Making Sustainable Tourism more Sustainable:
an Approach of Influencing the Tourist
Author: Richard Kooiker
Supervisors: Sanne Ponsioen & Raffaele Filieri
Student Number: B150688031 (Newcastle upon Tyne) & S2278863 (Groningen)
Course: Master (Msc) Thesis of Double Degree International Business and Management & Advanced International Marketing
University: Newcastle University Business School & University of Groningen Faculty of Economics and Business
Submission date: December 5th, 2016 Total word count: 14204
Word count excluding references and appendix: 11042 Authors address: Aquamarijnstraat 577 Groningen Telephone number: +31 618478216
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Making Sustainable Tourism more Sustainable:
An Approach of Influencing the Tourist
Abstract
The purpose of the research in this paper is to fill the gap in the literature concerning the
influence of information regarding sustainable tourism on sustainable tourism behavior. It was
hypothesized that information concerning sustainable tourism would promote more sustainable
behavior. Furthermore, it was hypothesized that individuals with a younger age tend to be more
susceptible for this information. Lastly, it was hypothesized that individuals with a higher budget
tend to be more likely to act upon the information regarding sustainable tourism they received,
increasing their sustainable behavior. A scenario with a 2x2 design (low budget vs high budget
and no information and information provision) was employed in order to address these
hypotheses. The participants were asked to indicate if they would purchase a souvenir from a
multinational, or from a local store. The statistical analyses reveal no significant relationships
for the three hypotheses; there is not statistical evidence to support that information regarding
sustainable tourism leads to an enhanced sustainable tourist behavior, nor did the variables age
and budget exert an effect on this relationship. The implications and explanations of this are
addressed in the discussion section, as well as the limitations and suggestions for future
research.
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Making Sustainable Tourism more Sustainable:
An Approach of Influencing the Tourist
Table of Contents
Page nr
Introduction 4
Review of the literature regarding sustainable tourism 8
The importance of sustainable tourism for businesses and local communities 9
Information and sustainable tourism 11
Age and sustainable tourism 13
Budget and sustainable tourism 14
Hypotheses development 15
Methodology 18
Participants 18
Procedure 19
Materials, measurement and manipulations 19
Statistical analysis 22 Findings 23 Descriptive statistics 23 Data inspection 25 The relationships 25 Discussion 27 Summary 27 Theoretical implications 27 Practical implications 29
Strengths, limitations and future research 30
Conclusion 32
References 33
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Introduction
As the Tourism sector expands rapidly, it is of increasing importance for the local and regional economies due to their impact on many aspects. The Central Bureau of Statistics of the Netherlands summarized that tourism contributes to the economy of many destinations by enhancing the local incomes, providing employment and attracting investment, e.g. the infrastructure. Additionally, it may contribute to social and cultural development. International tourism has continued to grow rapidly in the recent years. The United Nations World Tourism Organization (UNWTO) reported that international tourist arrivals doubled within 20 years. Additionally, tourism may represent significant shares of economic importance in certain economies. For example, in Croatia the travel receipts contribute to 17.2% of the annual Gross Domestic Product (GDP), whereas Malta (14.45%) and Cyprus (12.2%) cope with similar substantial shares of travel receipts relative to GDP (Eurostat, 2016).
Besides this increasing economic importance many studies recognize the severe negative impacts that tourism may cause to a local community. The Central Bureau of Statistics of the Netherlands (CBS) acknowledged that the negative effects of tourism amount to the pressure on the environment and people, such as excessive noise, and pollution. Too many visitors may cause damage to the eco-systems and ultimately harm the attractiveness of the area, both for tourists and locals. Furthermore, the tourism entails substantial CO2 emission, which fosters climate change. Additionally, tourism may cause a rise in prices of products, services and accommodation in the area (Central Bureau of Statistics of the Netherlands Report, 2015). Furthermore, the earned income may end up with multinational
organizations outside the country. This phenomenon is referred to as ‘leakage’. The leakage is estimated to be approximately 80% of travel expenditures for most all-inclusive package tours, due to the expenditures ending up with tour operators, airlines, hotels and other international companies outside the country, according to United Nations Environment Programme. Furthermore, a study conducted by the Thai Institute for Development and Administration (1990) estimated that the tourism leakage amounted to 70% of the total money spent by tourists. Another reason for leakage mentioned by this report was the imports of goods such as food and drinks. Estimates for other developing countries range from 80% in the Caribbean to 40% in India (LA21, 2002).
5 investment), promotional expenditures outside of the country, tax exemptions and avoidance by
transfer pricing and lastly, wages to foreign workers.
However, judging the consequences of actions by the distinction between the extremes of positives and negatives is often too simplistic. Often, the consequences of an action are embedded in a grey area. To illustrate this, Fortanier & van Wijk (2010) investigated the effects of foreign hotels on the local area. They found that the tourism industry plays a vital role in providing jobs for low-educated people and those with little alternatives, including women and minorities (positive effect). However, foreign hotels tend to attract and retain the best staff from existing local hotels and tend to provide less formal advanced training than their local counterparts which may be deemed as negative effects. This is negative for the economic development, as existing local hotels suffer dramatically from the competition and their loss of skilled employees, whereas the labor force receives less training so
becomes less skilled. Therefore, the consequences of such an intervention are ambiguous. Similar to this paper, in the present study the focus is on the economic (prosperity) aspect of sustainable tourism as well which relates to the extent to which the locals benefit financially from the tourism in their area. In order to prevent the negative effects from occurring and diminish the harm inflicted to the locals, it is of paramount importance to consider strategies that effectively increase the sustainability of tourism. Most literature has focused on the side of governments and local authorities to consider their actions and policies. (e.g. Buckley, 2012; Budeanu, 2007; Miller et al., 2010; Weaver, 2009; Farmaki, 2015). One alternative method to achieve sustainability is to influence the tourist’s behavior in order to foster sustainable behavior. However this proves to be difficult, as Miller et al. (2010) identify developing a sense of personal responsibility for the impacts caused by having a holiday as a challenge.
