conserve ironwood (ulin) stands? An option and approach in East Kalimantan
Wahyuni, T.
Citation
Wahyuni, T. (2011, November 10). Can traditional forest management protect and conserve ironwood (ulin) stands? An option and approach in East Kalimantan. Retrieved from https://hdl.handle.net/1887/18056
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diversity and impacts of traditional management at the research sites
3.1. Introduction
A substantial number of in situ and ex situ ironwood conservation projects have been undertaken in East Kalimantan and other provinces of Kalimantan (Masripatin 2005).
It is my impression that, in spite of the efforts so far, more are needed if successful approaches to ironwood conservation are to be developed. To this end, it is important to carry out and to gather information, especially on subjects such as geographic distribution and the variability in size of ironwood, damage and hazard levels for ironwood, number of ironwood individuals per hectare, dispersion and growth behaviour, penology, reproductive biology, interaction with pollinators, seed characteristics, seeds and sapling damage and natural regeneration. Research into these subject areas will allow for the development of an appropriate approach to conservation, as well as the defining of location and size of protection areas. It will also facilitate other necessary actions needed for genetic improvement, seed collection and species propagation for plantations.
Timber species are highly valued by local communities. In Kalimantan, ironwood is highly appreciated as a durable construction timber and for other traditional uses.
Understanding the natural distribution of ironwood and the natural genetic diversity is important for helping local people evaluate the current and future values of their forests.
This research focuses on an analysis of natural distribution and tree species diversity in a landscape of customary land and forest in the Gunung Lumut of Paser district. This chapter describes natural distribution based on an inventory of important ironwood stands, the role of ironwood in forest ecosystems and tree diversity in association with the variability of ironwood at the research sites. This chapter is based on field work and plot measurements undertaken in two villages in the period from 2005 to 2006.
3.2. Methods, research sites and objectives 3.2.1. Methods
The methods for collecting data and information on the distribution and diversity of ironwood and the impact of traditional use have been summarised in the previous chapter (Chapter 2). Data about tree diversity in association with the variability of ironwood at the research sites was collected using systematic plot sampling and more details about this can also found in chapter 2. It is appropriate to reiterate here that during my research I received the full support from the Herbarium staff of Wanariset Samboja, the Forest Research Institute. The identification of plants, including the identification of their scientific names was conducted with the assistance of the dendrologist at Wanariset Samboja. Specimens were only collected when identification in the field was not possible. These species were brought to the Herbarium for classification. The traditional names or local names were recorded based on the information provided by the adat chief, a member of a local NGO PEMA (Persatuan Masyarakat Adat) in Paser, and local collectors who were appointed based on their experience and knowledge of local of plants. The national language, called Bahasa Indonesia was used in research activities although sometimes it was mixed with the local dialect.
Sampling was undertaken in selected plots in customary forest in Muluy (01°26’21.5’’S – 115°57’19.5’’E) and in Rantau Layung (01°37’10.8’’S – 115°
59’59.4’’E), both located in Paser District, where indigenous people manage the natural ironwood stands.
3.2.2. Description of research area and plots
The research sites used in this case study are situated in the Gunung Lumut Protected Forest in Paser District (see also Chapter 2). Administratively, the Gunung Lumut Protected Forest is located within four sub-districts (namely Batu Sopang, Muara Komam, Long Ikis and Long Kali). Geographically, the position of the area is 1°19’
– 1°49’ South and 116°50’ – 116°20’ East (Anonymous, 2000b). The Government of Indonesia designated the area of Gunung Lumut as Protected Forest due to the forest’s rich ecosystem and the ecological, hydrological and social functions in the region. This protected forest is one of the largest remaining forest blocks left in Southeast Borneo.
The total area designated as Gunung Lumut Protected Forest is 35,350 hectares.
The Gunung Lumut means ‘Mountain of Moss’, and it comprises a mountain range (>500 m altitude) largely covered with lowland Dipterocarp forest (Shorea spp.
dominated). This protected forest is located within the Kendilo and Telake watershed areas and is of significant importance for the region as a source of water for at least five rivers, which flow to the populated regions of Long Ikis and Long Kali (Telake River) as
well as to the Kendilo River in the Capital City of Tanah Grogot. The research villages of Muluy and Rantau Layung are located within the forest conservation area of the Gunung Lumut Protected Forest. The research area can only be reached by car and the travel time is about seven hours from the provincial capital of Samarinda.
