, 1998). The definition of social status implies a hierarchy of rewards (Griskevicius, Tybur, & Bergh, 2010), it often determines the respect or esteem a person has in relation to other people within a group (Rucker & Galinsky, 2008). The fundamental goal of social status is to achieve respect from, and power over, other group members (Kenrick, Maner, & Li, 2005). A social status motive moves people to behave in ways that leads them to be respected and admired in a group (Griskevicius & Kenrick, 2013). In terms of consumer behavior, a social status motive leads to the preference for physically large and imposing products, decreases consumer price sensitivity (Griskevicius & Kenrick, 2013) and increases the wish to show-off by seeking products that can be displayed to others e.g. luxurious and prestigious products (Griskevicius, Shiota & Nowlis, 2010). Besides, a social status motive leads to increased prosocial choices since being respected and admired in a group can be enhanced through self-sacrifice (Hardy & Van Vugt, 2006).
1.2 Conspicuousness
behavior. The effect of a social status motive on conspicuous behavior will be tested by three indicators: the evaluation of scarce products, clothing choices, and behavior on social media. In line with the mating motive (Griskevicius, 2013), gender is expected to moderate the effect of a social status motive on conspicuousness (see below under 1.5 Gender).
Scarcity Evaluation. One aspect of conspicuousness that will be researched is the principle of scarcity in relation to a social status motive. The principle of scarcity is based on a general heuristic rule that if a product is scarce, it must be good (Cialdini & Goldstein, 2004). Since scarcity emphasizes features related to distinctiveness (Dhar & Sherman, 1996) and buying a distinctive product brings consumers the opportunity to stand out (Griskevicius, Goldstein, Mortensen, Sundie, Cialdini, & Kenrick, 2009), it is expected that people with a social status motive rate scarce products more favorable compared to people without a social status motive.
Clothing Choices. Behavior related to clothing choices, whether people choose inconspicuous versus conspicuous colored clothes, is another aspect of conspicuousness that will be researched. In this research, inconspicuous colors are defined as less outstanding, basic colors e.g. black, white, pastels and dark blue. Conspicuous colors are defined as outstanding, bright colors e.g. red, purple and bright blue. Since it is expected that people with a social status motive want to stand out from the crowd, a positive relation of a social status motive on outstanding clothing choices is hypothesized.
H1: A social status motive results in a higher evaluation of scarce products.
H2: A social status motive results in more outstanding clothing choices.
H3: A social status motive results in more active behavior on social media.
1.3 Willingness to Pay
Previous research found that a social status motive leads people to pay more for luxurious and prestigious goods (Griskevicius et al., 2010a; Rucker & Galinsky, 2008; Ivanic, Overbeck, & Nunes, 2011; Godoy et al., 2007; Sadalla & Krull, 1995). For functionally identical products, consumers are willing to pay higher prices if it is a branded product because the brand displays wealth, which increases social status (Bagwell & Bernheim, 1996). Since services are intangible, services are harder to display to others and therefore the increase in wealth is less obvious. The influence of a social status motive is expected to be smaller for services compared to products since services show the increase in wealth less. This research investigates whether a social status motive increases willingness to pay for luxurious and prestigious services and whether the influence of social status on willingness to pay is smaller for services compared to products. In summary,
H4: A social status motive results in a higher willingness to pay for luxurious and
prestigious services.
H5: The influence of a social status motive on willingness to pay is smaller for services
compared to products.
1.4 Risk Taking
Besides physical risk, other types of risk in buying and consuming products can be perceived (Keller, 2008). The influence of a social status motive on financial and social risk taking will be examined in this research. Since the potential benefits of taking the risk and the potential type of loss suffered by the risk taking differ between financial and social risk taking, the direction of the effect of a social status motive differs between the two types of risk taking. Financial risk occurs when a purchase involves the risk of paying a price that the product is not worth (Keller, 2008). Consumers with an activated social status motive are less price sensitive (Griskevicius & Kenrick, 2013) and are therefore expected to take more financial risk. In contrast, perceived social risk is expected to increase when a social status motive is activated. Social risk occurs when purchasing the product involves the risk of embarrassment from others (Keller, 2008). A threat for people who obtained status is the loss of social status and social regard (Kenrick et al., 2010; Neuberg et al., 2010). A social status motive spurs people to behave in a way that let them be accepted by others (Griskevicius & Kenrick, 2013). Therefore, a social status motive is expected to increase the avoidance of embarrassment from others. In summary,
H6: A social status motive results in more financial risk taking.
H7: A social status motive results in less social risk taking.
1.5 Gender
Social status signals an ability and willingness of a male to take care of his wife and their children in the long run. Therefore, when females have a wish for a monogamous partner, they tend to seek traits such as social status in long-term partners (Schmitt, 2005). Opportunities of reproductive success increase more for males than for females (Duntley, 2005; Perusse, 1993; Kenrick et al., 2010). This implies that since a social status motive is more beneficial for males than females, it may evolved to be more salient in males than females. Hence, any effects of a social status motive on the previous outcomes is expected to be stronger for males compared to females. In summary,
H8a: The effect of a social status motive on the evaluation of scarce products,
hypothesized in Hypothesis 1, is larger for males compared to females. H8b: The effect of a social status motive on outstanding clothing choices,
hypothesized in Hypothesis 2, is larger for males compared to females. H8c: The effect of a social status motive on social media behavior, hypothesized in
H8d: The effect of a social status motive on willingness to pay, hypothesized in
Hypothesis 4, is larger for males compared to females.
H8e: The effect of a social status motive on risk taking, hypothesized in Hypothesis 6 and
7, is larger for males compared to females.
1.6 Conceptual model
Based on the eight hypotheses the research question of this paper is defined:
‘How does a social status motive effects conspicuousness, willingness to pay and risk taking? And does gender have a moderating effect on these relationships?’
