Terrorism risk perceptions, thinking styles and the 2016 Paralympics

(1)

Master thesis

Written by: Mandy van Ravenswaay Student number: s2085895

Supervised by: Dr. Abbas

Master Crisis and Security Management Leiden University

13 January 2019 Word count: 17.923

(2)

1

Abstract

Terrorist attacks against citizens have become commonplace and mega-sporting events, such as the Olympic Games, have not been immune to terrorism (Spaaij, 2016). In the post 9/11 era, it is considered that mega-sporting events are vulnerable to terrorism because relevant events are portrayed by terrorist as legitimate targets (Atkinson & Young, in Spaaij, 2016). Nonetheless, it is worth considering that despite such threats visitors of mega-sporting events do not perceive terrorism as a threat to their safety (Toohey, Taylor & Lee, 2003; Toohey & Taylor, 2007). This study derived from an academic interest in elaborating what can explain for terrorism threat perceptions of visitors to mega-sporting events. Denovan, Dagnall, Drinkwater, Parker, & Clough (2017) suggest that rational-objective thinking best predicts terrorism risk perceptions. The current study aimed to test whether rational-objective thinking could also explain the terrorism threat perceptions of visitors of a particular mega-sporting event, namely, the 2016 Paralympics in Rio de Janeiro. Using interviews as a data collection method, it is concluded that terrorism threat perceptions were not developed according to principles of rational-objective thinking. Terrorism threat perceptions of the interviewed visitors to the 2016 Paralympics were low and developed according to the principles of emotional-subjective thinking. Ultimately, it was found that terrorism threat perceptions were acquired and build on the visitors’ associations between terrorism and other themes. The most striking association found was the link visitors made between terrorism and Europe, making one feel less vulnerable to terrorism is Brazil and subsequently during relevant event.

(3)

2

Chapter 1 Introduction

1.1 Terrorism and Mega-Sporting Events

Terrorist attacks against citizens have become an everyday occurrence across the world and are considered a major danger facing modern society (Ganor; Raviv, Sadan, Raviv, Silberstein & Diver, in Cohen-Louck, 2016). Mega-sporting events, such as the Olympic Games, have not been immune to terrorist attacks. Mega-sporting events provide a global stage that makes the Olympic Games attractive to terrorists, especially when terrorists’ aim is to maximise fear or to maximise publicity (Spaaij, 2016). It is apparent that terrorists do not target the

Olympics because of grievance against the Olympic movement, rather the host government or communities involved in the Olympics are targeted (Silke, in Spaaij, 2016). It can be said that the impact of terrorist attacks, such as the attack on the Munich Olympic Games in 1972, has had a lasting impact reaching beyond the event itself (Schiller & Young, in Spaaij, 2016). For instance, when the extremists killed athletes, coaches and a police officer, the impact reached further than the German society: in popular consciousness, terrorism and the Olympics were coupled (Cotrell, in Spaaij, 2016)

Likewise, alternative mega-sporting events to the Olympics are considered to be vulnerable to terrorist attacks and are currently portrayed by terrorists as a legitimate target, especially in the post 9/11 era (Atkinson & Young, in Spaaij, 2016). For instance, in a propagandist article published by Al Qaeda, it is stated that one of the most important targets in America and Western countries are the civilians in general. In addition, it is stated that targeting human crowds ‘’is very easy since there are numerous such targets, such as crowded sport arenas’’ (Wining on the Ground, 2012, p. 24). Besides Al Qaeda, the leader of the Caucasus Emirate, which was an insurgent group in Russia, stated on a website "We know that they want to hold the Olympics on the bones of our ancestors ‘’ and ‘’As Mujahideen, we are obliged to prevent this using any methods that Allah permits us" (Umarov, in Parfitt, 2013, p. 7; Spaaij, 2016). However, although the terrorism threat present during mega-sporting events is real, terrorist attacks are low-probability events. Therefore, it is said that mega-sporting event organisers should not overreact and spend excessive resources on counter terrorism security measures (Toohey & Taylor, 2008)

(6)