According to a government survey (Dinas Perhutanan dan Konservasi Tanah 1999), the research area is rich in biodiversity. There are a number of species of plants found in the area with a diameter exceeding 10 cm. These are dominated by groups of buni (Aglaia sp), wayan (Aglaia tomen), wild breadfruit (terap or Artocarpus elasticus), nato (Madhuca sericea) and red meranti (Shorea leprosula). In addition to these plants, it is estimated that this area has a potential rattan yield of around 1.2 tons/ha. Other plant products that are useful for the community are honey and jinko, aloeswood, agarwood or oud (gaharu or Aquilaria sp).
Figure 3.1. Location of study sites: Muluy and Rantau Layung in Paser District Source: Departement of Forestry, 2002
The different forest types reveal considerable differences in forest structure and species composition. Consequently, they also contain very different forest resources for the local population. Slik et al. (2007) note that species composition within the Gunung Lumut Protected Forest at different altitudes differs considerably, i.e. lowland forest (Muluy) could be separated from mountain (Gunung Lumut) and limestone (Rantau Layung) forests. This means that these different locations complement each other floristically, i.e.
each location adds to the diversity of the Gunung Lumut Protected Forest.
3.2.3. Research objectives and questions
The main objective of this chapter is to describe the results of field research on the distribution and diversity of ironwood in the study area. This chapter provides information about the role of ironwood in forest ecosystems and an inventory of important ironwood stands in the research sites. Finally, it assesses the impact of traditional management systems on natural ironwood stands.
The study described in the present chapter addresses the following questions:
1. What is the natural distribution of ironwood, the tree diversity in association with the variability of ironwood and the role of ironwood in forest ecosystems at the research sites?
2. What is the impact of traditional management systems on natural ironwood stands?
3.3. An inventory of ironwood stands
3.3.1. Species richness in composition and structure of forest vegetation
During the fieldwork, a total of 336 trees, belonging to 73 tree species from 37 families, were counted in all four belt transects at the research plots in Muluy. Eusideroxylon zwageri, Shorea leprosula and Ochanostachys amentacea were the most frequent (observed in two of four belt transects) and Adenanthera sp., Aporosa grandistipulata and Archidendron pauciflorum were the least frequent tree species, each occurring in only one belt transect. Seven trees could not be identified (see Appendix 4, tables 1 and 2). A total of 216 trees, belonging to 33 tree species from 18 families, were counted in all four belt transects at the research plots in Rantau Layung. Shorea sp., Endertia spectabilis and Ochanostachys amentacea were the most frequently observed (observed in all four belt transects) and Polyalthia sp., Macaranga pruinosa and Garcinia parvifolia were the least frequently observed tree species, each occurring in only one belt transect (see Appendix 5, tables 1 and 2). The Species Importance Values (SIV) of tree species in the forest vegetation at both plots are listed in table 3.1 below.
The field research reveals that ironwood grows in association with more than 150 species of higher plants. Local Muluy people have identified are 91 tree species, 55 pole species, 80 sapling species and 61 seedlings species (based on interviews in August 2005). The dendrologist at the Herbarium Wanariset Samboja has identified (partly overlapping with species identified by local people): 85 tree species, 49 pole species, 69 sapling species, and 59 seedling species. A number of these species are economically
important for wood production: namely, Shorea leprosula, Shorea parvifolia, Eusideroxylon zwageri, Litsea sp, Koompassia excelsa, Koompassia malaccensis, Ochanostachys amentaceae, Palaquium criocalyx and Alseodaphne sp. These species summarised in table 3.1, also yield fruit, vegetables and traditional medicine.
Table 3.1. Mean values of two plots representing economically important tree species (>10 cm DBH) for wood production and livelihood at two study sites (Muluy and Rantau Layung
Local
name Scientific name n/ha Mean Diameter
(m)
Mean Height
(m)
SIV (Sp.
Im.Val)
Basal area (m2/ha)
Vol- ume (m3/
ha) Muluy
Telien Eusideroxylon
zwageri (Ez) 22 45.8 25.6 82.8 3.652 38.07
Nasom Ochanostachys
amentaceae(Oa) 13 35.3 22.7 63.3 1.236 11.37
Putang Shorea leprosula
(Sl) 12 42.7 26.6 60.2 1.867 23.73
Medang Alseodaphne sp.