A relation is expected between the dependent variable ‘Social Status Motive’ and independent variables ‘Conspicuousness’, ‘Willingness to Pay’ and ‘Risk Taking’. The influence of a social status motive is expected to be larger for males compared to females. Based on this information, a moderating effect of ‘Gender’ is expected on the relationship between the dependent and independent variables. According to the relation between the four variables, the conceptual model showed in Figure 1 is suggested.
FIGURE 1
The effect of a social status motive on conspicuousness, willingness to pay and risk taking
Dependent variables:
- Conspicuousness (H1, H2, H3: +) - Willingness to Pay (H4: +, H5: +/-) - Risk Taking (H6 -, H7: +)
Independent variable:
Social Status Motive
2. RESEARCH METHODS 2.1 Design
To test the effect of a social status motive on conspicuousness, willingness to pay and risk taking, an experiment was conducted. An experiment was most suitable for this research since it could be used to obtain evidence of relationships between the dependent and independent variables (Malhotra, 2010). Two groups were distinguished; one experimental group in which the social status motive was activated and one control group in which the social status motive was not activated. For both groups, differences in the effect of a social status motive on the dependent variables were tested between males and females.
The independent variable ‘social status motive’ was manipulated to measure the differences in consumers’ wish for conspicuousness, willingness to pay and risk taking. Participants were randomly assigned to either the experimental condition or the control condition. The independent variable ‘gender’ was self-reported by participants. Measurements only have been made after the treatment. This way of conducting the experiment is also referred to as a between-subjects design (Malhotra, 2010). The study used a 2 (social status motive activation: yes vs. no) X 2 (gender: male
vs. female) post-test randomized between-subjects factorial design. Figure 2 shows the four conditions included in the experimental design.
FIGURE 2 2x2 Experimental design
Social Status Motive: Yes
Social Status Motive: No
Male Condition 1 Condition 2
Female Condition 3 Condition 4
2.2 Participants
The data were collected through an online questionnaire. An initial group of participants was selected randomly within the network of the researcher. Based on referrals of the initial participants, subsequent participants were selected. In other words, the data were collected through snowball sampling (Malhotra, 2010).
2.3 Procedure
The experimental research consisted of two parts; a pretest that improved the questionnaire by identifying and eliminating potential problems and the actual experiment to test the hypotheses. To increase the participants’ understandability, the questionnaires were conducted in Dutch.
The pretest was conducted by five participants filling out the questionnaire with the request to mention all ambiguities. Adjustments were done by the researcher and checked by the participant in the same personal session.
2.4 Independent Variables
Social Status Motive. To prime a social status motive, a 700 word story which has been used in previous research (Griskevicius et al., 2009b) was adopted, see Appendix A. For the social status motive prime to become effective, it was important participants had read the story thoroughly. To minimize the risk of skipping or not thoroughly reading the story, participants got the instruction to remember as much as possible of the story content. In the experimental condition, participants were asked to imagine they were a person just graduated from college. The prime story described the person’s first day on a job, focusing on the high-status features of the workplace. In the control condition, participants were exposed to a story of 700 words as well to elicit similar levels of affect as the social status motive primed participants (Griskevicius et al., 2009b). In the control story, participants were asked to imagine being at home and realizing that their keys were missing.
Gender. Participants were asked to release their demographics of which gender was one aspect. 2.5 Dependent Variables
Conspicuousness. The effect of the independent variables on conspicuousness was measured by testing three different indicators of consumer attitudes and behavior that are related to conspicuousness: the evaluation of scarce products, clothing choices, and behavior on social media. To measure differences in the evaluation of scarce products, a page of a web shop was shown to the participants with a limited edition CD that was almost sold out. Participants were asked to evaluate the attractiveness of the product and indicate their buying intentions (Appendix Table B1). Attractiveness evaluation was indicated on a 7-point semantic differential scale with the labels very
unattractive and very attractive at the endpoints. Buying intention was indicated on a 7-point
semantic differential scale with the labels very unlikely and very likely at the endpoints.
To find out whether a social status motive leads to more outstanding clothing choices, participants were exposed to clothes in conspicuous colors and inconspicuous colors. Participants were asked to consider they were out shopping for a new outfit; a shirt, pants and a pair of shoes. For each clothing item, participants were presented with a choice (Griskevicius et al., 2010a): the more conspicuous color option or the more inconspicuous color option, see Appendix Table B2.
levels of activity were distinguished; level 1 = no response, level 2 = like, level 3 = comment or share, level 4 = a minimum of 2 options selected out of like, comment and share.
Willingness to Pay. Based on previous research on willingness to pay, participants were asked the most amount of money the person would be willing to pay in order to obtain a service and product (Rucker & Galisky, 2008). Since this research focused on the willingness to pay for a luxurious and prestigious service and product, the willingness to pay for a designer watch and a holiday to Dubai was measured. To reduce the amount of response variance and to guard against outliers, a 12-point scale was used where the 1st point was 10% of the retail price of the holiday, and increasing intervals of 10% per scale point up to the 12th point with 120% of the retail price (Rucker & Galisky, 2008), see Appendix Table B4.
3. RESULTS 3.1 Conspicuousness
The effect of a social status motive on conspicuous behavior was tested by three indicators: the evaluation of scarce products, clothing choices, and behavior on social media.
Scarcity Evaluation. A 2 (social status motive activation: yes vs. no) X 2 (gender: male vs. female)
full factorial ANOVA on attractiveness evaluation and buying intention was performed. The results did not reveal a main effect of a social status motive on attractiveness evaluation (F(1, 162) = .132, p = .717), the main effect of gender also failed to reach significance (F(1, 162) = .674, p = .577). The results of the interaction effect between a social status motive and gender (F(1, 162) = 3.557, p = .061) reached no significance on a significance level of .05. Although, on a marginal level (p-value < .1) the interaction effect was significant. Inspection of the means showed (see Figure 3) that males with a social status motive (M = 3.234, SD = 1.371) evaluated the scarce product less attractive than males without a social status motive (M = 3.583, SD = 1.574). In contrast, females with a social status motive (M = 3.538, SD = 1.587) evaluated the scarce product more attractive than females without a social status motive (M = 3.023, SD = 1.372).