Therefore, the purpose of this study is to investigate if tourists can be influenced to behave in a
sustainable manner by information provision. The results of this research may have implications for local authorities, governments and businesses related to tourism such as hotels. These implications amount to if and how tourists in their premises can be stimulated and encouraged to behave in a sustainable manner, which will benefit the area’s environment, attractiveness, inhabitants and eco-systems (CBS Report, 2015).
6 This may provide insight in the efficiency of stimulating sustainable behavior by information provision. Conducting research in another aspect of sustainable tourism, the environmental aspect, Suki (2013) recognized that environmental knowledge has a direct effect on ecological behavior, which is consistent with D’Souza et al. (2006) who as well concluded that environmental knowledge has a direct effect on ecological behavior. Mostafa (2009) found among other factors that environmental knowledge and concern impact the green consumption of individuals. Generally, it can be observed that environmental knowledge leads to an eco-friendlier behavior (Nayak et al, 2016; Sestini, 2012;Mostafa, 2009; D’Souza et al., 2006; Suki, 2013). In this research it is investigated if a similar relationship can be found between information regarding sustainable tourism and the corresponding behavior concerning sustainable tourism.
Additionally, the effect of age is important to take into consideration as there are indications that there could be differences between age groups in terms of the susceptibility of information provision. These indications are studies that provided evidence that older people tend to have more conservativism in their viewpoints and development of more adamant opinions (Burnett and Karson, 1987; Posner and Schmidt, 1984; Arlow, 1991; Brenner, 1988). The outcome of this researched aspect of age may hold significant implications for the priority of target groups to which the information regarding sustainable tourism is directed to. If younger people indeed tend to be more susceptible for the information regarding sustainable tourism, it may be more cost-efficient to target younger age groups in order to maximize the amount of sustainable tourists for a given, fixed budget. As a result of an efficient
distinction in target groups, a larger share of the audience may be successfully influenced and willing to behave more sustainably in terms of tourism. Indirectly, the notion of sustainable tourism may reach an even larger part of society, via social interaction .
In the best case scenario eventually a social norm is developed to be a sustainable tourist which leads to social pressure and group pressure to correct an individual who does not meet the norm, as basic knowledge of the fields of sociology and psychology teach us. Tankard and Paluck (2016), underline the feasibility of this, by describing ‘perceptions of norms guide personal behavior, influencing these
perceptions is one way to create social change (..) Individuals attend to select sources of normative information (..) there are three sources of information that people use to understand norms—individual behavior, summary information about a group, and institutional signals’. Therefore, it is important to
7 Lastly, the influence of budget is considered in this study. There are indications that budget may have an impact on sustainable tourism behavior. Among these indications are studies that found higher
tendencies of higher incomes to adhere to recommendations, the possession of money may facilitate resistance to engage in immoral behavior, and the model that behavior occurs when the condition is fulfilled that people have the capability to take the action, in which capability could refer to budget to do so (Campbell et al., 2014; Xie et al., 2014; Atkins and Michie, 2013).
If a relationship can be found between budget and sustainable tourism behavior, this may provide substantial insights of the issue, which may be to a certain extent a macro-economic problem, as a part of the solution could be embedded in the concern of maximizing income and welfare of the lower end of the incomes of society.
In sum, in this paper the relationship between information regarding sustainable tourism and
sustainable tourism behavior is investigated thoroughly. In addition, the effects of the tourist’s age and budget are considered in this relationship. The main research question of this paper is: What is the effect of information regarding sustainable tourism on sustainable tourism and how is this relation influenced by the age of the tourist and the tourist’s budget?
In the existing literature, literature regarding the effects of information, age and budget on ethical behavior can be found. However, not specifically within the scope of sustainable tourism. In order to fill this gap, the aim of the present study is to consider these effects, specifically narrowed to the scope of sustainable tourism as these questions have scarcely been addressed within this area, in combination with the substantial importance of the relationships as elaborated upon in the previous paragraphs. Secondly, the vast majority of the literature takes a perspective of policies and effective governance in terms of sustainable tourism. This paper differs from this as the tourists and their choices and
characteristics stand central.
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Review of the literature regarding sustainable tourism
There are many different definitions of sustainable tourism utilized in the literature. The most
commonly used definition is developed by the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) and the World Trade Organization (WTO), and distinguish three different pillars in their definition of sustainable tourism; economic, natural (environmental) and socio-cultural. An alternative to these pillars was proposed by Buckley (2012), who distinguished five sustainability indicators: population, peace, prosperity, pollution and protection.
The present paper will adopt the definition “Sustainable tourism aims to achieve a balance between the needs of tourists, the environment, local people, and businesses and attempts to not harm in the areas of population, peace, prosperity, pollution and protection” which is inspired by Buckley’s framework (2012) of the five different areas and the definition of sustainable tourism used in the article of Breakey and Breakey (2015). There was chosen for Buckley’s framework as it is more comprehensive than the common three pillars.
Waligo & Clark, (2015) recognized that in order to reach sustainable tourism, the role of stakeholders is absolutely critical and should be involved in strategies. Arguably the most important stakeholder is the tourist. This paper adopts an approach in which the tourist stands central in order to analyze sustainable tourism. Concerning how the tourists considers the concept of sustainability, and what aspects they deem most important, Miller et al. (2010) found that in the public, the issue of sustainable tourism lacks awareness, which is exhibited in one’s day-to-day behavior, feelings of disempowerment and an
9 The described tendency of the public to point to the government has its flaws. Collins et al. (2003) point out that information does not necessarily lead to awareness, and awareness does not necessarily lead to action. This implies that influencing the public behavior and let them develop some sense of
responsibility is not easily achieved. Therefore, the influence of the government is limited.