(Al) 15 34.3 22.7 51.9 1.259 11.25
Buno
jerape Mischocarpus pen-
tapetalus (Mp) 4 39.4 23.8 15.7 0.432 3.93
Natu Payena acuminata 4 32.6 23.4 14.9 0.228 2.03
Putang
kawang Dipterocarpus sp.
(Di) 8 31.5 21.0 6.7 0.517 4.99
Balik Diospyros
borneensis (Db) 5 29.8 24.2 6.5 0.191 1.68
Balongko-
ing bitik Syzygium sp. (Sy) 3 32.2 23.7 22.4 0.142 0.98 Karopitit Dacryodes rostrata
(Dr) 5 34.4 25.2 18.1 0.487 5.69
Rantau Layung Telien Eusideroxylon
zwageri (Ez) 18 46.3 21.9 60.0 3.198 1.526
Nasom Ochanostachys
amentaceae(Oa) 20 29.9 18.9 58.4 1.494 0.593
Putang Shorea spp. (Ss) 29 47.7 23.1 64.5 6.527 2.293
Local
name Scientific name n/ha Mean Diameter
(m)
Mean Height
(m)
SIV (Sp.
Im.Val)
Basal area (m2/ha)
Vol- ume (m3/
ha) Medang Alseodaphne sp.
(Al) 4 41.4 18.0 15.1 0.671 1.454
Jemorang
buluh Gironniera ner-
vosa (Gn) 10 36.4 21.3 27.6 1.114 1.007
Ngoi/
Sintuk Dryobalanops
lanceolata (Dl) 7 28.3 21.0 15.8 0.458 0.541
Putang osi Hopea dryobal-
anoides (Hd) 5 44.6 20.6 19.0 0.877 1.524
Natu besi Polyalthia lateri-
flora (Pl) 17 29.7 18.6 45.3 1.289 0.583
Buno
meah Ellipanthus
tomentosus (Et) 6 28.3 21.0 17.9 0.389 0.542
Buno
burak Antidesma neuro-
carpa (An) 6 29.6 19.7 18.0 0.432 0.589
The comparison of species importance value between plots in Muluy and Rantau Layung are presented in figures 3.2 and 3.3.
Figure 3.2. Species importance value of Figure 3.3. Species importance value trees
at Muluy plots* of trees at Rantau Layung plots*
*For legenda see table 3.1
The research reveals that species and family richness differ considerably between the two field locations of Rantau Layung and Muluy. Ironwood is widespread at the research plots and scattered over the Dipterocarp forest. The total SIV (Species Importance Value) for ironwood at the Muluy plots is 82.8; in Rantau Layung it is 60.0. Thus, the value at the Muluy plots is higher than the value at the plots in Rantau Layung. This is probably because people in Muluy employ, or have employed, the practice of only extracting fallen trees. The Muluy plots consist predominantly of primary forest in relatively good condition. Houses in Muluy are constructed using ironwood raw material from the P.T.
Telaga Mas timber company, which is part of a resettlement project supported by the local government (Department of Social Affairs). This situation differs from the Rantau Layung settlement, which was established earlier and where people have used ironwood timber not only for house construction, but also for infrastructure such as bridges.
Figure 3.4. (A) & (B) Ironwood and tree species diversity inventory at plots in both villages.
3.3.2. Family richness
At the study sites of Muluy and Rantau Layung 37 and 18 families of tree species were found, respectively. The dominant families at tree stage are presented in table 3.2.
Result from an inventory carried out between August and September 2005 in Muluy and October 2005 in Rantau Layung, show that Lauraceae is the most dominant family at the plot in Muluy, while Dipterocarpaceae still dominates the plot in Rantau Layung. Lauraceae comprises several tree species, which produce economically valuable timber; namely, Eusideroxylon zwageri, Alseodaphne sp., Actinodaphne glabra and Litsea sp. Dipterocarpaceae also includes several tree species that produce economically important timber. Good examples are Shorea leprosula and Dipterocarpus sp. Moraceae is also a dominant family. It produces edible fruit for local people. This family consists of some pioneer species; namely, Artocarpus elasticus, Artocarpus tamaran, Artocarpus odoratissimus and Artocarpus anisophyllus.
B
A
Table 3.2. Family composition and family importance value of tree species that grow at the study sites (Muluy and Rantau Layung) 2 ha plot.