FIGURE 3
Interaction Effect Social Status Motive and Gender on Attractiveness Evaluation
3.58 3.02 3.23 3.54 2.60 2.80 3.00 3.20 3.40 3.60 3.80 Male Female M ea n a tt ra ct iv eness ev a lua tio n Gender
There was no significant main effect of a social status motive on buying intention (F(1, 162) = 2.579, p = .110), the main effect of gender (F(1, 162) = 3.157, p = .077) reached no significance on a significance level of .05. Although, on a marginal level (p-value < .1) there is a positive significant effect of gender on buying intention. The main effect of gender indicated that males (M = 2.460, SD = 1.476) had higher buying intentions towards the scarce product than females (M = 2.060, SD = 1.272). This main effect was qualified by a significant interaction effect on a marginal level between a social status motive and gender (F(1, 162) = 2.978, p = .086). Inspection of the means showed (see Figure 4) that males with a social status motive (M = 2.447, SD = 1.427) evaluated the scarce product less attractive than males without a social status motive (M = 2.472, SD = 1.558). However, the difference in buying intentions for males is almost nihil. Females with a social status motive (M = 2.436, SD = 1.518) evaluated the scarce product more attractive than females without a social status motive (M = 1.727, SD = .899).
FIGURE 4
Interaction Effect Social Status Motive and Gender on Buying Intention
In conclusion, there was no significant effect of a social status motive on the evaluation of scarce products. Therefore, hypotheses 1 cannot be accepted. On a marginal level, the positive effect of a social status motive on the evaluation of scarce products was significantly larger for females than males. Thus, hypothesis 8a had to be rejected since the results on the interaction effect between a social status motive and gender contradict the hypotheses.
2.47 1.73 2.44 2.44 1.50 1.70 1.90 2.10 2.30 2.50 Male Female M ea n b u y in g in tentio n Gender
Clothing Choices. A Chi-Square Test of Independence was used to analyze the main effect of a social status motive and gender on clothing choices. The main effect of a social status motive on all three clothing items reached no significance: shirt X2 (1, N=166) = 1.334, p = .248, pants X2 (1, N=166) = .651, p = .420, shoes X2 (1, N=166) = .415, p = .519. No significant main effect of gender was found on shirt choice X2 (1, N=166) = .027, p = .870. However, the effect of gender on the choice of pants (X2 (1, N=166) = 9.361, p = .002) and shoes (X2 (1, N=166) = 29.308, p = .000) reached significance. Inspection of the outstanding choice percentages showed that males make less outstanding pants and shoes choices than females. To test whether a social status motive and gender had an interacting effect, a Three-Way Chi-Square Test of Independence was performed. The results show that for males the effect of a social status motive on shirt choice was significant (X2 (1, N=166) = 5.173, p = .023). However, a social status motive had no significant effect on shirt choice for females (X2 (1, N=166) = .401, p = .526). The results of the interaction effect between a social status motive and gender on shirt choice (conspicuous vs. inconspicuous) are shown in Table 1. The effect of a social status motive on pants choice reached no significance for both males (X2 (1, N=166) = .017, p = .897) and females (X2 (1, N=166) = .563, p = .453). For shoes, no significant effect of a social status motive was found as well for males (X2 (1, N=166) = .414, p = .520) and females (X2 (1, N=166) = .310, p = .578).
TABLE 1
Interaction Effect Social Status Motive and Gender on Shirt Choice
Gender: Social Status Motive:
Outstanding Choice in % Inconspicuous Choice in % Total in % Male No 52.8 47.2 100 Yes 76.6 23.4 100 Female No 68.2 31.8 100 Yes 61.5 38.5 100
social status motive on shirt choice. For the other clothing items, the interaction effect reached no significance. Combining the results of the three clothing items, hypothesis 8b is partially supported. Social Media. A Chi-Square Test of Independence was used to analyze the main effect of a social status motive and gender on social media behavior. The main effect of a social status motive reached no significance, X2 (1, N=166) = 2.725, p = .436. There also was no significant main effect of gender, X2 (1, N=166) = 2.062, p = 560.To test whether a social status motive and gender had an interacting effect, a Three-Way Chi-Square Test of Independence was performed. The results showed for both males (X2 (3, N=166) = 4.258, p = .235) and females (X2 (2, N=166) = .374, p = .830) no significant effect of a social status motive on social media behavior.
In conclusion, there was no significant effect of a social status motive on social media behavior. Therefore, hypothesis 3 cannot be accepted. Since the results of the interaction effect between a social status motive and gender reached no significance, hypothesis 8c cannot be accepted.
3.2 Willingness to Pay
A 2 (social status motive activation: yes vs. no) X 2 (gender: male vs. female) full factorial ANOVA
on a service and a product was performed. The results did not reveal a main effect of a social status motive on willingness to pay for a service (F(1, 162) = 2.021, p = .157), the main effect of gender also failed to reach significance (F (1, 162) = .014, p = .908). The results of the interaction effect between a social status motive and gender (F(1, 162) = .521, p = .472) reached no significance. There was no significant main effect of a social status motive on willing to pay for a product (F(1, 162) = 2.354, p = .127), the main effect of gender (F(1, 162) = .399, p = .528) reached no significance. The results of the interaction effect between a social status motive and gender (F(1, 162) = 1.514, p = .220) reached no significance.
3.3 Risk taking
The effect of a social status motive and the moderating variables on risk taking was tested for two types of risk: financial risk taking and social risk taking. For both types of risk, a 2 (social status motive activation: yes vs. no) X 2 (gender: male vs. female) full factorial ANOVA was performed.
There was no significant main effect of a social status motive on financial risk taking (F(1, 162) = .047, p = .828), the main effect of gender (F(1, 162) = 2.935, p = .089) reached no significance on a significance level of .05. Although, on a marginal level (p-value < .1) there is a positive significant effect of gender on financial risk taking. The main effect of gender indicated that males (M = 2.188,
SD = .651) were willing to take higher financial risk than females (M = 2.022, SD = .549). The
results of the interaction effect between a social status motive and gender (F(1, 162) = .111, p = .740) reached no significance.