The importance of sustainable tourism for businesses and local communities
Businesses
Although sustainable tourism is a relatively new concept, already in 2005 Wagner discussed the emergence of what he called ‘the concept of conscious tourism’. He referred to this as ‘travelling that addresses ethical concerns’. One factor that drives this new concept is the growth of international travel, which exposes visitors to the impacts they may cause on cultures and environments they visit. (Wagner, 2005).In the next paragraphs the importance of the emergence of sustainable tourists for businesses clarified by combining different literature.
In order to examine the importance of sustainable tourism to tourism areas and businesses, we must consider the work of Wong and Zhao (2016) in combination with KPMG (2014), Beena et al. (2015) and Orie et al. (2015) . Wong and Zhao (2016) distinguished travelers into two groups; low and high novelty seekers. Novelty seeking refers to the difference between planned travel behavior and actual
experience. Indicators of novelty are thrill, change of routine, boredom alleviation and surprise. After this clear distinction, the authors concluded that high novelty seekers are not interested in geographical proximate destinations due to the similarity in culture and touristic offerings, and are unlikely to revisit. However, and here lies the major implication: the low novelty seeking travelers are sensitive to
10 Consistent with this notion that sustainability plays a role in customer retention, Beena et al. (2015) recognized that the selection of a tourism destination by a tourist is increasingly more a match between their values and the destination characteristics, and the facts indicate that sustainability is increasingly considered as more important. Orie et al. (2014) argue that it is important for hoteliers to understand what satisfies their customers in terms of sustainability practices as happy customers may return. In addition, if they understand their guests, they can maximize product marketing. Their analysis revealed that sustainable hotel practices are attractive for any type of demographic group. However, groups from different socio-cultural backgrounds may differ in what they report as environmental friendly hotels which entails implications for the hoteliers concerning their Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR).
Local communities
For local communities, the importance of sustainable tourism is mainly captured in the substantial social impacts it can have on the local residents. Studies point out that, firstly, the residents’ attitudes towards tourism may change. Secondly, negative impacts such as high prices, drug addiction, vandalism, brawls, sexual harassment and crime may occur (Haralambopoulos, 1996). Furthermore, social changes can amount to negative views regarding tourism (Bramwell, 2003), a change in values and morals such as the role of women and young adults, (Tsartas, 2003, Haralambopoulos, 1996), and the residents’ hospitality towards strangers and perceived reputation of the area (Haralambopoulos, 1996).
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Information and sustainable tourism
As many studies in this section and the next sections involve the overarching concept of ethics rather than sustainable tourism, there is need for a clarifying definition of this term. I refer to Gibson (2007), who defined ethics as; ‘Ethics refer broadly speaking to the branch that discusses issues of morality. Morality deals with notions of good and bad, justice, fairness, right and wrong, and the way we develop and apply our values’. Based upon this, it can be concluded that sustainable tourism clearly belongs into the area of ethics, as it involves notions of good and bad, right and wrong, justice and fairness.
Although in the literature there is little researched regarding the direct effect of information, there have been many studies conducted that research the effects of the close substitutes awareness and
knowledge on behavior. Awareness is defined by Gross, Stary and Totter (2005) as ‘conscious and information of aspects (..)’. Mannarini (2009) defined awareness as ‘a condition of being conscious of something’. Thus, it appears that ‘conscious’ is the keyword here.
According to Sestini (2012) collective awareness of environmental and social situations can be used to drive better policies or to create new models for economy, society, and democracy. In line with Sestini, Kramer et al. (2015) observed that awareness seems to be important to create and implement better policies. This implies that raising public awareness regarding sustainable tourism, which comprises of both environmental and social aspects, is of paramount importance, as it facilitates sustainable tourism by driving better policies.
However, this is easier said than done, as Collins et al. (2003) found that information does not
necessarily lead to awareness, and awareness does not necessarily lead to action. Kramer et al. (2015) illustrate this with the example that there has existed knowledge with reasonable certainty that asbestos can cause cancer for arguably over a century, yet in terms of legislation, social context and economics, the action taken has been very slow. This is illustrated by the fact that in Canada, the last asbestos mine closed in 2011, and that the imports of asbestos related products have actually grown in the year 2013.
12 concluded that a significant positive relation between ethical knowledge and practices of ethics exists. In line, Mostafa (2009) found among other factors that environmental knowledge and concern impact the green consumption of individuals. Literature recognized that environmental knowledge has a direct effect on ecological behavior as well (D’Souza et al. 2006; Suki, 2013). As environment constitutes one aspect of sustainable tourism, it is interesting to consider if the same conclusion can be drawn of the relation between knowledge and behavior concerning another aspect of sustainable tourism, or the entire concept of sustainable tourism.
Another light on the process of information and behavior is that an overflow of information may occur. Watson & Wyness (2013) suggested in their research on behavior change regarding eating healthy food, that the public has become so overloaded with health messages that they may be in danger of switching off.
Combining the literature of above, the proposed relation is that the concepts information (regarding sustainable tourism) and sustainable tourism are positively related. It would make sense to believe that the information would increase the individual’s ethical awareness of the situation and becomes
therefore more inclined to opt for the sustainable behavior as a tourist. The relation between
information and awareness was confirmed by Montgomery and Walker (2012), who studied teaching methods and found that to increase self-awareness of ethical decisions, often intentional reminders (in other words: information) are required. They concluded that creating consciousness of ethical decisions promotes ethical behavior, critical reflection, reflective thinking and contemplation. In a broader context, Nayak et al. (2016) also provide empirical support for a positive relation between knowledge and ethics, as they concluded that a positive relation exists between ethical knowledge and practices of ethics. This could be an indication that this relation also exists inside the narrower area of sustainable tourism, within the overarching concept of ethics.