No. Family Relative
diversity (%)
Relative density
(%)
Relative dominance
(%)
Family important value
M U L U Y
1. Lauraceae 7.7 22.5 29.2 59.4
2. Dipterocarpaceae 5.4 8.8 11.5 25.7
3. Olacaceae 3.9 9.2 7.9 21.0
4. Moraceae 5.8 6.6 6.2 18.6
5. Fagaceae 3.9 5.3 3.5 12.7
6. Sapindaceae 5.1 3.9 3.3 12.3
7. Icacinaceae 3.3 2.9 6.1 12.3
8. Dilleniaceae 2.4 3.7 5.8 11.9
9. Ulmaceae 4.1 5.1 2.3 11.4
10. Burseraceae 4.0 3.4 3.5 11.0
11. Annonaceae 3.1 4.4 2.8 10.3
12. Meliaceae 5.2 2.4 2.1 9.7
13. Euphorbiaceae 5.1 2.8 1.6 9.5
14. Leguminosae 3.3 2.3 2.4 7.9
15. Myrtaceae 2.5 2.6 1.7 6.8
16. Sapotaceae 3.3 1.8 1.3 6.4
17. Bombacaceae 4.1 1.2 0.9 6.2
18. Styracaceae 2.6 1.1 1.2 4.8
19. Polygalaceae 2.3 1.7 0.7 4.7
20. Linaceae 1.4 0.9 1.9 4.1
21. Magnoliaceae 2.1 1.3 0.5 4.0
22. Myristicaceae 1.9 1.0 0.6 3.5
23. Rubiaceae 1.1 0.5 1.8 3.3
24. Trigoniaceae 1.9 0.8 0.3 3.0
25. Sterculiaceae 1.3 0.5 1.1 2.9
26. Ebenaceae 1.2 0.8 0.5 2.4
27. Polygalaceae 1.2 0.8 0.3 2.3
28. Guttiferae 1.3 0.5 0.2 2.0
29. Melastomataceae 0.6 0.3 0.3 1.2
30. Hypericaceae 0.6 0.3 0.3 1.2
31. Anacardiaceae 0.8 0.3 0.2 1.2
32. Rhizophoraceae 0.8 0.3 0.1 1.2
No. Family Relative diversity
(%)
Relative density
(%)
Relative dominance
(%)
Family important value
33. Apocynaceae 0.6 0.2 0.3 1.1
34. Monimiaceae 0.6 0.2 0.1 0.9
35. Rosaceae 0.6 0.2 0.1 0.9
36. Symplocaceae 0.6 0.2 0.1 0.9
37. Tiliaceae 0.6 0.2 0.2 0.9
R A N T A U L A Y U N G
1. Dipterocarpaceae 58.3 25.0 19.4 102.7
2. Lauraceae 52.8 12.2 10.2 75.1
3. Leguminosae 41.7 19.1 12.5 73.3
4. Olacaceae 44.4 4.7 9.3 58.4
5. Annonaceae 38.9 4.7 8.8 52.3
6. Meliaceae 30.6 5.4 6.5 42.5
7. Euphorbiaceae 30.6 2.5 5.6 38.6
8. Ulmaceae 19.4 3.5 4.6 27.6
9. Ebenaceae 19.4 2.6 3.7 25.7
10. Connaraceae 13.9 1.2 2.8 17.9
11. Myristicaceae 11.1 1.4 1.9 14.4
12. Moraceae 5.6 2.1 1.4 9.1
13. Sterculiaceae 5.6 2.0 0.9 8.4
14. Dilleniaceae 2.8 1.5 0.5 4.8
15. Magnoliaceae 2.8 0.4 0.5 3.7
16. Guttiferae 2.8 0.2 0.5 3.5
17. Fagaceae 2.8 0.2 0.5 3.4
18. Actinidiaceae 2.8 0.2 0.5 3.4
Species and family richness in the forests of East Kalimantan has been reported by a number of researchers (Sist & Saridan 1998; Haryati et al. 2010). The results of the inventory of tree species and family richness in some locations in East Kalimantan are presented in table 3.6 below. The mean densities of species (with a diameter > 10 cm) was found be generally more than 100 species/ha.