The results did not reveal a main effect of a social status motive on social risk taking (F(1, 162) = .283, p = .595), the main effect of gender also failed to reach significance (F (1, 162) = .104,
p = .748). The results of the interaction effect between a social status motive and gender (F(1, 162) =
.111, p = .740) reached no significance.
4. DISCUSSION 4.1 Conclusion
From existing literature in evolutionary psychology we know human behavior is influenced by fundamental motives. However, the influence of these fundamental motives on consumer behavior had yet to be tested. This research has focused on the effect of the fundamental motive social status on consumers’ wish for conspicuousness, risk taking and willingness to pay. Besides, the moderating effect of gender was researched. The hypotheses of the experiment were based on findings of previous research in evolutionary psychology.
Expected was that a social status motive would increase the wish for conspicuousness. The wish for conspicuousness was tested by three hypotheses regarding the evaluation of scarce products, clothing choices, and behavior on social media. No evidence was found that a social status motive influences consumers’ wish for conspicuousness. Besides the effect on conspicuousness, a social status motive was expected to increase financial risk taking and decrease social risk taking. For both types of risk taking, no evidence was found to accept the hypotheses. In case of willingness to pay, for both a product and a service, a social status motive had no significant effect on the dependent variable. Notable is the fact that previous research found evidence (Griskevicius et al., 2010a; Rucker & Galinsky, 2008; Ivanic et al., 2011; Godoy et al., 2007; Sadalla & Krull, 1995) that a social status motive increases the willingness to pay for products. Possible explanations for the absence of significance in our research is related to empathy for the prime story and cultural variation, which is described below in the reflection part.
buying intentions towards the scarce product than females. It seems likely that males are triggered to obtain the CD by the fact that the CD is a limited edition. In this line of reasoning, a social status motive makes no difference in buying intentions for males because they are triggered by the limited edition aspect already.
Besides, gender had a significant effect on the relationship between a social status motive and outstanding choice for a shirt. Both males and females chose the outstanding shirt more often when a social status motive was activated. However, the effect of a social status motive was only significant for males. This result is in line with the hypotheses. However, for pants and shoes no evidence is found for a moderating effect of gender and relationship status. In contrast, the main effect of gender on pants and shoes choice was significant while no significant effect was found on shirt choice. This means that when a direct effect of gender was present, the interaction effect between a social status motive and gender did not reach significance.
According to the other dependent variables, no evidence was found for an interaction between a social status motive and gender.
4.2 Reflection
One research limitation is that the conducted experiment did not involve the actual purchasing of products. Nevertheless, product choices (participants chose which product they would buy) and buying intentions were measured, which have shown a relatively strong relationship to actual behavior (Fishbein & Ajzen, 1975). Furthermore, a limitation of this research is that conclusions are based on marginally significant results. This increases the chance (from max. 5% to max. 10%) of a Type I error: accepting a wrong hypothesis.
variation possibly explains the outcomes. The previous research by Griskevicius et al. (2009ab) were done under citizens from the United States, our research was done under Dutch people. According to Hofstede (The Hofstede Center, 2013), the countries differ largely on the dimension masculinity. Since the United States scores higher on this dimension (62), the society will be more driven by competition, achievement and being successful compared to the Netherlands with a score of 14 on the masculinity dimension. Where citizens from the United States are more motivated by masculine values which are closely related to social status, Dutch citizens are less masculine motivated. Therefore, we assume citizens from the United States to be more driven by social status. The evolutionary approach is not incompatible with cultural influences (Griskevicius & Kenrick, 2013), cultural differences are expected to influence evolved mechanisms (Neuberg et al., 2010). The lower level of masculinity for the Netherlands therefore may induce a lower effect of a social status motive on consumer behavior.
4.3 Implications and Future Research Directions
Scientific implications have been made by this research by adding relevant information about the effect of a social status motive on consumer behavior. In previous research the influence of fundamental motives on human behavior is investigated. Consumer behavior is a much discussed topic as well. This experiment took an important step in the science of marketing by researching the combination of both scientific fields: evolutionary psychology and marketing. However, further research is needed to find out whether the empathy towards the prime story was strong enough in our research and to investigate if the assumptions of this research can be accepted by scientific research on a significance level of .05.
Next to further research on the effect of a social status motive on more aspects of consumer behavior, it would be interesting to investigate whether cultural variation influences the effect of social status motive. Another suggestion for further research is to take the respondents’ current level within Maslow’s or a renovated pyramid into account. According to this theory, a social status motive only becomes priority after physiological-, self-protection and affiliation needs are satisfied (Kenrick et al., 2010). Therefore, a social status motive can only be primed when these needs are satisfied. Last but not least, one of the most important further research directions for managers is related to the issue in which way a social status motive can be primed by marketing communication to influence consumer behavior. Since males in general had higher buying intentions compared to females and a social status motive almost did not change buying intentions, research on whether scarcity activates a social status motive for males would be an interesting starting point.
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Cialdini, R. B., & Goldstein, N. J. 2004. Social Influence: Compliance and Conformity. Annual Review of Psychology, 55(1): 591-621.
Cummins, R. A. 1998. The Second Approximation to an International Standard for Life Satisfaction. Social Indicators Research, 43: 307-334.
Dhar, R., & Sherman, S. J. 1996. The Effect of Common and Unique Features in Consumer Choice. Journal of Consumer Research, 23(3): 193-203.
Duntley, J. D. 2005. Adaptations to Dangers from Humans. In Buss, D. M. (Ed.), The Handbook of Evolutionary Psychology: New Jersey: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Fishbein, M., & Ajzen, I. 1975. Belief, Attitude, Intention, and Behavior: An introduction to Theory and Research. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.
Gangestad, S. W., & Simpson, J. A. 2000. The Evolution of Human Mating: Trade-Offs and Strategic Pluralism. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 23: 573-644.
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Psychology, 98: 392-404.