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Age and sustainable tourism
In this research, age refers to the length of time that a person has lived since they were born. The studies that have inspected age in the context of sustainable tourism, are extremely scarce or absent. Therefore we must resort to the broader, overarching concept of ethics in order to find indications about a potential relationship. Fortunately, there are many studies that have researched the relation between age and ethics. In general, it is suggested that age and ethics are related (Kohlberg, 1984). The common phrase "older is wiser" refers to the development on mental, emotional, social and moral maturity (Glenn, 1992). Chan and Leung (2006) found that age was positively correlated with ethical sensitivity. Consistent with Chan and Leung, Krambia-Kapardis and Zopiatis (2008) found that people over the age of 30 are more ethical than their younger counterparts. Lastly, Jafarkarimi et al. (2016) suggested that older people care more about their feelings of what is morally right when they engage in an action. If they perceive an act as unethical it is likely that they become disinterested in performing that act, whereas if they believe something is good to do, they are more interested. This described integrity of older people could imply that they are generally more ethical on average.
Besides the literature concerning the relationship between age and ethics, there is for this research more interesting literature that provides understanding regarding the influence of age on information receiving. Burnett and Karson (1987), Posner and Schmidt (1984) and Arlow (1991) found that older people become more conservative in their ethical viewpoints. This could mean that they are less likely to be influenced regarding ethics as conservatism is considered as the opposite of change and
14 In conclusion, judging from the literature we have reason to believe that age moderates the relation between information and sustainable behavior, with younger individuals being more susceptible to information provision regarding sustainable tourism.
Budget and sustainable tourism
Besides a potential moderating effect of age, the present study aims to investigate the influence of the tourist’s budget as well.
In the literature there are indications to be found that budget could play a role in terms of the relation between information and sustainable tourism. Firstly, Tang and Chiu (2003) researched many aspects of money and ethics and one of their main findings was that pay satisfaction is negatively related with unethical behavior. In other words, the better individuals perceive they are paid, the more likely they are to behave in an ethical manner. Additionally, they stated that
“
indirect paths showed that income was negatively related to the love of money that, in turn, was negatively related to pay satisfaction that, in turn, was negatively associated with unethical behavior”. Translating this finding, this implies that eventually an indirect positive relation exists between income and ethical behavior. Income can be regarded as total budget to spend; as Kozak (2001) found that annual income is a predictor of tourist expenditures.15 Additionally, one study regarding behavior change conducted in another area, showed a moderating role for income, in respect to adhering to certain recommendations, with lower incomes being less likely to adhere to the recommendation (Campbell et al.,2014). Therefore it is interesting if a similar relation could also exists in the realm of sustainable tourism. More specifically, to investigate if lower-incomes are more likely to disregard the recommendation regarding sustainable tourism than their higher-income counterparts.
Finally, Atkins and Michie (2013) describe the process of behavior change with the COM-B model of behavior, which dictates that for any behavior to occur, people must have the capability, opportunity and motivation to take action. Building upon this notion that capability is required in order for behavior to occur, it can be logically derived that a larger budget may substantially enhance the individual’s capability to act upon the received information regarding sustainable tourism.
In conclusion, judging from the literature we have reason to believe that budget moderates the relation between information and sustainable behavior, with individuals possessing a higher budget being more more likely to act upon information regarding sustainable tourism.
In the next section the hypotheses that guide this research are accurately described.
Hypotheses development
The concepts involved in the first hypothesis are information regarding sustainable tourism and sustainable tourism behavior. It would make sense to believe that the information would increase the individual’s ethical awareness of the situation and is therefore more inclined to opt for the sustainable behavior as a tourist. This is supported by, Montgomery and Walker (2012) who studied teaching methods and found that to increase self-awareness of ethical decisions, often intentional reminders (in other words: information) are required. They conclude that creating consciousness of ethical decisions promotes ethical behavior, critical reflection, reflective thinking and contemplation.
16 relation between ethical knowledge and practices of ethics. The findings of these studies constitute a sound basis to investigate whether a similar relationship holds true for information regarding
sustainable tourism and their impacts and the corresponding behavior.
Hypothesis 1: provision of information regarding sustainable tourism and their impacts leads to an
increased intention to engage in a sustainable manner.
Besides the direct effect of information regarding sustainable tourism on sustainable tourist behavior, there are indications that another variable may impact this relationship. Many studies in the existing literature suggest that age has a significant effect within the realm of ethics, and as sustainable tourism classifies as a scope within the overarching concept of ethics, it becomes interesting to research the effect of age in sustainable tourism.
In the literature review section concerning age it appeared that most literature suggest that older people are less likely to be influenced due to more conservativism in their viewpoints and development of more adamant opinions (Burnett and Karson, 1987; Posner and Schmidt, 1984; Arlow, 1991; Brenner, 1988)
Therefore, the following hypothesis has been developed in order to investigate the effect of age on sustainable behavior in tourism and the effect as a moderator on the relationship between information provision and sustainable tourism.
Hypothesis 2: The relation between information regarding sustainable tourism and sustainable tourist
behavior is moderated by the age of the individual, with more sustainable behavior occurring for a younger age as opposed to a higher age.