5

1.2 Public Perceptions of Terrorism

Despite the fact that the Olympic Games are portrayed as a potential target by terrorists, it is considered puzzling that attendees of the Olympics do not perceive terrorism as a significant threat to their safety (Toohey & Taylor & Lee, 2003; Toohey & Taylor, 2007). On the contrary, mega-sporting events are labelled as sites of resistance because visitors show resistance against the possibility of becoming a victim of terrorism by attending events (Toohey & Taylor, 2006). On the other hand, since Olympic-related terrorist attacks are low-probability events, perceptions of terrorism threat present during the Olympic Games can be explained through rational-objective thinking. Consistent with Denovan, Dagnall, Drinkwater, Parker, & Clough (2017), rational-objective thinking best predicts terrorism risk perceptions. The aim of this research is explanatory and it intends to investigate whether perceptions of terrorism threat among visitors of mega-sporting events can be explained by rational-objective thinking. Moreover, the study intends to test Denovan’s et al (2017) theory regarding whether rational-objective thinking best predicts perceptions of terrorism threat. The above mentioned consideration leads to the research question.

1.3 Research Question

The research question is constructed as follows: ‘’To what extent can rational-objective thinking explain Dutch visitors’ perceptions of terrorism threat present during the 2016 Paralympics?’’. In particular, the 2016 Paralympic Games versus the Olympic Games are focused on because of access to visitors of the 2016 Paralympics. Moreover, the Paralympic Games of 2016 fulfil the requirements of a mega-event in general (Müller, 2015). In addition, as suggested by Taylor & Toohey (2007), research on terrorism risk perceptions and mega-sporting events should be extended to a new location. Brazil, more specifically Rio de Janeiro, was the location of the Paralympics of 2016 and has not been subject to research earlier.

1.4 Academic and Societal Relevance

The study both has a considerable academic and societal relevance. From an academic perspective, this study aims to address a gap in knowledge. In a mega-sporting event context,

(7)

6 literature has mainly focused on the risks of hosting an event such as the Olympics and on risk perceptions of individuals attending the event. Moreover, the literature focused on the impact of risk perceptions on visitors’ enjoyment of the event and on how socio-demographic

variables might have effect individuals’ risk perceptions (Toohey, Taylor & Lee, 2003; Toohey & Taylor, 2007). Hence, still relatively little is known on the influence of thinking styles on relevant perceptions while it is acknowledged that an individual’s thinking style is an important factor. Moreover, the academic significance of this study can be found in its effort to test Denovan’s et al (2017) theory regarding the fact that rational-objective thinking best predicts terrorism risk perceptions. Therefore, this study aims to provide insights with regard to terrorism risk perceptions and rational-objective thinking. In addition, the theory will be applied to the context of mega-sporting events, which is relatively new and

unexplored.

The link between this research and Crisis and Security Management derives from the fact that terrorism has become a major danger facing society. Terrorism creates emotions such as fear, anxiety and a personal sense of insecurity subsequently influencing perceptions of risk regarding the probability of becoming a victim of terrorism (Cohen-Louck, 2016). This development creates the need to assess and understand how terrorism and thinking-styles influence risk perceptions and terrorism-related behaviour change of individuals.

From a societal perspective, it can be argued that understanding perceived risk of terrorism is relevant for host nations of mega-sporting events because it is stated that high-perceptions of terrorism risk keep spectators away from events (Cashman; Toohey & Taylor, in Toohey & Taylor, 2006). In addition, it is noted that sport tourists are most likely to avoid certain countries because of terrorism related concerns (Solberg & Preuss, in Toohey & Taylor, 2006). For example, the low crowd attendance of the 2002 Olympics has been partly

attributed to terrorism risk perceptions; although individuals that eventually attended the event did not perceive terrorism as a threat (Cashman; Pelley & Cowan, in Toohey & Taylor, 2007). It can be concluded that risk management of terrorism is of vital importance for host nations in terms of economic outcomes: a decline of sport tourism causes less economic outcome (Taylor & Toohey, 2007). Therefore, although visitors of mega-sporting events are assumed to show resistance against becoming a victim of terrorism (Taylor & Toohey, 2006), in terms of economic outcomes it is important for host-nations to better understand visitors’ terrorism risk perception to maintain crowd attendance.