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APPENDIX A – PRIMING PROCEDURES Social Status Motive Prime (Griskevicius et al., 2009)
Imagine you recently graduated from college. You were offered several jobs and decided to go work for a well-known and powerful company. Besides paying well, this job offers you the greatest chance of moving up—assuming you can prove that you have what it takes.
As you pull into the parking lot on your first day of work, you immediately notice that the lot is full of expensive new cars. Walking to your building, you eye these impressive vehicles and think about the kind of car you should get now that you’ve graduated, perhaps an upscale luxury sedan or a new sports car. You imagine yourself driving through town in a sparkling new car and you feel yourself becoming more motivated. Entering the lobby, you’re impressed by how upscale everything looks— the antique furniture, the artistic decorations, the designer clothing. You’re thrilled to be working at such a prestigious company and you feel that this is exactly the kind of job you deserve.
As you wait, another person sits down next to you. A minute later a third person also takes a seat. The two are dressed in brand new business suits, and they’re about the same age as you. Each one briefly looks at you, smiles slightly, and says hello. Both of them look a little nervous and you sense that these are probably your new colleagues. Looking at them out of the corner of your eye, you feel both excited and a little anxious. You imagine how much fun it would be to have colleagues with whom you can talk about the new job. But looking at their facial expressions and their body posture, you feel a sense of competition in the air. You realize this job is not a game. You’re not in school in anymore.
“In the next few months, all three of you will both work both independently and work together. You’re going to get to know each other pretty well.” As the atmosphere seems to relax a little, you look around the room and everyone smiles.
But the boss continues: “Starting today each one of you will get a small cubicle. But we don’t expect you to stay there. After 6 months, one of you will be fired.” Hearing this news sends a shiver down your spine. You quickly scan the room. The other two people are trying to suppress any look of concern and show a confident side to the new boss. You remind yourself that you were hired for a good reason and that you deserve a spot at the top. You sit up straighter and put on a confident expression.
“Although one of you will be fired,” the boss goes on, “the person who does the best will not only get a promotion, but they will get a large bonus and will be put on the fast track to the top.” Pointing to the grand window offices down the hall, the boss finishes: “I see a lot of potential in all of you, but only one of you will make it into one of those big offices. You have 6 months to show everyone what you’re made of.”
Control Story (Griskevicius et al., 2009)
Imagine that it’s Tuesday afternoon during the semester. Your classes are pretty difficult this semester, and you’ve been getting pretty stressed out about everything that you need to do. You are hanging out at home doing homework, but it’s getting boring and you’re feeling tired. You know that you still have to go run some errands before it’s too late, so you decide to get started.
As you go to get your keys and wallet from the counter, you only find your wallet. The keys are nowhere in sight. Thinking that it’s a little awkward, you feel your pockets. No keys in there either. You try to think back to where you last saw the keys, but you can’t exactly remember. You know you had it yesterday, and you’re usually pretty good about leaving your keys right next to your wallet.
You sometimes put your keys in your backpack, so that seems the logical place to look. You search through your bag. Books, folders, pens, but no keys. You turn the bag upside down and shake it. Nothing but junk. Now you start getting a little annoyed, and a little worried. Where the heck are your keys?
You decide to search around the house. You look all around your desk. You open the drawers. You search deep in the drawers. But it’s not anywhere. You look through your bedroom floor, but all you find is junk.
Getting more desperate, you look through the laundry. Maybe they’re in another pocket somewhere? You find some pieces of paper, but no keys. Feeling more upset, you go into your closet and start throwing things to the floor—no keys. You run to the kitchen and start looking on the counters. You open all the cupboards and drawers. You have no idea why the keys would be there, but you need to look somewhere. In fifteen minutes, your kitchen looks like a disaster area. But still no keys!
Remembering that you had gone outside to take out the garbage earlier, you run out into the
driveway. Maybe the keys fell out there? You look in the grass, the bushes, underneath cars. You see nothing. You think to yourself: did I really lose my keys? As you walk back inside the house in frustration, you feel as though you’re ready to pull out your hair. Your keys have disappeared. You knew this was coming sometime, but why now. It’s so annoying.
You plop onto your living room couch. Sighing, you look back to the counter where you normally put your keys. To your astonishment, there they are. Your keys are on the counter! How could you have missed them? You can’t believe it. Something like this always happens to you.
APPENDIX B – MEASURES
TABLE B1
Scarcity Evaluation Measure
Question Left endpoint Right endpoint
To what extent do you think the product is attractive? Totally unattractive Totally attractive
What is the likelihood you would buy the product? Very unlikely Very likely
TABLE B2
Clothing Choice Measure (Griskevicius et al., 2010a)
Question Options
Participant’s choice ○ Conspicuous option
○ Inconspicuous option
TABLE B3
Social Media Behavior Measure
Question Options
Imagine you see the Facebook page as displayed above. How would you respond? (more possible options)
□ Like: you notify you like it
□ Comment: you respond with a message
□ Share: you place the post on your own Facebook page □ No response
□ Other, please specify……
TABLE B4
Willingness to Pay Measure (Rucker & Galisky, 2008)
Question Options*
What is the most amount of money you would be willing to pay in order to obtain the product/service?
○ 10% ○ 20% ○ 30% ○ 40% ○ 50% ○ 60% ○ 70% ○ 80% ○ 90% ○ 100% ○ 110% ○ 120%
TABLE B5 Risk Taking Measure
Question Left endpoint Right endpoint
For each of the following statements, please indicate (from 1 very unlikely to 5 very likely) the likelihood of engaging in each activity.
Very unlikely Very likely
Statements Source
Financial Risk Taking
1. Betting a day’s income at the horse races. 2. Co-signing a new car loan for a friend.
3. Investing in a business that has a good chance of failing.
4. Spending money impulsively without thinking about the consequences. 5. Taking a job where you get paid exclusively on a commission basis. 6. Lending a friend an amount of money equivalent to one month’s income. 7. Booking a holiday without cancellation insurance.
8. Increase your own risk excess of your health insurance to €850.
9. Buy an used car from a private seller without checking the car at a car dealer. 10. Spending money on new clothes without knowing whether the purchase leaves you
have enough money left at the end of the month.