17 Based upon Xie et al. (2014), indirectly it can be deducted that when a larger sum of money is to gain by engaging in immoral behavior, people tend to assign less (self) blame on people who were seduced. It is interesting to investigate if this logic holds in reverse; that when individuals already have a substantial amount of money, if they are now less likely to engage in immoral behavior as their perceived gain from engaging in immoral behavior is deemed smaller. In other words, the possession of money may facilitate resistance to engage in immoral behavior.
Furthermore, Atkins and Michie (2013) describe the behavior change process and dictate that for any behavior to occur, people must have the capability, opportunity and motivation to take action. As described in the literature review the capability aspect of the behavior is substantially influenced by the budget capabilities, which may influence whether you engage in the sustainable tourism behavior or not.
Lastly, the moderating role of budget on adhering to recommendations has been found in other areas (Campbell et al.,2014). Therefore, it is interesting if a similar relation could also exists in the realm of sustainable tourism.
In conclusion, the aforementioned studies suggest that budget could have an influence over whether you engage in sustainable tourism or not. The corresponding budget of this individual may be of significance on the relationship between information regarding sustainable tourism and sustainable tourism behavior due to being more likely to adhere to recommendations (Campbell et al., 2014), due to having the capability (Atkins and Mitchie, 2013) and due to being less likely to be seduced to engage in unethical behavior (Xie et al., 2014). This lead to the formulation of hypothesis three.
Hypothesis 3: The relation between information regarding effects of unsustainable tourism and
18 Finally, in order to provide an optimal consideration of the three hypotheses, a graphical overview of the conceptual model has been created in figure 1.
Figure 1 – Graphical representation of the conceptual model
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Methodology
Participants
In this study, 149 respondents have filled in the questionnaire. Responses were collected in the time frame of 11 November 2016 until 24 November 2016. Out of the 149 participants, 122 participants completed the questionnaire. 10 respondents answered the control questions to check for manipulation entirely wrong which indicates that they did not read precisely and could not even recall which scenario they had. Therefore, these respondents were removed from the sample as they do not classify as a reliable source of data. This resulted in a final sample of N= 112.
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Procedure
The sample was collected based on the concept of convenience sampling. The motivation for this
method is to achieve the highest amount of respondents possible, which in turn fosters the power of the study as general research methods theory prescribes. The method of data collection is to hand out online self-completion questionnaires. These online questionnaires were created using Qualtrics software. The questionnaires were distributed via providing an Uniform Resource Locator (URL) link which directs the participant to the webpage of the questionnaire. The URL link was dispersed to people via several communication means, i.e. WhatsApp, Facebook, Facebook Messenger and Email. The people were completely free to decide whether to complete the questionnaire or not. If the English may have constituted a problem for them, or if another problem occurred for them, they could resign at any given time.
Before the participant began answering the online questionnaire, information about the questionnaire was given (i.e. time to complete, purpose, topic, content and data treatment) and gratitude for filling in the questionnaire was expressed. The questionnaire consisted of several sections; the first section was one of the four scenarios that was randomly assigned to the participant, including one question about how the respondent would act. Secondly, follow-up questions were asked about the perceived morality involved in the case. Thirdly, the manipulation questions were asked and lastly, the respondent was asked to fill in some demographical information about themselves. In appendix 1 the entire
questionnaire is displayed, in order to provide a convenient overview.
During and after the study, the privacy of participants was respected and guaranteed by processing the data anonymously and confidential. The research participants took part voluntarily, and there were no potential risks for them involved. Furthermore, the research is entirely independent and worthwhile. Hereby, the ESRC principles (2015) are met and lived up to. Lastly the use of a gatekeeper was not required as I did not speak to any management and no sensitive information is involved.
Materials, measurements and manipulations
20 scenario methodology helps to challenge existing assumptions, identify novel lines of inquiry, making sense of and address complex and uncertain contexts’.
Experimental research is conducted as the advantages of this method are a high control over the variable and a relatively easy determination of cause and effect relationships. The limitations of experimental research are the potential inability to manipulate variables, and the creation of artificial situations rather than reality. The data was collected via questionnaires, which are defined by Collis and Hussey (2014) as ‘a method for collecting primary data in which a sample of respondents are asked a list of carefully structured questions, chosen after considerable testing, with a view to eliciting reliable responses’. Questionnaires were utilized in order to meet the time and money constraints.
Questionnaires are cheap, relatively quick to collect information because of the possibility of asking a large group of people, with generally a higher response rate. In addition, the responses of
questionnaires are gathered in a standardized manner, thus questionnaires are more objective compared to for instance, interviews.
The scenario questionnaire consists of four distinct scenarios, as a 2 (low budget vs. high budget) x 2 (information provision vs. no information), design was created. The first distinction is budget, half the respondents received a (imaginary) high budget of 250 euro per day to go on holidays and the other half received a low budget to go on holidays which amounted to 10 euro per day. The second distinction is that half of the respondents received information regarding sustainable tourism, with the purpose that the respondents were triggered regarding their sustainable behavior in the questionnaire, whereas the other half of the respondents did not receive this information. The information attempted to trigger the respondents to choose for the sustainable behavior as a tourist. This was attempted by explaining the harmful process of unsustainable behavior and stressing the subsequent negative effects. In sum, there are four possible case scenarios employed; (1) large budget and no information, (2) small budget and no information, (3) large budget and information regarding sustainable information, and (4) small budget and information regarding sustainable information. These scenarios are exhibited in appendix 1.
As there are in total four scenarios involved, the amount of respondents required should amount to a minimum of 25 x 4 = 100 respondents, which this study exceeds generously. According to Tang (2006) ‘sample size recommendations are mostly based on two following approaches: relying on the past experience with similar studies and general rules of thumb or generating synthetic datasets and
21 of thumb based on past studies in order to emerge with the 25 respondents per scenario. This was based on Vilikus(2012) who observed 635 models with 5-25 tasks per respondent and concluded that the sample size per scenario can range from 25 to 1600. Deriving from this, as a rule of thumb we can use 25 respondents as a minimum threshold per scenario with 5-25 tasks per respondent. This research required 13 tasks to complete per respondent.