(8)

7

1.5 Reading guide

The thesis is constructed as follows. First, in the introductory part, the research question is presented and the study’s academic and societal relevance are described. In chapter 2, the theoretical framework expands on the main concepts and theories of the study. The focus is on the concept risk perception and theories on thinking styles. The chapter intents to clarify the difference between two dominant thinking styles using Epstein’s Cognitive-Experiential theory: rational-objective thinking and emotional-subjective thinking. The third chapter elaborates on the study’s research design. Focused is on the overall design of the study, case selection and the operationalisation of the key concepts. Furthermore, the data collection method, sampling technique and data analysis method are described and issues with regard to the research design’s reliability and validity are discussed. In chapter 4, the research data is analysed. Finally, in chapter 5, the research question is answered, recommendations

(9)

8

Chapter 2 Theoretical framework

2.1 Terrorism

Terrorism is an old phenomenon but its contemporary demonstration was noticed first in 1881 with the anarchist group murdering Czar Alexander II in Russia. From that moment, terrorism has continued: however, its magnitude and frequency significantly increased in the 21st

century (Moten, 2010). Due to the rise of terrorism, academics increasingly study the impact of terrorism on the (sport) tourist industry. As stated by Paraskevas and Arendell (2007), the question is not whether terrorist will strike, rather how and when terrorists will. Both

terrorism and tourism takes place beyond national borders, include citizens of various nations, make use of communication technologies and are tightly linked with the media (Baker, in Adeloye & Brown, 2017). However, terrorist attacks are not always targeting tourists and the extent of the impact of terrorism on tourism varies from place to place and the force of the attack (Bassil, in Adeloye & Brown, 2017).

Although terrorism receives dramatically more attention, especially since the terrorist attacks on 11 September, no universal agreed definition on terrorism exists (Moten, 2010). As stated by Shafritz (in Moten, 2010), an agreed on definition on terrorism is not to be expected in the near future because definitions are influenced by political ideology, location and perspective. According to the United Nations (UN), terrorism is defined as,

‘’.. any harmful action that intended to cause death and serious damage to human body or non-combatants, when the purpose of such an act, by its nature or context, is to intimidate a population or to compel a government or an international organisation to do or to abstain from doing any act ’’(United Nations Secretary-General, 2005, p. 7). The British government defines terrorism as,

‘’.. the use or threat of action, both in and outside of the UK, designed to influence any international government organisation or to intimidate the public. It must also be for the purpose of advancing a political, religious, racial or ideological cause’’ (Government UK, n.d., p.1).

(10)

9 Additionally, Europol considers terrorism as the attempt to achieve political goals with the use or the threat of violence and classifies terrorism into various types: ethnonationalist and separatist, Islamic, left-wing, anarchist, right wing, and single-issue terrorism (Europol, 2009).

Hoffman suggests that many people have a vague idea on what terrorism is and lack an explanatory definition of the concept. This impression, according to Hoffman, is among other things a result of the media who labels a variety of violent acts as ‘’terrorism’’. It is suggested that terrorism is a political term and inherently related to power: either the pursuit of power, acquisition of power or the use of power to achieve political goals. Furthermore, Hoffman suggest that terrorism implies violence or the threat of violence, is designed to have far reaching psychological effect (beyond the immediate victim(s)), is conducted by either an organisation or individuals motivated by ideological aims and perpetrated by a subnational group (2006, p. 40).

2.2 Risk Perception

Risk can be defined as a danger that an individual wants to actively identify, confront and control (Giddens, in Toohey & Taylor, 2008). Furthermore, risk perception can also be conceptualised as the uncertainty and negative consequences a person perceives when purchasing a product or a service or when executing a certain activity (George, in George & Swart, 2015). Frosdick (in Toohey & Taylor, 2008) states that the modern concept of risk dates back to the 17th_{century and grew from the study of probabilities associated with}

gambling. Eventually, risk assessment became a foundation of maritime insurance as it became incorporated into the study of economics and subsequently risk has become mainly associated with how to avoid genuine or perceived hazards. Durodié (2004, p. 14) states:

“.. in recent times the concept of risk itself has gradually altered from one that captured possibility and engagement in the active sense of ‘taking a risk’, to one that increasingly reflects a growing sense of doom and distance from events, as evidenced in growing reference to the passive phrase of ‘being at risk.’ Risk used to be a verb. Now it has become a noun‘’