Weber et al., 2002 Weber et al., 2002 Weber et al., 2002 Weber et al., 2002 Weber et al., 2002 Weber et al., 2002 Added by researcher Added by researcher Added by researcher Added by researcher
Social Risk Taking
1. Admitting that your tastes are different from those of your friends. 2. Arguing with a friend who has a very different opinion on an issue. 3. Asking your boss for a raise.
4. Dating someone that you are working with.
5. Deciding to share an apartment with someone you don’t know well. 6. Disagreeing with your father on a major issue.
7. Moving to a new city.
8. Openly disagreeing with your boss in front of your coworkers. 9. Speaking your mind about an unpopular issue at a social occasion. 10. Wearing unconventional clothes.
APPENDIX C – QUESTIONNAIRES EXPERIMENT Condition 1
Voor mijn Master Marketing aan de RUG ben ik bezig met mijn afstudeer onderzoek. Hierbij heb ik jouw hulp nodig! Door onderstaande vragenlijst in te vullen neem je deel aan mijn experiment en help je mij bij het afronden van mijn opleiding. Ik wil je daarom alvast hartelijk bedanken voor je deelname.
Belangrijk in dit experiment is dat je er even voor gaat zitten en de hele vragenlijst in één keer invult. Om de bruikbaarheid van de gegevens te garanderen vraag ik je om de vragen aandachtig door te lezen en het antwoord in te vullen welke het dichtst in de buurt komt van jouw mening. Het experiment is geheel anoniem en er zal vertrouwelijk met de gegevens en resultaten omgegaan worden.
Met vriendelijke groet, Jildau van der Pal
Start
Lees alsjeblieft het volgende scenario nauwkeurig en zonder tussenpozen. Probeer zoveel mogelijk kenmerken te onthouden van de persoon, de situatie en de voorwerpen die in onderstaande tekst aan bod komen.
Stel je voor dat je recent ben afgestudeerd aan de universiteit. Je hebt verschillende banen
aangeboden gekregen en hebt besloten om aan het werk te gaan voor een bekend en indrukwekkend bedrijf. Naast het feit dat dit een goed betaalde baan is, biedt het jou de kans om door te groeien – er vanuit gaande dat je kunt bewijzen dat je het waar kunt maken.
auto en je merkt dat je motivatie stijgt. Bij binnenkomst in de lobby ben je onder de indruk hoe luxe en verfijnd alles eruit ziet – het design meubilair, de artistieke decoraties, de kleding van designer labels. Je bent verheugd en enthousiast dat je werkzaam bent bij zo’n prestigieuze organisatie en je bent er zeker van dat dit precies de baan is die je verdient.
Tijden het wachten komt een andere persoon naast je zitten. Een minuut later schuift er nog een derde persoon aan. Beide zijn ze gekleed in een splinternieuw pak, ze zijn van dezelfde leeftijd als jij. Ieder van hen kijkt je even kort aan, glimlacht en zegt gedag. Ze lijken allebei een beetje nerveus en dan realiseer je je dat dit je nieuwe collega’s zijn. Je bekijkt ze vanuit je ooghoek en voelt je opgetogen en een beetje angstig tegelijk. Je ziet al voor je hoe leuk het zou zijn om collega’s te hebben met wie je het kan hebben over de nieuwe baan. Maar wanneer je hun gezichtsuitdrukking bekijkt krijg je de indruk dat er sprake is van concurrentie. Je realiseert je dat deze baan geen spel is. Je bevindt je niet meer op school.
Uiteindelijk komt je nieuwe baas aanlopen en jullie groeten elkaar. Wanneer jullie alle drie het grote kantoor binnenlopen neemt iedereen plaats rond een design bureau. “Jullie zijn alle drie bevoorrecht hier te zijn. Dit bedrijf neemt maar een paar mensen aan van de duizend sollicitanten per jaar.” Nu je hoort dat je gekozen bent uit duizenden mensen geeft dit je een trots gevoel.
“De komende maanden zullen jullie alle drie zowel zelfstandig aan de slag gaan als samenwerken. Jullie zullen elkaar goed leren kennen.” Nu de sfeer wat meer ontspannen is bekijk je de ruimte en iedereen lacht.
Maar je baas gaat verder met zijn verhaal: “Vandaag krijgt ieder van jullie een klein kantoor. We verwachten niet dat jullie daar zullen blijven. Over 6 maanden wordt een van jullie ontslagen.” Dit nieuws geeft je een rilling door je hele lijf. Je kijkt snel om je heen. De andere twee starters proberen enige uiting van bezorgdheid te onderdrukken en laten hun zelfverzekerde kant zien aan jullie
“Hoewel een van jullie zal worden ontslagen, degene die het beste resultaat levert zal niet alleen promotie maken, maar zal een grote bonus ontvangen en zal het snelste pad nemen naar de top.” Hij wijst naar de kantoren met de grote ramen verderop. “Ik zie grote potentie in jullie alle drie maar een van jullie zal het bereiken om een van deze grote kantoren te bemachtigen.” Je hebt 6 maanden om iedereen te laten zien wat je in huis hebt.
Je realiseert je dat jullie over 6 maanden weer aan dit design bureau zullen zitten. Je hart begint sneller te kloppen, je bent angstig en opgetogen. Wanneer je baas zijn verhaal aan het afronden is kan je niet wachten om aan de slag te gaan en dit zorgt ervoor dat je bijna geen aandacht meer hebt voor wat er wordt verteld. Uiteindelijk beëindigd je baas het verhaal en richt zich tot jullie, “Ga aan de slag en laat ons zien wat je kunt!” Je ogen worden groter en een stoot adrenaline gaat door je lijf. Je verlaat rustig het kantoor en hoop dat je het voor elkaar krijgt de droom waar te maken waarvan maar een paar mensen de kans krijgen het te doen…
Volgende pagina
1. Wat is je leeftijd? . . .
2. Wat is je hoogst afgeronde opleiding? o Basisonderwijs o VMBO o Havo/vwo o MBO o HBO o Universiteit
3. Wat is je relatie status? o Geen relatie
4. Wat is je geslacht? o Man
o Vrouw
Volgende pagina
In een web shop kom je terecht op onderstaande pagina. Bekijk het aanbod en de overige informatie voordat je verder gaat naar de vragen.