This study utilized an online questionnaire. The language of the questionnaire was English. The questionnaire consisted of four sections, which were described above. The question regarding the respondents choice based on their scenario (“where would you buy your souvenir”) was multiple choice, with the answers being: (1) I will definitely buy the statue from the multinational, (2) I will probably buy
the statue from the multinational, (3) I will probably buy the statue from the local store, (4) I will definitely buy the statue from the local store. The answers were ranked from being most unsustainable
in terms of tourist behavior (1), to most sustainable (4). The answers on this question measure the sustainability tourist behavior.
The scenario dilemma focused on whether the respondents would purchase a statue of the famous city bridge from the local but more expensive store (ethically correct as it increases the local prosperity) or from the multinational (ethically neutral to wrong, as it causes leakage) while being on holidays in Portugal. The product was chosen to be a statue, as this can be regarded as a general, common souvenir that everyone can relate to desiring to have. This increases the ease of imagining to be in the scenario situation which would have been more difficult if the object was something more specific and special, from which a relatively large group of people cannot relate to want that (e.g. a doll or a lighter). Portugal was chosen as the travel destination as presumably it is easier for the respondents in the sample to assume that they are visiting this destination, as it is geographically close to their home countries and generally a popular tourist destination. Secondly, Portugal was selected as it is situated among the poorest end of the European Union countries in terms of GDP per capita, along with Bulgaria, Croatia, Czech Republic, the Baltic countries, Hungary, Poland and Slovakia (World bank, 2015).
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Mostly disagree 3 = Somewhat disagree 4 = Neither agree nor disagree 5 = Somewhat agree 6 = Mostly agree 7 = Strongly agree. Lozano et al. (2008) researched the number of choices within Likert scales and
show that “the optimum number of alternatives is between four and seven. With fewer than four alternatives the reliability and validity decrease, and from seven alternatives onwards psychometric properties of the scale scarcely increase further." Therefore, in this research solely questions that are within the 4-7 alternatives range have been utilized. The 7 point Likert scale has been employed for the follow-up questions, and for the scenario question concerning the sustainable behavior a four point Likert scale has been utilized, mainly to ‘force’ the respondents to a clear choice, as there was no option to be indifferent/neutral as an answer.
In appendix 1 an overview of the entire questionnaire can be found. The reported scores on these questions indicate to what extent the respondents experience their decision in the scenario as a decision involving sustainable tourism and the morality of it.
The manipulation questions referred to questions regarding their scenario they had, i.e. did they have a high or low budget and did they receive information prior to the scenario or not. These questions were included in order to assess the reliability of the respondent. If a respondent was not able to recall their scenario, chances are that they did not fill in the questionnaire seriously or did not accurately read the content, which indicates that they do not classify as a reliable source of data.
Lastly, the demographic section required the respondent to declare their age, nationality, gender and highest attended education. In total 12 questions were asked per respondent and one out of the four scenarios was randomly assigned to the respondent.
Statistical Analysis
The statistical analysis was performed with SPSS Software, Version 24.0 in order to verify or reject the hypotheses and draw conclusions upon this. First a descriptive analysis was employed in order to identify the mean and the standard deviation. Furthermore, there has been checked for outliers and missing values. In order to investigate the applicability of the use of variables in the tests, the normality has been assessed by the Kolmogorov-Smirnov and Shapiro-Wilk statistics and Q-Q plots.
The first hypothesis ‘: provision of information regarding sustainable tourism and their impacts leads to
an increased intention to engage in a sustainable manner’ was tested by employing a one-way ANOVA
23 The second hypothesis ‘The relation between information regarding sustainable tourism and sustainable
tourist behavior is moderated by the age of the individual, with more sustainable behavior occurring for a younger age as opposed to a higher age’ was tested utilizing a moderation analysis. Before this
analysis was conducted, first the variables had to be standardized and a new variable which was the product of both independent variables involved had to be created. Next, two models were created with the variables (independent age and information, dependent sustainable behavior). One model included the variables was without the interaction effect and one including the variables and the interaction effect.
Finally, the third hypothesis ‘the relation between information regarding effects of unsustainable
tourism and sustainable tourist behavior is moderated by the budget of the vacation, with more sustainable behavior occurring for a higher budget as opposed to a lower budget’ was tested by
employing the two-way ANOVA test.
Findings
Descriptive statistics
For all variables included in the analyses, table 1 displays the statistics of the respondent characteristics (N, percent, mean and standard deviation if applicable). The study consisted of an approximately even amount of male and female, with 53 (47.3%) male participants involved and 59 (52.7%)female, thus a total of 112 participants. The mean age was 26.81, with an age range of 18-75 and a standard deviation of 10.9 years. Out of the 112 respondents, 66 considered their main nationality to be Dutch, and 46 respondents considered their nationality to be of another country. In total, nationalities from 24 countries were involved in the final sample which excluded the incomplete and unreliable
24 Furthermore, table 2 exhibits the descriptive analysis of the sustainable behavior variable per scenario. It is important to take into account that scenario one was large budget and no information, scenario two involved a small budget and no information, scenario three comprised of a large budget and information regarding sustainable tourism and scenario four includes a small budget and information regarding sustainable tourism. Observing from the table, one can spot that the mean of the respondents indicated sustainable behavior is indeed higher for a larger budget relative to the lower budgets, comparing scenario 1 with 2, and scenario 3 with 4 (2.15>1.77 and 2.25>2.10). Additionally, one can read from the table that the mean of the variable of sustainable behavior is indeed higher for the respondents that received information regarding sustainable tourism than for those who did not receive this, comparing scenario 1 with 3, and scenario 2 with 4 (2.25>2.15 and 2.10>1.77).