(11)

10 Risk perception plays a fundamental role in an individual’s decision regarding how to deal and adjust. It refers to both a person’s attitude toward and intuitive judgements about risk (Schütz, Wiedemann & Gray, in Cohen-Louck, 2016). Therefore, risk perception has

consequences for a person’s feelings and behaviours that must be taken into consideration in risk-management frameworks (Lemyre et al, in Cohen-Louck, 2016). For instance, based on a study on preventive behaviour, it was concluded that Americans’ perceived threat of being hurt by a terrorist attack was related to increased anxiety and preventive reactions (Lerner, Gonzalez, Small, & Fischhoff, 2003). In addition, Toohey & Taylor demonstrate that terrorist actions or perceived threat of such activities can be a reason for tourists to alter their travel behaviour (in Taylor & Toohey, 2008).

Vital elements of risk perceptions both include perception of control and perception of vulnerability. For instance, in a study by Lerner, Gonzalez, Small, & Fischhoff, external threats that were perceived as uncontrollable lead to a strong sense of weakness and fear (2003). Perception of vulnerability is partly influenced by perception of control and refers to an individual’s belief of becoming a victim of a particular threat. In the specific context of terrorism, perception of vulnerability is one of the key variables related to people’s

motivations and intentions. Therefore, it is important to understand people’s manners of trying to protect themselves and the ways vulnerability is perceived (Kirschenbaum; Klar et al, in Cohen-Louck, 2016).

Although multiple factors are assumed to influence risk perceptions, the role of the media in shaping people’s risk perceptions has been highlighted in particular (Adeloye & Brown, 2017). As a result of technological developments, news can been circulated and accessed around the globe in a matter of minutes (Kapuscinski; Seabra et al, in Adeloye & Brown, 2017). Moreover, it is argued that the media is the vital source people rely on for obtaining information as a result of the media’s use of emotional appeals, vivid images and victim’s stories (Kapuscinski, Adeloye & Brown, 2017). It is subsequently argued that the media amplifies perceived risk influencing individuals’ risk perception of a certain destination or event (Beirman; Huang & Min; Wåhlberg & Sjöberg; Wolff & Larsen, in Adeloye & Brown, 2017). For instance, an experimental study exposed two groups of people with different media frames concerning the magnitude of terrorism: one amplified the risk while the other media frame attenuated the risk. Statistically significant differences were found in the perceived risk of terrorism between both groups (Kapuscinski, 2014). The majority of the literature agrees on the fact that the media plays a fundamental role in influencing risk perceptions.

(12)

11 Nonetheless, it is also acknowledged that individuals’ risk perceptions vary and that the influence of the media on risk perceptions varies as well (Morakabati, in Adeloye & Brown, 2017).

2.3 The Role of Thinking Styles on Risk Perception

It is argued that an individual’s thinking style is of significant importance regarding risk perception and behaviour change. Two extensively researched thinking styles include the objective-rational style and the subjective-intuitive style. The former implies logic and probability to guide opinion outcomes while the latter suggests intuition and affective appraisal of situations (Denovan et al, 2017).

Epstein introduced the cognitive-experiential theory (CET) in 1973 and the theory’s fundamental assumption is that all humans make use of earlier indicated information processing systems, an experiential- and a rational system. The experiential system has two fundamental components: content (implicit beliefs that are automatically acquired by

associative leaning) and process (the system operates based on well-established principles of associative learning). Mostly without individuals knowing, the experiential system influences interpretations regarding events, feelings and behaviour. However, according to Epstein’s CET theory, the rational system operates according to an individual’s understanding of logic and the analysis of evidence. Rational people are most likely to be recognised in terms of solving problems using logic and evidence, thinking in possibilities, making logical inferences that go beyond immediate facts and trying to be internally consistent (Epstein, 2014).