Geef aan in welke mate (van 1 tot 7) je het product aantrekkelijk vindt:
Zeer
Onaantrekkelijk
Zeer Aantrekkelijk
○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○
Geef aan hoe waarschijnlijk (van 1 tot 7) het is dat je deze CD zult aanschaffen:
Zeer
Onwaarschijnlijk
Zeer Waarschijnlijk
Volgende pagina
Stel, je bent aan het winkelen voor een nieuwe outfit. Geef aan welk kledingstuk je zou kiezen uit onderstaande opties.
Optie 1 Optie 2
Jouw keuze uit de blouses:
○ Optie 1 ○ Optie 2
Optie 1 Optie 2
Jouw keuze uit de broeken:
Optie 1 Optie 2
Jouw keuze uit de schoenen:
○ Optie 1 ○ Optie 2
Volgende pagina
Op internet wordt een 5 daagse vakantie aangeboden naar Dubai. Het aanbod betreft de vluchten van en naar Amsterdam en 4 hotel overnachtingen inclusief ontbijt. Het hotel beschikt over een
buitenzwembad met ligstoelen, jacuzzi, 4 restaurants, 3 drinkgelegenheden, een bakkerij en een lobby. De receptie is 24 uur per dag geopend en het hotel biedt room service en dagelijkse kamerschoonmaak. Het hotel is gelegen in het oude centrum van Dubai.
Hoeveel zou jij maximaal bereid zijn te betalen voor deze vakantie naar Dubai? Selecteer onderstaand de prijs die het dichtst in de buurt komt van de prijs die jij maximaal bereid bent te betalen.
€ 70 € 140 € 215 € 285 € 355 € 425 € 500 € 570 € 640 € 710 € 780 € 850
Op internet wordt een zilverkleurig horloge van RVS aangeboden, zie onderstaande afbeelding. Het horloge bevat een quartz uurwerk, datum weergave en is waterbestendig tot 100 meter diepte.
Hoeveel zou jij maximaal bereid zijn te betalen voor dit horloge? Selecteer onderstaand de prijs die het dichtst in de buurt komt van de prijs die jij maximaal bereid bent te betalen.
€ 25 € 50 € 75 € 100 € 125 € 150 € 175 € 200 € 225 € 250 € 275 € 300
Volgende pagina
Stel je ziet het Facebook bericht zoals hierboven staat weergegeven. Op welke wijze zou je reageren? (meerdere antwoorden mogelijk)
□ Like: je geeft aan dat je het leuk vindt □ Comment: je reageert met een bericht
□ Share: je plaatst het bericht op je eigen Facebook pagina □ Je reageert niet
Door onderstaand op 'Laatste vraag' te klikken kom je terecht in het laatste deel van mijn onderzoek. Ik wil je vragen de waarschijnlijkheid voor alle statements weer te geven. Zonder deze informatie is de vragenlijst niet bruikbaar voor mijn onderzoek. Ik stel het daarom zeer op prijs dat je de volgende pagina volledig invult.
Laatste pagina
Onderstaand zijn een aantal statements weergegeven. Geef aan hoe waarschijnlijk (van 1 tot 5) het is dat je deze activiteit zult uitvoeren.
1 5
Je baas vragen om loonsverhoging.
Een lening voor een nieuwe auto medeondertekenen voor een vriend.
Een tweedehands auto kopen van een particulier zonder de auto te laten checken bij een autodealer.
Je gedachten uitspreken over een onpopulair onderwerp op een sociale gelegenheid.
Verhuizen naar een nieuwe stad.
Geld investeren in een bedrijf waarvan de kans bestaat dat het de resultaten niet succesvol blijken.
Impulsief geld uitgeven zonder na te denken over de gevolgen. Met iemand daten waarmee je samenwerkt.
In discussie gaan met je baas in het bijzijn van collega’s. Een baan nemen waarbij je uitsluitend betaald krijgt op commissie basis.
Opvallende kleding dragen.
Geld lenen aan een vriend dat gelijk staat aan een maand inkomen.
Geld uitgeven aan nieuwe kleding zonder te weten of je door de aankoop aan het eind van de maand genoeg geld over houdt. Een vakantie boeken zonder annuleringsverzekering.
Het eigenrisico van je zorgverzekering verhogen naar €850,00. Een dagloon inzetten bij een gokspel.
Toegeven dat jouw smaak verschilt van dat van je vrienden. Discussiëren met een vriend die een andere mening heeft over een onderwerp.
Het besluit nemen om met iemand een appartement te delen die je niet goed kent.
Tegen je vader ingaan over een belangrijk onderwerp.
○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○
Welk product stond centraal in de vraag over de prijs die je maximaal bereid was te betalen? o Telefoon
o Horloge o Zonnebril o Laptop
Bedankt!
Je bent aan het einde gekomen van deze vragenlijst. Nogmaals hartelijk bedankt voor je medewerking aan mijn afstudeerproject.
Condition 2
Voor mijn Master Marketing aan de RUG ben ik bezig met mijn afstudeer onderzoek. Hierbij heb ik jouw hulp nodig! Door onderstaande vragenlijst in te vullen neem je deel aan mijn experiment en help je mij bij het afronden van mijn opleiding. Ik wil je daarom alvast hartelijk bedanken voor je deelname.
Belangrijk in dit experiment is dat je er even voor gaat zitten en de hele vragenlijst in één keer invult. Om de bruikbaarheid van de gegevens te garanderen vraag ik je om de vragen aandachtig door te lezen en het antwoord in te vullen welke het dichtst in de buurt komt van jouw mening. Het experiment is geheel anoniem en er zal vertrouwelijk met de gegevens en resultaten omgegaan worden.