Table 1 – Descriptive analysis for gender, age and education
Category Characteristic N Percent Mean Std Deviation Gender Male 53 47.3% Female 59 52.7% Age Age 112 26.81 10.9
Education Secondary school 9 8%
Intermediate Vocational Education 8 7.1% Higher Vocational Education 24 21. % University Bachelor 35 31.3% University Master or higher 36 32.1%
Table 2 – Descriptive analysis of the sustainable behavior variable per scenario.
Scenario Scenario description Mean of reported Sustainable
Behaviour (scale 1-4) 1 Large budget & no info 2.15
25
Data inspection
To determine the reliability of the results the data was analyzed for missing values, outliers, and the normality of the distribution. Of the 149 questionnaires, 122 (82%) were completed. Furthermore, another 10 questionnaires were removed from the sample as they failed to correctly answer the manipulation questions, which indicates they do not classify as reliable data, as earlier described in the methodology. This leaves the remaining sample amounting to 112 (75% of the total questionnaires). There were no outliers detected.
As the T-test assumes the dependent variable to be normally distributed, the distribution of sustainable behavior was tested. Both the Tests of Normality (Kolmogorov-Smirnov and Shapiro-Wilk statistic) indicated that the distribution is significantly different from the expected normal distribution (p = .000). Therefore, the consideration of the Q-Q plots was required. The Q-Q plot showed an approximately normal distribution for the dependent variable sustainable tourism however which indicates that the data can still be considered as an approximately normal distribution .
The relationships
The relationship between information regarding sustainable tourism and sustainable tourist behavior. In order to investigate the relationship between the information provision regarding sustainable tourism and sustainable behavior, a one-way ANOVA test was performed. In contrast to what the descriptive tables suggested in the descriptive statistics section, the ANOVA test indicated that the relationship was insignificant, F (1.111) = 1.549, p value = 0.209>0.05.
The moderation relationship between age and information regarding sustainable tourism and sustainable tourist behavior.
26 and the interaction effect). In table 3 the models, their components and the respective Beta and
standard error are displayed.
Table 3 - Moderation Analysis
Model 1 Model 2
Step and variables B SE B SE
Intercept 2.054 0.086 2.057 0.087 Main Effects Information 0.106 0.087 0.105 0.088 Age 0.018 0.087 0.028 0.093 Two-way interaction Age x Information -0.030 0.093
The interaction effect showed a negative Beta as predicted, but with a significance value of over 0.745 it proves to be fairly insignificant. This means that it cannot be concluded that receiving information regarding sustainable tourism will lead to a more sustainable behavior, with this relation being more pronounced when the individual has a younger age.
The moderation relationship between budget and information regarding sustainable tourism and sustainable tourist behavior.
The third hypothesis was inspected utilizing a two-way ANOVA test. The outcomes have been
summarized in table 4. The analysis indicated that there was no significant interaction effect between information provision regarding sustainable tourism and budget on sustainable behavior, F (1.111) = 0.276, p = 0.60. For information receivers, the sustainable behavior was not significant higher for a high budget (M=2.12, SD= 0.766) as compared to a low budget (M=2.09, SD =0.856). Additionally, for respondents who did not receive information regarding sustainable tourism, there was no significant difference between low budget (M = 1.77, SD = 0.935) and high budget (M=2.12, SD = 0.766) either.
Table 4: Sustainable behavior, Two-way ANOVA.
Condition M (SD)
Low budget no information 1.77(0.935)
High budget no information 2.12(0.766)
27
Discussion
Summary of findings
The aim of this study was to consider the effects of information regarding sustainable tourism, age and budget on sustainable tourism, narrowed to the scope of economic prosperity, as these effects have scarcely been researched within this scope. The research question to guide this research was: ‘What is
the effect of information regarding sustainable tourism on sustainable tourism and how is this relation influenced by the age of the tourist, and the tourist’s budget?’. It was argued that information can
increase the sustainable tourist behavior, and that this relationship can be fostered by a lower age and a higher budget of the tourist.
The quantitative analyses in the forms of one-way ANOVA, 2x2 ANOVA and moderation analysis revealed no significant relation between information provision regarding sustainable tourism and the subsequent effects, and the intended sustainable behavior. Furthermore, the influence of the
participant’s age and their budget in the scenario on this relationship had been investigated. However, no significant moderating effects were observed. Therefore, all three hypotheses were rejected as they could not be supported by empirical data despite of the suggestions of a brief view on the descriptive data per scenario which looked promising in terms of supporting the hypotheses. In the remainder of this section theoretical implications, practical implications, limitations, as well as propositions for further research will be discussed.
Theoretical implications
For academicians, the present study contributes to providing insight in the effect of information on behavior in general, and to, more specifically, the impact of information regarding sustainable information on sustainable tourist behavior. In addition, this paper contributes to demonstrating the absence of an effect of budget and age on this previous relationship.
28 impacts lead to eco-friendlier behavior. Basic understanding from marketing may provide us an
explanation why the information does not appear to have an effect. In order to influence the minds (of consumers), they must be subject to information, over and over again. In the present research the element of repetition is lacking, which may explain the insignificant result. The study of Montgomery and Walker (2012), one of the literatures on which this hypothesis was based, utilized intentional reminders, and in this study the information promoted ethical behavior, thus there was an effect between the information provision and the corresponding behavior. However, it is of importance to find an optimal balanced frequency of information, as Watson & Wyness (2013) warn us for an information overload.