2.3.1 The Experiential System

As stated previously, the experiential system is considered an automatic, associative learning system. Epstein suggests that three types of such learning exist, all of which operate according to similar principles: classical conditioning (focuses on associations between stimuli and each other), operant conditioning (implies relations among stimuli and each other, responses and outcomes that follow) and observational conditioning (one accomplishes both of these other kinds of learning through observations). The principles include contiguity, association, generalisation and reinforcement. The primary purpose of the experiential learning system is

(13)

12 to promote adaption by developing a working model of an individual’s environment and its behaviour in it. The CET refers to the construct of a working model as the ‘’theory of reality’’ and suggests that the theory allows humans to adapt to their environments (Epstein, 2014). Stanovich (2011) refers to the experiential system as a quick solution that is a first

approximation to an optimal response. An advantage of this way of processing is considered to be the fact that using less computational capacity for one task means that there is more capacity left for another task. On the other hand, the bias to rely on the simplest cognitive mechanism, or to be a cognitive miser, implies that humans are frequently less than rational. Modern societies are referred to as hostile environments for individuals that rely on shallow processing because market-based societies are designed to exploit these tendencies, such as advertising agencies impeding people from achieving their goals.

2.3.2 The Rational System

In Epstein’s CET theory, rationality is conceptualised as reasoning according to logical principles. However, CET makes no implications about whether rational reasoning is always the best way to solve an issue or not. It is suggested that some problems require holistic impressions versus solely rational analysis and that deliberative processing may sometimes be too inefficient and impractical. Furthermore, Epstein’s CET states that rationality is often influenced by the experiential learning system causing human irrationality (Epstein, 2014). In addition, Stanovich (2011) also emphasis the fact that mental shortcuts are not always wrong. On the contrary, heuristic processing is quite useful. Nonetheless, the dangers of heuristics in modern society are also highlighted. For instance, when one is over-reliant on heuristic processing personal autonomy will get lost. Those who can create the stimuli to trigger automatic processing tendencies can then determine individuals’ actions.

2.3.3 Comparison of the Attributes of Experiential and Rational Processing

Based on a variety of observations, Epstein (2014) noted characteristics of both learning systems and established a list of attributes of both learning systems as stated in Table 1.

(14)

13

Experiential System Rational system

1. Solves problems by what was automatically learned from experience

Solves problems by conscious reasoning

2. Nonverbal: encodes information in images Verbal: encodes information in words 3. Pursues what feels good and avoids what feels

bad

Motivated by what is logical and accurate

4. Emotional Affect-free

5. Associative connections between stimuli, responses & outcomes

Cause- & Effect relations 6. Behaviour mediated by automatic representations

of events and feelings

Mediated by conscious appraisal of events

7. Holistic Analytic

8. Effortless & minimally demanding of cognitive resources

Effortful & demanding of cognitive resources

9. Rapid processing: oriented toward immediate action

Slower processing, long-delayed actions

10. Resistant to change Can change with speed of thought

11. More crudely differentiated More highly nuanced

12. More crudely integrated: context-specific; organized by cognitive-affective networks

Organised by context-general principles 13. Experienced passively and reconsciously Experiences actively and consciously

14. Experiencing is believing Requires validation by logic

Table 1 - Comparison of the attributes of experiential processing and rational processing (Epstein, 2014, p. 12)

The most important difference between the experiential- and rational system is that the experiential system operates automatically while the rational system is a verbal reasoning system. It is considered that all other differences, as stated in Table 1, follow from this fundamental difference. For instance, automatic associative learning explains why the main motive of the experiential system operates according to the hedonic principle because reinforcement by affect is primary for associative learning. Moreover, considering the fact that the experiential system is similar to the learning system of animals, it makes sense that it is a nonverbal system that analyses situations in images (Epstein, 2014).

On the other hand, the fact that the rational system is mainly a verbal reasoning system can explain why the rational system operates by the reality principle: obtaining logical solutions is the objective of reasoning. Due to reasoning, humans are capable of analysing events, creating

(15)

14 long time perspectives, making nuanced decisions and questioning validity of the impressions (Epstein, 2014).

From a broader risk perception perspective, supported by current theories, it is stated that people need to perceive themselves at risk in order to motivate rational thinking (Armitage & Conner; Renner & Schwarzer, in Schmälzle, Schupp, Barth & Renner, 2011). For instance, in the context of HIV risk, an empirical study suggests that one relies on impressions obtained on their sex partner instead of objective risk protection strategies. Moreover, it is concluded that whenever one is alarmed by his or her intuition regarding a potential risky partner, people start reflecting on HIV risk rationally (Schmälzle, Schupp, Barth & Renner, 2011).