Met vriendelijke groet, Jildau van der Pal
Start
Lees alsjeblieft het volgende scenario nauwkeurig en zonder tussenpozen. Probeer zoveel mogelijk kenmerken te onthouden van de persoon, de situatie en de voorwerpen die in onderstaande tekst aan bod komen.
Stel je voor dat het dinsdag is, midden in je semester. De vakken die je gekozen hebt zijn behoorlijk moeilijk, en je begint in de stress te raken als je nadenkt over alles wat je nog moet doen. Je zit thuis een beetje huiswerk te maken, maar het saaie stof en je begint moe te worden. Je bedenkt je dat je nog boodschappen moet doen voor de winkel sluit, dus je besluit eerst maar even naar de winkel te gaan.
Je wilt je sleutels en portemonnee van het kastje pakken, maar daar ligt alleen je portemonnee. De sleutels zie je nergens. “Dat is raar”, denk je, en je begint je zakken na te gaan. Nog steeds geen sleutels. Je probeert je te bedenken waar je ze voor het laatst hebt gehad, maar je weet het niet
Soms stop je je sleutels ook wel in je rugzak, dus je bedenkt dat ze misschien daar liggen. Je zoekt de hele tas door, boeken, folders, pennen, maar nog steeds geen sleutels. Je zet de hele tas op z’n kop en schud hem heen en weer. Er komt alleen maar troep uit. Je begint een beetje geïrriteerd te raken, maar maakt je ook een beetje zorgen. Waar heb je die rotsleutels nou gelaten?
Je begint een zoektocht door je hele huis, startend bij je bureau. Je opent alle laadjes en doorzoekt ze één voor één. Maar nergens zie je je sleutels. Je speurt de hele vloer van je slaapkamer af, maar je ziet alleen maar troep.
Je wordt nu wel een beetje wanhopig, en begint de wasmand overhoop te halen. Misschien zitten ze in één of andere broekzak? Je vindt allemaal stukjes papier, maar geen sleutels. Je begint nu boos te worden, duikt je kast in en gooit de hele inhoud op de grond – geen sleutels. Je haast je naar de keuken en doorzoekt het aanrecht en trekt alle kastjes en laadjes open. Je hebt echt geen idee waarom de sleutels hier zouden kunnen zijn, maar je weet ook niet meer waar je anders moet zoeken. Na een kwartier ziet je keuken er uit als een slagveld. Maar die sleutels heb je nog steeds niet.
Nu begin je gefrustreerd te raken. Je denkt aan de laatste keer dat je je sleutels had en gaat al je stappen na. Je weet zeker dat je ze gister nog had, maar je hebt echt geen idee waar je ze toen gelaten hebt. Je hoopt dat je ze niet ergens hebt laten liggen. Dit kan je er echt niet bij hebben nu.
Je herinnert je dat je eerder vandaag het vuilnis buiten hebt gezet, je rent richting de straatkant. Misschien zijn de sleutels daar gevallen? Je zoekt in het gras, de bosjes en onder de auto’s. Je ziet niets. Je denkt bij jezelf: ben ik m’n sleutels echt verloren? Gefrustreerd loop je terug het huis in, je zit met je handen in het haar. Je sleutels zijn kwijtgeraakt. Je wist dat dit ooit zou gebeuren, maar waarom nu. Het is echt irritant.
Je leunt achterover en ademt diep in, schudt je hoofd en legt je hand op je borst. Je veegt het zweet van je voorhoofd en begint te lachen. Je denkt niet dat je eerder zo opgelucht was in je leven. Het zijn maar sleutels maar ze hebben je van streek gemaakt. Je opluchting slaat om in opgetogenheid. Je zou tegen iedereen willen schreeuwen hoe goed je je voelt. In een fantastische bui verlaat je het huis om boodschappen te doen.
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1. Wat is je leeftijd? . . .
2. Wat is je hoogst afgeronde opleiding? o Basisonderwijs o VMBO o Havo/vwo o MBO o HBO o Universiteit
3. Wat is je relatie status? o Geen relatie
o Ongetrouwd, relatie minder lang dan 1 jaar o Ongetrouwd, relatie langer dan 1 jaar o Getrouwd
4. Wat is je geslacht? o Man
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In een web shop kom je terecht op onderstaande pagina. Bekijk het aanbod en de overige informatie voordat je verder gaat naar de vragen.
Geef aan in welke mate (van 1 tot 7) je het product aantrekkelijk vindt:
Zeer
Onaantrekkelijk
Zeer Aantrekkelijk
○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○
Geef aan hoe waarschijnlijk (van 1 tot 7) het is dat je deze CD zult aanschaffen:
Zeer
Onwaarschijnlijk
Zeer Waarschijnlijk
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Stel, je bent aan het winkelen voor een nieuwe outfit. Geef aan welk kledingstuk je zou kiezen uit onderstaande opties.
Optie 1 Optie 2
Jouw keuze uit de blouses:
○ Optie 1 ○ Optie 2
Optie 1 Optie 2
Jouw keuze uit de broeken:
Optie 1 Optie 2
Jouw keuze uit de schoenen:
○ Optie 1 ○ Optie 2
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Op internet wordt een 5 daagse vakantie aangeboden naar Dubai. Het aanbod betreft de vluchten van en naar Amsterdam en 4 hotel overnachtingen inclusief ontbijt. Het hotel beschikt over een
buitenzwembad met ligstoelen, jacuzzi, 4 restaurants, 3 drinkgelegenheden, een bakkerij en een lobby. De receptie is 24 uur per dag geopend en het hotel biedt room service en dagelijkse kamerschoonmaak. Het hotel is gelegen in het oude centrum van Dubai.
Hoeveel zou jij maximaal bereid zijn te betalen voor deze vakantie naar Dubai? Selecteer onderstaand de prijs die het dichtst in de buurt komt van de prijs die jij maximaal bereid bent te betalen.
€ 70 € 140 € 215 € 285 € 355 € 425 € 500 € 570 € 640 € 710 € 780 € 850
