des écoles chrétiennes de Jérusalem (1922-1939)
Sanchez, K.M.J.
Citation
Sanchez, K. M. J. (2009, May 6). Politiques, education et identités linguistiques : le collège des Frères des écoles chrétiennes de Jérusalem (1922-1939). LOT, Utrecht. Retrieved from https://hdl.handle.net/1887/13772
Version: Corrected Publisher’s Version
License: Licence agreement concerning inclusion of doctoral thesis in the Institutional Repository of the University of Leiden
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Linguistic Policies, Education and Identities
The College of the Brothers of the Christian Schools of Jerusalem (1922-1939)
For French public opinion and government, in the early 1920s, Palestine remains “the most French land of the Orient”, at a time when the loss of the Catholic French protectorate in the Holy Land to Great Britain is being confirmed. Even during the British Mandate, the French General Consulate continues to support the work of education and assistance of the French communities. The College of Jerusalem founded by the Brothers of the Christian Schools in 1876 occupies an exceptional position as a school for primary, secondary and vocational education, as it is situated in the heart of the Christian Quarter of the Old City and because it gradually and quickly opens its doors for all communities present in the city. The College is highly representative of the status of French as a second language of the educated elite and middle classes. As one of the oldest educational institutions in the city, its reputation goes far beyond the boundaries of Jerusalem. Since the mid-nineteenth century, the city, a gathering place for many European nations as well as a symbol of multilingualism, is the stage for a confrontation between European powers. These European powers acutely compete with respect to language education. In the late nineteenth century, knowledge of languages is a way of accessing modernity. Languages are also a key element for the local and the Roman religious authorities. Each European institution claims a form of pre-eminence in addressing its linguistic and religious community.
On the one hand, the case of the College of Jerusalem underscores the cultural and lin- guistic policies of the two rival mandatory powers of the region (through exclusion, inversion, and distribution of new functions). On the other hand, it sheds light on some aspects of the
use of French in this society, which is very different from that in Syria and Lebanon under the French mandate. In Palestine during the British Mandate, the act of language is an instrument for political and religious institutions, and a reflection of the dialectic relationship between dominant and dominated parties. Language reflects the interdependence around the College, the complexity of the relationships between language and religion, and language and identity.
The College shows a remarkable resilience and adaptability throughout its existence, even as its development slows down.
The first part of the dissertation shows the College caught between different language policies. Chapter 2 retraces the importance of the College and the French language during the Ottoman period. Before the clashes of the First World War, tensions are growing between the two powers with influence in the area, France and Great Britain. France, through the College of Jerusalem, plays a role in education, in line with her status of protector of Catholics. During this period, a broad appeal is made to French as an instrument of culture : it is progressively becoming the language of all elites. The success of the College is such that, in 1904, the institution opens a second section, the Collège Saint Jean-Baptiste de La Salle, which offers primary and preparatory education with professional degrees, in addition to the free section of the Ecole du Sacré-Coeur established since 1878. A pioneer in the education of boys, the College is at the heart of a French “network” in the holy city, around the New Gate.
The College also hosts several Christian minorities and “dissidents”, Jewish and Moslem students. The Brothers define themselves and are perceived by the local population and all political and religious authorities as“ transmitters” of language and culture. Yet, competition becomes harsh and after the difficult period of the First World War, during which they must leave the country, the Brothers experience difficulties on the administrative, economic, and diplomatic levels. The period of “gallicization” is followed by a period of "submission to British rule," which is perceived as both administrative and linguistic.
Chapter 3focuses on the establishment of the “sacred mission of British civilization” and the progressive control of the College. The legislative environment is gradually changing, and the French language is no longer an official exam language, even if the College remains a private school. The Brothers are faced with a dual system which combines on the one hand the different school systems inherited from the Ottoman period (diverse and divided), and on the other hand, which is the reflection of a desire for centralization of the British (action on the form and on the values of the educational system). Thought they have little interest in private education, the British seek to consolidate their position and their linguistic and cultural action vis-à-vis the General Consulate of France : through incentives and mandatory measures, they consign French to a status of a foreign language and challenge some extrater- ritorial privileges. Under the influence of the French consulate, the opposition of the Brothers to the new legislation changes progressively into a more conciliatory attitude. They unders- tand they have to take into account the British legislation and English language : the College is forced to restructure in order to keep its students, because English has become the lingua franca, and socially recognized as legitimate. Furthermore, the College stays neutral in the political unrest that arises against the policy of the mandatory authorities.
Chapter 4analyses the role of the College as a “spearhead” of the linguistic and cultural
policy of France, since the Brothers are sometimes perceived as “agents” of France. The College is emblematic of the support of France both in its educational policy and through the protection of the Catholics (1918-1929). The College remains one of the important educative institutions of the French presence in the Holy Land. The consulate encourages the College to train elites that would be in favour of France in the Levant. Political tensions in France after the vote of separation of church and state do not mar this support. The College benefits from subsidies that are not affected by changes in the policy of the French consulate during the 1930s. During this period, the consulate turns towards a wider audience and at the same time tries to interfere more in the life of the college. It is during this period that the consulate puts an end to the equivalency system with French diplomas. The College and the consulate focus, each at their level, on the preservation of French, not so much a “gallicization” but a “francophonization”. They seek to accomplish this goal by keeping a large proportion of French speaking students, with the intention of introducing them in good positions in the administration.
