University of Groningen
Aging and gender in Tanzania
Rutagumirwa, Sylivia Karen
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Rutagumirwa, S. K. (2018). Aging and gender in Tanzania: Uncovering the cultural schemas, nexus of identities and the Aging Body. University of Groningen.
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Aging and Gender in Tanzania:
Uncovering the cultural schemas, nexus of identities
and the Aging Body
ISBN number: 978-94-6295-994-1
Aging and gender in Tanzania
Uncovering the cultural schemas, nexus of identities and the Aging Body
PhD thesis
to obtain the degree of PhD at the University of Groningen
on the authority of the Rector Magnificus Prof. E. Sterken
and in accordance with the decision by the College of Deans. This thesis will be defended in public on
Thursday 5 July 2018 at 11.00 hours
by
Sylivia Karen Rutagumirwa
born on 3 November 1975 in Lushoto, Tanzania
Supervisor Prof. I. Hutter Co-supervisor Dr. A. Bailey Assessment Committee Prof. J.J.M. Zeelen Prof. C.M. Fokkema Prof. W. Harcourt
DEDICATION
I dedicate my thesis to my family. Dad, thank you for being such a great father. Mom, you have inspired me through my entire life. Thank you! To my husband Dunstan thank you for being the best husband and a best friend. To my children, Rodney, Precious and Abigail, I hope to inspire you to aim higher and not let anything stop your dreams. With determination and resilience you can become anyone.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I begin by thanking the Almighty GOD for providing me the strength, health and ability to finish my doctoral work. His mercy was with me throughout my life and ever more in this study.
I am especially indebted to my supervisor Prof. Inge Hutter and co-supervisor, Dr. Ajay Bailey. You constituted the perfect supervision team, I feel very lucky to have you as my supervisors. Nothing I write here can sufficiently express my gratitude to you; it’s your trust in me, your continuous support, patience, motivation and your insightful comments that lead to completion of this doctorial Journey. To Prof. Inge, I am immensely grateful for your endless patience especially at the beginning of my PhD trajectory (where I had three proposals), you patiently listened to my scattered ideas, guided me to think critically and encouraged me to constantly improve and extend my work. Thank you for mentoring me throughout my doctoral journey. To Dr. Ajay, I am really grateful to you, for your patience, your continuous support and for your door always open for me. Thank you for your sharp intellectual and academic insight, you always pointed out things I had overlooked. Thank for your presence as mentor and friend. You two have made my PhD thesis go farther than I ever imagined possible. My sincerest gratitude also goes to Prof. Hinke Haisma who was my initial supervisor, thank you for all that you have done and for all that goes unsaid.
I would like to thank the members of the Reading Committee, Prof. J.J.M. Zeelen, Prof. C.M. Fokkema and Prof. W. Harcourt. Thank you for the time and efforts spent reviewing this thesis and more so, for approving it.
To my paranymphs: Dr. Billies de Haas and Fieke Visser thank you very much. You accepted to be my paranymphs despite your busy schedules and with great pleasure. I will forever cherish your kind hearts and support. My sincere thanks also go to Prof. Clara Mulder, for all the lovely chats during coffee breaks, and tips you gave me dur-ing our morndur-ing conversations. To the faculty members of spatial sciences, demog-raphy department and many colleagues outside the faculty I have had throughout my doctorial journey, know that each of you has left a lasting impression on me, and thanks for the conducive environment you allowed me by extension and for always making me feel welcome. I would especially like to thank Dr. Louise, Dr. Sepideh, Stiny, Liesbeth, and Kanika. Thank you for your time, for opening your homes to me. To other faculty members, I wish I could mention all your names! I would like to thank particularly Prof. Fanny, Dr. Eva, Allen, Nikhil, Ziad, Lybrich, Linden, Vera,
Dr. Marieke, Dr. Shirish, Titissari, Dr. Sanne, Dr. Debbie, Arun, Dr. Anu, Elda, Jakko, Sergi, Dr. Acul, Ruben, Antje, Roselinde, Dr. Emmy and my other PhD colleagues and students of Population master’s course intake of 2011/2012.
I would also like to thank Alida from Graduate school and Feara who took over after her for helping me with all the procedures of the PhD. I would also like to thank the secretaries at demography department: Stiny, Mirjam, Eliza and others for always being very helpful.
In my academic life, I have met many other scholars who have helped to shape my academic worldview. I would particularly like to mention Prof. Liz from Karolinska Institutet, Dr. Tom Strong from the National university of Ireland, Maynooth and Prof. Kamuzora and the late Prof. Chachage from the University of Dar es Salaam and Prof. Henk Sol from Groningen University.