Widening the scope to the relation between information provision and the corresponding behavior, the papers of Eriksen et al. (1996) and Juraskova et al. (2012) deny the significance of the relationship between information provision and behavior as well, consistent with this present study. Eriksen et al. conducted a study to utilize information in order to affect the smoking behavior of parents when their children were nearby whereas Juraskova et al. (2012) investigated the effect of information on
vaccination intention.
29 Potentially it could be the case that once this morality involved in the prosperity aspect of sustainable tourism becomes more recognized by the public, it may result in older participants declaring a higher tendency to do good in this situation as hypothesis two suggest. Leitsch (2004) found support for this logic, as he concluded that an individual’s ethical sensitivity and the moral intensity of the issue
influence the recognition of an issue’s moral characteristics. This implies that it is highly relevant to have this public’s ethical sensitivity developed of the sustainable tourism issue before they recognize this moral issue.
The third hypothesis that posits that the relationship between information provision regarding
sustainable tourism and sustainable tourism behavior is affected by the budget, was not confirmed. This is interesting as for example the model of behavior described by Atkins and Michie (2013) prescribes that capability (in this study budget) is an important factor in order to initiate behavior. The
explanations of the insignificance of a budget as a moderator on the relationship between information regarding sustainable tourism and sustainable tourist behavior may, again, be embedded in the lack of recognition of the dilemma as a moral issue and the lack of repetition of the information resulting in both budget groups (10 euro or 250 euro per day) being insufficiently triggered to opt for the morally right choice.
Practical implications
30 Secondly, the present study did not find any evidence that age matters in the relationship between information regarding sustainable tourism and sustainable tourist behavior. Consequentially, there is no relevant information that can be deducted from this in terms of proposing a target group strategy. The study suggests that all ages are equally susceptible for the information provision.
Thirdly, this study did not find any evidence that there is a difference between budgets in terms of affecting the relationship between information regarding sustainable tourism and sustainable tourist behavior. As a result, we may disregard considering unsustainable tourism as a problem that can be solved by macro-economics, i.e. via enhancing the minimum incomes and welfare of the lower end of society. Alternatively, the answer of improving the issue of sustainable tourism must lie in changing institutions and moral awareness of this issue of the public, rather than find an answer embedded in structures of wealth.
Strengths, limitations and future research
A strength of this research is the substantially heterogeneous sample that involves participants from twenty-four countries, and an age range of 18-75.
A limitation of this research is that not the actual behavior is tested, but the intended sustainable behavior. For future research it would be a sound methodology to include the actual behavior in the analysis in order to more accurately observe the effects. In light of this, the employed experimental research method here was a scenario questionnaire. The major disadvantage of this is that it creates artificial situations. However, according to According to Ramirez et al. (2015) scenarios are suitable for scholars. ‘It produces interesting research that is rigorous and actionable. Furthermore, the scenario methodology helps to challenge existing assumptions, identify novel lines of inquiry, making sense of and address complex and uncertain contexts’. In addition, experimental research is conducted as the advantages of this amount to a high control over the variable and a relatively easy determination of cause and effect relationships. Therefore, the employment of scenario experimental research can also be regarded as a strength.
31 Education and 24 (21%) respondents answered Higher Vocational Education. The majority of the
respondents indicated that university was their highest attended education with 35 (31.3%) of answering ‘University Bachelor’ and 36 (32.1%) answering ‘University Master or higher. In table 6 of appendix 2 a table is displayed regarding the education of the respondents.
Another limitation of this study is that a neutral budget was not included, merely a low budget (10 euro per day) and a high budget (250 euro per day). For future research it would be a good idea to involve a neutral budget as well, in order to research the effect of budget in the realm of sustainable tourism more thoroughly. Additionally, the respondents were collected based on a convenience sample due to the strength of collecting more respondents for the sample in this manner. For future research other methods of establishing the sample may be a good idea, such as a stratified sample or random sample.
Additionally, one direction for future research may be to investigate the optimal frequencies of
information provision. Although it is apparent that too little reputations are not ideal, Watson & Wyness (2013) warn us for an information overload due to too much and too frequent information. Future research could investigate what would be the optimal frequency and timing to distribute the information in order to affect the tourist’s behavior in terms of sustainability.
Furthermore, the general applicability on the topic ‘sustainable tourism’ is limited as solely the economical/prosperity aspect was considered. Therefore, there is room for improvement to better comprehend the concept by conducting new research on other aspects of sustainability; population, peace, pollution and protection.
32 questions to explore the motivation of the participants, in order to identify potential mediators in the relationships which may broaden the insights from this paper substantially.
Lastly, in this research Portugal was chosen as the choice of destination, as it is in the poor end of the European Union in terms of GDP per capita and is likely to be visited by respondents in the sample that mainly come from Europe. However, for future research it would be interesting if a country is selected that is among the poorest countries of the world, for instance Liberia, Democratic Republic of Congo, Burundi, Central African Republic and Somalia, which are listed by the CIA as the poorest countries in terms of GDP per capita (CIA fact book, 2015). It would be interesting to investigate if the respondents declare a higher tendency to contribute to the local economy/prosperity as a tremendously poorer country is involved. Perhaps the three relationships can be better investigated in this manner as the scenario is more extreme.
Conclusion
The effects of information, age and budget in respect to sustainable tourist behavior have been under researched, although similar studies were conducted in the overarching concept of ethics. The
importance of sustainable tourism is increasingly becoming more substantial due to the tourism sector expanding rapidly, an increasing economic importance, and the potential tremendous negative effects that unsustainable tourism entails. The aim of this paper was to find more insight in the relationship between information regarding sustainable tourism and sustainable tourism, and whether the tourist’s age and budget have an influence on this relation. The main conclusions of this paper are that
33
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