Chapter 5considers the college in his secular and religious mission, through its relations with the various ecclesiastical institutions to which the college has to pay allegiance. The Vatican and the Latin Patriarchate insist several times on the duty of non-interference with temporal powers, stating that missionaries should not be “agents of colonial powers”. It must be noted here that the vast majority of the Brothers in the College are of French nationality.
To the religious hierarchy, the dual roles of missionaries of language and missionaries of faith are simply incompatible, despite the fact that the Brothers vigorously defend these dual roles.
The French language is the subject of discussions between the various partners of the College.
It is also at the heart of the debate of which is the most suitable language to teach catechism.
At the end of the period, the College still takes on the role of “educating good Christians”.
The Catholic part of education is reserved for the Latin students, embodied essentially in de- votional practices, alongside a common curriculum for all students. The reality of the mission of the Brothers does not always fit with the objectives of the Propaganda Fide, because they show no active proselytism during this period. Furthermore, they remain neutral with respect to the rise of Palestinian nationalism.
Part 2 of the dissertation deals with the inner life of the institution and its progressive adaptation to the British mandate. Chapter 6 discusses the adaptation to the diverse religious and sociological recruitment practiced by the College. Throughout the period, recruitment remains stable for the paying and the free sections, despite competition. During the poli- tical turmoil, however, Jewish students leave the College. The number of Muslim students increases, but the majority is still composed of Christians, especially Roman Catholic and Greek Orthodox. The quality of courses offered gives the College an excellent reputation as an institution of “order, method, work, and common sense”. Until the mid 1930s, a good education is still based on language education, and foreign languages are still a benchmark, a key factor in obtaining a good social position. The College continues to attract elites, while trying to adapt to the new locations of the families.
Chapter 7 focuses on the evolution of the curriculum. English, crucial for getting a di- ploma under the British mandate, becomes for the Brothers a way of preserving French edu-
cation and of ensuring that their students find their place in the workforce of Jerusalem or in higher education. Only a few of them choose higher education in French, in view of the lack of prospects. The British official exam, the Matriculation, is introduced in the College.
Meanwhile, the teaching of Arabic is reinforced and professionalized to meet the requests of parents and to answer to the national identity challenge. The religious and the political authorities also promote the teaching of Arabic. The Brothers want to avoid a disconnection between the cost of learning and the rewards of English in society. As a result, more students graduate in English for their professional degrees, which had already made the reputation of the institution.
Chapter 8discusses the ethos of the college, manifested mainly through the different school cultures. They indeed transmit a Christian and French “savoir être”. For the students, the school cultures represent an association of solidarity for the rest of their lives. They em- body the Lassalian spirit and make the College visible in the different religious or cultural events in Jerusalem and, on a larger scale, in Palestine. These cultures also give us an insight into the reproduction and transmission systems of Palestinian society, and, beyond the purely educational approach, into the interplay of powers, which is even stronger after the opening of the YMCA. French and Catholic temporalities mark the rhythm of life at the College.
However, those activities, specific to the French “clan”, have little impact on the Palestinian cultural events. To some extent, these cultures probably isolate most students from the nation building process in which a large part of young Palestinians participate at the time.
Chapter 9focuses on the figure of the teacher. The majority of the teachers are French Brothers, only few are laymen teachers, despite the difficulties of recruitment (Laws of 1904 and 1905 in France). The Brothers are mediators, “transmitters” of languages and Catholic religion, and representatives of the French power. These functions lock them into loyalties that can be sometimes contradictory. At the end of the period, the increase of Palestinian lay teachers significantly changes their perception of French and Arabic, and announces the changes after the Second World War and the arabization of the school system. The period also sees a further professionalization of education, especially for language classes and vocational courses, due to the competition with other schools.
Chapter 10examines the use of French, a language of minorities that became a minority language. The use of the French language, much less prevalent at the end of the period, is also the result of an unfavourable economic situation of France in Palestine. Despite the presence of many French religious orders, French does not benefit from a solid basis in society. Within the college, French remains the common language, but it has to compete with English. English is the official language in society though not at the College, where it will never become lingua francadespite the attempts by some managers during the 1940s. French also competes with Arabic, an official language in society, and the common and vernacular language at the College. At the end of the period, French has become a dominated language, as indicated by the number of its speakers, its economic and political weight, and its spread in Palestinian society. French has indeed lost its status as a semi-official language, an official language for exams, and the language of the Catholic communities. Its transmission at that time relies on small groups and is mainly provided by the Catholic schools. Victim of an uncertain diffusion
process, French writing disappears progressively from public space.