2.3.4. The Rational-Experiential Inventory

Epstein, Pacini, Denes-Raj and Heier (1996) developed a coherent, workable scale to measure both thinking-styles based on Epstein’s CET theory, referred to as the Rational-Experiential Inventory (REI). The critical issue in developing the REI was whether the items should be established as a bimodal (I am more of a thinking type than a feeling type) or as a unimodal (I trust my intuition and I enjoy complex problems). As proposed by CET, the scale was

developed including two unipolar dimensions corresponding with rational- and emotional thinking. Items measuring rational thinking originate from the Need for Cognition scale (NFC) and include questions on whether an individual enjoys engagement in cognitive activities. Epstein et al (1996) developed the latter scale over several years as measures of experiential thinking.

Despite recognition of earlier indicated thinking-styles, the differentiation between rational-objective and intuitive judgements is largely unexplored. An empirical study aiming to disentangle perceived likelihood construction related to perceived risk cancer researched whether behavioural decision-making was mainly guided by cognitive or affective probability beliefs. Consistent with earlier studies suggesting that affective risk judgements are strong predictors of health behaviour, the study concluded that affective likelihood was associated with quitting smoking, quitting using sunbeds and current fruit consumption (Janssen, Osch, Lechner, Candel & de Vries, 2012).

(16)

15

2.4 Risk Perception Terrorism

Terrorism risk perception refers to an individual’s perception of a possible terrorist threat or the risk regarding becoming a victim of terrorism (Taylor & Toohey, 2007; Cohen-Louck, 2016). According to Cohen-Louck (2016), terrorism risk perception consists of three components: perception of control, perception of vulnerability and perception of fear. First, perception of control refers to a person’s feeling of control over the threat of terrorism. Earlier empirical studies suggest that when a person feels lack of control over a threat, it could lead to paralysing anxiety (Lerner, Gonzalez, Small, & Fischhoff, 2003). Second, perception of vulnerability means the extent to which an individual feels at risk and perceives the likelihood of becoming a terrorism victim (Fischhoff et al; Weinstein, in Cohen-Louck, 2016). It is noted that it is vital to understand how individuals perceive vulnerability to terrorism risk because it is assumed that a person’s sense of vulnerability is related to motivations, intentions and behaviour of reducing vulnerability (Kirschenbaum; Klar et al, in Cohen-Louck, 2016). Third, perception of fear includes feelings of anxiety, stress or a sense of real danger with regard to terrorism (Cohen-Louck, 2016).

Although it is suggested that fear of terrorism is irrational because the probability that a tourist gets involved in an incident is minimal, regardless whether the threat is real or perceived, physical threats have influenced tourists during the process of purchasing and consuming travel services (Sönmez & Graefe; Seabra, Abrantes, & Kastenholz, in Adeloye & Brown, 2017). Solely one empirical study has focused on terrorism risk perception in relation with thinking style, concluding that rational-objective thinking best predicts terrorism risk perception while emotional-intuitive best predicts terrorism-related behaviour change (Denovan et al, 2017).

2.5 Risk Perception Terrorism and Mega-Sporting Events

Literature on terrorism risk perception in the context of mega-sporting events is limited. Mega events can be defined as ‘’ ambulatory occasions of a fixed duration that attract a large

number of visitors, have a large mediated reach, come with large costs and have large impacts on the built environment and the population’’ (Müller, 2015, p. 638). Research indicates that a relationship exists between crime risk and mega-sporting events and that the threat of

(17)

16 terrorism has been in particular a concern to Olympic Games’ host nations (George & Swart; Gold & Gold; Toohey & Taylor, in George & Swart, 2015). For instance, Cashman states that perceived terrorism risk affects the attendance of visitors at sport events and that terrorism concerns increases the likelihood that sport tourists will avoid a destination as a whole (Cashman; Solberg & Preuss, in George & Swart, 2015).