Table 3.3. Species and family richness with a diameter > 10 cm in primary forest in East Kalimantan
Location Plot
Area (ha) Number
of families Number
of genera Number
of Species Dominant
Family Source
Lempake 1.6 44 125 209 Euphorbiaceae, Lau-
raceae, Annonaceae, Meliaceae, Dipterocarpaceae, Rubiaceae
Riswan, 1987*
Timber Company P.T.Kiani Lestari
1 169 Dipterocarpaceae,
Myrtaceae, Lauraceae, Euphorbiaceae, Fabaceae
Matius, 1995*
Timber Company P.T.ITCI
6 130 Lauraceae,
Sapotaceae, Euphorbiaceae, Flacourteaceae, Meli- aceae,
Myristicaceae, Dipterocarpaceae
Matius, 1997*
Labanan
Berau 48 182 Dipterocarpaceae,
Euphorbiaceae, Leguminosae, Annacardiaceae, Lauraceae,
Burseraceae, Myrta- ceae,
Annonaceae
Sist &
Saridan, 1999*
Muluy Customary Forests, Paser
2 37 156 Lauraceae,
Dipterocarpaceae, Olacaceae, Moraceae, Burseraceae, Annonaceae, Rubiaceae
This research, 2005
Rantau Layung Customary Forests, Paser
18 105 Dipterocarpaceae Lau-
raceae Leguminosae, Olacaceae
Annonaceae, Meliaceae Euphorbi- aceae,
Ulmaceae
This research, 2005
Source :*) In Suyana 2003
3.3.3. Structure of ironwood stands
The distribution per diameter class expresses the range of tree sizes. The research results conclude that individual ironwood trees with a diameter of between 10 and 20 cm DBH, account for 27 per cent of the total number of ironwood trees (figures 3.9 and 3.10). This result is comparable to previous studies of Dipterocarpaceae mixed forest types in Kalimantan (see table 3.4).
Table 3.4. Population of ironwood with a diameter >10 cm (N/ha) in tropical lowland forests in Kalimantan
No. Location N / Ha Source
1. Kutai National Park, Bontang, East
Kalimantan 54 Susilo and Riswan, 1987*
2. Education Forest Lempake, East
Kalimantan 33 Riswan, 1987*
3. Senambi Forest, Jambi 28 Herbangun, 1985*
4. Riam Kanan, South Kalimantan 14 Sumantri and Mahfud, 1986*
5. Muluy, Paser District 29 This research, 2005
6. Rantau Layung, Paser District 15 This research, 2005 Source: *Partomihardjo, 1987
The distribution pattern of ironwood trees between plots in Muluy and Rantau Layung is presented in figures 3.5 and 3.6.
Figure 3.5. Distribution pattern of Figure 3.6. Distribution pattern of diameter class of ironwood tree diameter class of ironwood tree at plot in Muluy at plot in Rantau Layung
The curve representing the distribution per diameter class in Muluy is typical for primary forests it follows the form of a hyperbole. Theoretically, figure 3.5 shows a common pattern of tropical forest vegetation, with its continuous dynamic character (Ogawa et al. 1965 in Yusuf & Purwaningsih 1988). The distribution pattern per diameter class of ironwood trees in Rantau Layung shows that the density of ironwood trees with a diameter > 60 cm decreased slightly. Figure 3.5 also shows that the regeneration of ironwood is not sufficient, despite the fact that ironwood may be coppiced freely and is persistently present. This result reveals that the inhabitants of Rantau Layung probably only harvest or cut trees with a diameter of > 60 cm, or mature trees. I also observed that at the plots of Rantau Layung, there are many ironwood stumps of trees that had been cut by villagers several years ago.
3.3.4. Ironwood distribution
Interviews revealed that local people not only use different names for ironwood, but also distinguish varieties of ironwood. The Muluy people call ironwood: telien, whereas Rantau Layung people call it: teliun. Field observations at the research site and simultaneous interviews with local people revealed some local varieties of ironwood, namely telien baning, telien sirap or jambu (according to Rantau Layung people) and telien jupe. According to Muluy people, the variety of telien baning is the most suitable ironwood for construction. Telien sirap or jambu is suitable for shingles (sirap). During field research, only two trees of this variety were found at two different plots. Apparently this variety is scarce in forests around some villages. Given this scarcity, the inhabitants of Muluy and Rantau Layung do not make shingles for the roofs of their houses.
Ironwood natural stands are a scattered component of the Dipterocarp forest. At the research sites, ironwood grows in small clusters. Ironwood stands are not spread evenly, but stand in groups; sometimes only a few trees can be found in the space of one hectare. This is caused by the heavy topography as well as the large and heavy ironwood seeds, which do not fall far from their mother tree. The ironwood inventories of the plots in Muluy and Rantau Layung are compared in table 3.5 below.