I must also extend my deepest gratitude to Laura who is like a rare book of which but only one copy was made. We met through our children, Abigail and Lotte, at the day care, our friendship has since blossomed. Your support to me and Abigail has meant more to me than words on this page can ever convey. You and Hilbert are friends I hope to keep forever!! You will always be remembered. I also want to extend my gratitude to the Kinderdagverblijf—KITS daycare, Siska Kanninga and all members of staff at KITS, Abigail was well cared for. You have all been wonderful.
I would like to thank the Netherlands Organization for International Cooperation in Higher Education and Research (NUFFIC)—(NICHE Project) for the financial support throughout my doctorate. I would like to express my gratitude for the finan-cial support I received from Erasmus + ICM scholarship during mobility exchange program. My special appreciation goes to the International Office of the University of Groningen and the staff who played a central role in supporting and facilitating my visit and stay in the Netherlands; Drs. Wiebe Zijlstra, Gonny Lakerveld, drs. Esme Bakker, Ivita Kops and Hendrik Jan thank you very much for your kind support. I am thankful to the institute of Finance Management (IFM), my employer, for granting me a study leave to pursue this program. I am also grateful for the assistance with proofreading provided by Miriam and Ms Annrita.
In addition, I wanted to express my deep appreciation to all older women and men who participated in this study. I am humbled by their warmth, openness, patience, humor and trust and count which have enabled this rich and enjoyable study. I would also like to express my gratitude to Village executive officers (VEO) in Pwani, Ward
executive officers (WEO) in Pwani, organizations for older people and Help age Tanzania and many other gatekeepers, for enabling an easy access to participants. I am also indebted to my fellow Tanzanians in Groningen: Zaina, Igulu, Zahor, Zubeda, Agustus, Jerome, Frank, Daniel, Anne, Mohamed, Zainab, Nyausi, Jokha, Karin, Kafwenji, Fabian,Noel, Deborah, Dr. Mackfallen and Dr. Idda and many others col-leagues from Tanzania, Uganda, Kenya, Rwanda, Ghana and Nigeria .
Last but certainly not least, I am grateful to my family in Tanzania. Dunstan, my Husband, you supported me wholeheartedly and cared for our children so lovingly while I was preoccupied with this project: thanks for your relentless encouragement, patience, understanding and love. To my children Rodney, Precious and Abagail: You have helped me to celebrate every step and accomplishment along the way. Thank you for your constant, devoted and now answered prayers for my success! This achievement is yours as much as is mine. I would also like to say massive heartfelt thanks to my Dad and Mom and my sisters and Brothers: Pendo, Joe Doreen, Rutta and Benjamin and all my in-laws, thank you for your kind support. My friends Joan, Advera, Koku, Candida and Elvira and to all those who supported my family in one way or the other during my absence, ASANTENI SANA! Mom, you have inspired me through my entire life. I have always looked up to you and admired you for who you are and for what you have achieved as a woman (of your generation). Thank you for your support, prayers and for always being my friend. Where I grew frustrated, your counselling skills worked—I always I recall you saying that “It gets darker before dawn”, thank you mom for being a pillar to me.