Table 3.5. Comparison of ironwood inventories of the plots in Muluy and Rantau Layung N/ha Basal Area 10 (ha) Potency (m3)
Muluy 29 4.4 46.2
Rantau Layung 15 2.3 19.1
10 The term used in forest management that defines the area of a given section of land that is occupied by the cross-section of tree trunks and stems at their base. In most countries, this is usually a measurement taken at a person’s breast height, 1-1.5 metres above the ground and includes the entire diameter of every tree, including the bark. Measurements are usually made for 1 hectare of land for comparison purposes to examine a forest’s productivity and growth rate.
During the inventory of ironwood stands in Muluy, special reference was made to ironwood with a DBH > 10 cm in 2 ha areas and 59 individual trees with a mean density 29.5/ha, and a basal area 8.8 m2 or (4.4/ha) were counted. From my statistical test, the potential volume of ironwood stands is 92.5 m3 (46.2 m3 per hectare). The table above shows that the mean density, basal area and potency of ironwood were lower than at the plots in Rantau Layung than at the plots in Muluy (see Appendices 4 and 5).
3.4. Discussion and conclusions
The investigation of forest vegetation at the research sites in the customary forests of Muluy and Rantau Layung customary forests reveals differences in, among other things, the richness of tree species between the villages. Differences were also found in the distribution pattern of ironwood trees and in other parameters in this inventory (mean density, basal area and potency) between the plots in Muluy and Rantau Layung.
37 families of tree species were found at the plots in Muluy and 18 families of tree species were found at Rantau Layung. The results show that Lauraceae is the most dominant family at the Muluy plots, while Dipterocarpaceae dominates at Rantau Layung. Lauraceae consists of several tree species that produce economically valuable timber; namely, Eusideroxylon zwageri, Alseodaphne sp., Actinodaphne glabra and Litsea sp. Dipterocarpaceae also consists of several tree species that produce economically important timber.
Ironwood natural stands are a scattered component of the Dipterocarp forest.
Ironwood grows at the research sites in small clusters. Ironwood stands are not spread evenly, but stand in groups; sometimes only a few trees can be found in the space of one hectare. Ironwood density at the plots in both Muluy and Rantau Layung are generally lower than in other locations (see table 3.4); however, it should be noted that most of the research summarised in this table was conducted almost twenty years ago (Suyana 2003).
As indicated in table 3.5, ironwood density at the plots in Muluy is higher than that of the plots in Rantau Layung. This may indicate that community forest reserves in Muluy remain heavily forested and have not been disturbed as much by commercial logging compared to Rantau Layung. The people of Muluy and Rantau Layung also recognise three varieties of ironwood; namely, telien baning, telien sirap or jambu (according to Rantau Layung people) and telien jupe. Customary laws regarding the extraction of trees from these areas remain strict and are still heavily enforced. Removing trees remains restricted to personal use. Community forest reserves also provide a number of forest products and non-timber forest products.
The study reveals that, traditionally, local communities conserve forest tree species for livelihood, religious and cultural practices, as in the case of Friesodielsa argentia, Gonithalamus sp. and Memcylon amplexicaule. Local people use medicinal products from the forest (Pterospermum sp., Ziziphus angustifolia, Artocarpus odoratissimus, etc) and
products from apiculture (Apis dorsata) (see Appendix 6, tables 1 and 2). As indicated in table 3.5, the existence of a certain density of ironwood in their forests and the traditional regulations in place to regulate the extraction of ironwood are evidence that this resource is not over-harvested. There are three principal types of timber that are extracted from the community forest reserves; (1) Meranti (Shorea leprosula), (2) Bangkirai (Shorea laevis) (both trees from the Dipterocarp family) and (3) ironwood.
These trees are highly valued hardwoods that have been heavily extracted throughout Borneo.
The high number of species in tropical forests and the difficult working conditions with respect to climate and underfoot conditions were the major constraints to implementing the inventories. The study reveals that local communities are well aware of the important benefits they derive from the forest. It also illustrates that, generally, those people who are living within the forest have great affinity to the forest, as their life is associated with its continued existence. The traditional conservation of tall and large- diameter trees, such as species of the Dipterocarpaceae family, came about because of religious and cultural attitudes. Today, however, these traditional beliefs are rare or non- existent. That said, it is clear that ironwood trees are respected by the local community, not least because of their traditional associations with other trees and plants.