Sylivia Karen Rutagumirwa
Table of Contents
Chapter 1 Introduction 15
1.1 Situating the study 17
1.2 Background of the study 20
1.3 Gender and aging in the cultural context of Tanzania 21 1.4 Family, intergenerational support, and policy responses to
population aging in Tanzania
22
1.5 Research objective and thesis outline 23
1.6 Theoretical framework 25
1.7 Organization of thesis 28
Chapter 2 Study Population and Methodology and Methods 37
2.1 Introduction 39
2.2 Study Setting and population 39
2.3 Study design 41
2.4 Recruitment strategy and reflection 45
2.5 Data collection methods 48
2.6 Ethical Considerations 51
2.7 Data quality 52
2.8 Data analysis 53
2.9 Motivation for the current study and positionality 57
Chapter 3 “We Never Graduate from Caregiving Roles”: Cultural
Schemas for Intergenerational Care among Older women and men in Tanzania*
67
Abstract 68
3.1 Introduction 69
3.2 Intergenerational caregiving in Tanzania 70
3.3 Research goal 70
3.4 Caregiving and Cultural schema theory 71
3.5 Methods 73
3.6 Analyses 75
3.7 Results 76
3.8 Discussion 91
3.9 Conclusion 94
Chapter 4 ‘I have to listen to this old body’: Femininity and the aging body*
101
Abstract 102
4.1 Background 103
4.2 The Theoretical Framework 103
4.3 Methods 106
4.4 Analysis 107
4.5 Results 107
4.6 Discussion 112
4.7 Limitations and Future Directions 117
4.8 Conclusion 117
Chapter 5 “It’s all about being a woman”: Intersections of multiple
(dis)advantages experienced by older women*
123 Abstract 124 5.1 Introduction 125 5.2 Agency 126 5.3 Methods 128 5.4 Results 129 5.5 Discussion 138 5.6 Conclusion 142
5.7 Limitations and Future Directions 146
Chapter 6 “The Heart Desires but the Body Refuses”: Sexual Scripts,
Older Men’s Perceptions of Sexuality, and Implications for Their Mental and Sexual Health*
151
Abstract 152
6.1 Introduction 153
6.2 Method 157
6.3 Methods and Procedure 158
6.4 Research Positionality and Reflexivity 161
6.5 Validity 162
6.6 Analysis 163
6.7 Results 164
6.8 Discussion 174
6.9 Limitations, and Future Research 177
6.10 Practice Implications 177
Chapter 7 “I am just a man by name …” The Intersectionality of Age, Gender and Socio-Economic Status*
185 Abstract 186 7.1 Introduction 187 7.2 Theoretical framework 188 7.3 Methodology 191 7.4 Findings 194 7.5 Discussion 201 7.6 Conclusion 204
7.7 Limitation and future research 205
Chapter 8 Conclusion and Discussion 211
8.1 Introduction 213
8.2 Summary of main findings 213
8.3 Theoretical reflections 216
8.4 Reflections on methodology 219
8.5 Concluding remarks 220
8.6 Implications of the findings, recommendations for future research
221
Appendices 231
Appendix 1: Interview guides for older men 233
Appendix 2: Focus group discussion guides for older men 238
Appendix 3: Interview guides for older women 241
Appendix 4: Focus group discussion guides for older women 246
Summary / Samenvatting 249
Summary 251
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 2.1 Location of Pwani (Coastal Region) on Tanzania Mainland 40
Figure 2.2 procedures used in collecting and analyzing data 54
Figure 3.1 Internalization of cultural schemas 79
Figure 3.2 Motivation force for intergenerational caregiving 82
Figure 3.3 Care needed by older adults 85
Figure 4.1 Doing femininity with an old body (capital) 110
Figure 5.1 Older women’s structural dis(advantages and intersecting
identities across the life course
139
Figure 8.1 Cultural schemas, scripts and gender habitus that shape older
adults’ perceptions, experiences and meaning of old age
LIST OF TABLES
Table 2.1 Pwani Region: Total Population of older people by Age in Single
Years, Five Year Age Groups, Sex and Rural-Urban
42
Table 2.2 Profile of focus group participants—20 FGDs (n=120) 49
Table 2.3 Profile of participants interviewed (N=30) 50
Table 2.4 Themes and sub themes 56
Table 3.1 Profile of participant interviewed (N=30) 74
Table 3.2 Profile of focus group participants—20 FGDs (n=120) 75
Table 4.1 Feminine Habitus and Lived Experience of Femininity in Later Life 109
Table 5.1 Demographic characteristics of women selected for the case study 129
Table 5.2 The intersecting sources of (dis) advantages over life course 145
Table 6.1 Characteristics of participants who were interviewed 159
Table 6.2 Themes, descriptions, coding, and examples 166
Chapters included in this thesis are reprinted from the following publications and manuscript
Chapter 3
“We Never Graduate from Caregiving Roles”: Cultural Schemas for Intergenerational Care among Older women and men in Tanzania, (forthcoming) Journal of
Cross-Cultural Gerontology, Springer, publishers:
Chapter 4
“I Have to Listen to This Old Body”: Femininity and the Aging Body, The
Gerontolo-gist, 1, 10, doi.org/10.1093/geront/gnx161
Chapter 5
“Intersections of multiple (dis)advantages experienced by Tanzanian women’s across the life course (revised and submitted), Gender, Place & Culture ; A Journal of
Feminist Geography
Chapter 6
“The Heart Desires but the Body Refuses”: Sexual Scripts, Older Men’s Perceptions of Sexuality, and Implications for Their Mental and Sexual Health. Sex Roles, 1-16. DOI: 10.1007/s11199-017-0822-3
Chapter 7
“I am just a man by name …” The intersectionality of age, gender and socio-economic status (Submitted), a journal of men and masculinities