Taylor & Toohey (2007) found, based on a study on visitors’ perception of terrorism threat during the 2004 Olympic Games in Athens, that terrorism was not considered a significant threat to the visitors’ safety. In a similar vein, based on a study on visitors of the 2002 FIFA World Cup, the majority did not perceive terrorism as a threat (Toohey, Taylor & Lee, 2003). The group who perceived terrorism as a threat was asked why they still choose to attend the event despite their feelings of insecurity. Four different responses were identified and grouped into four categories. The first category was described as ‘’Deviants’’, implying that the

visitors indicated that he or she did not want to live in fear or put his or her life on hold. The second category was referred to as ‘’Precautionaries’’, implying that the visitors trusted taken security measures. The third category was ‘’Blind Devotees’’ which is the group of visitors that liked the Olympics and did not want to miss it. The fourth category identified was

‘’Indifferents’’, the group of visitors who indicated that he or she could die anywhere (Toohey & Taylor, 2008).

Since few empirical data on perceptions of terrorism threat among visitors of mega-sporting events is provided and the role of thinking styles is ignored, the aim of this study is to address the gap in knowledge and to extent and further research terrorism risk perceptions and

thinking-styles. The study intents to extend research to a new mega-sporting event (the 2016 Paralympic Games) in a different location (Rio de Janeiro) to provide a more expansive body of data and knowledge as suggested by Toohey & Taylor (2007). Besides studying the perceptions of risk of terrorism among visitors of the 2016 Paralympics, the study aims to investigate to what extent visitors’ perception of terrorism threat can be explained by rational-objective thinking. The research intents to test Donavan’s et al statement regarding the fact that rational-objective thinking best predicts risk perceptions (2017). The research question is constructed as follows: ‘’To what extent can rational-objective thinking explain Dutch visitors’ perception of terrorism threat present during 2016 Paralympic Games?’’.

(18)

17

Chapter 3 Research Design & Methodology

3.1 Research Methods

3.1.1 Research Design and Case Selection

The purpose of the study was explanatory. It intended to answer to what extent

rational-objective thinking can explain Dutch visitors’ perception of terrorism threat present during the 2016 Paralympics. Denovan’s et al theory suggesting that rational-objective thinking best predicts risk perceptions was tested. The goal was to understand a particular case and to obtain data in order to explore what the terrorism risk perceptions of the visitors were and whether these terrorism risk perceptions could be explained by rational-objective thinking. In light of the research objectives, a non-experimental research design was considered appropriate because the aim of the research was to detect a causal relationship between terrorism risk perceptions and rational-objective thinking during an event in the past.

Although experimental research and large-N analyses are considered to offer the strongest test of causal relationships, non-experimental research is better suited to tackle retrospective accounts (Toshkov, 2016). Moreover, because the research objective was to understand to what extent rational-objective thinking can explain the terrorism risk perceptions in a particular case it is argued that an observational research design was most appropriate (Neuman, 2014).

It is further argued that a single case study best corresponds with the research objectives: a case study offers the opportunity to obtain knowledge on a single case and it offers the opportunity to well explain cases versus solely suiting exploratory or descriptive purposes (Yin, 2003). Moreover, single case studies provide the opportunity to focus on one outcome variable and one main explanatory variable (Toshkov, 2016). In correspondence with the research objectives, a single case study was used to answer the research question because of its relevance, usefulness and appropriateness.

The Paralympic Games of 2016 were chosen as a case study because it is universally referred to as a mega-sporting event and it fulfils the requirements of a mega event in general. That is, the event has a fixed duration, attracts large numbers of people, has a large mediated reach,

(19)

18 comes with large costs and has a significant impact on the built environment and population (Müller, 2015). Moreover, as suggested by Toohey and Taylor, research should be extended by studying mega-sporting events in a new location (2007). The Paralympic Games of 2016 was both a mega-sporting event and was held in Rio de Janeiro, fulfilling Toohey & Taylor’s requirements because Brazil has not been subject to research earlier. Additionally, the 2016 Paralympics was a relatively recent case and therefore provided relevant data. Finally, focused was on the Paralympic Games versus the Olympic Games because access was provided to visitors of the 2016 Paralympic Games. The Hague University of Applied Sciences went to the Paralympic Games in 2016 and relationships were already maintained with relevant faculty, providing access to respondents. In addition, solely was focused on Dutch visitors because in terms of limited time and resources it was expected to have primary access to Dutch visitors of the 2016 Paralympics.

3.1.2 Data Collection

In order to obtain relevant data, the data collection method used was face-to-face interviews with Dutch visitors of the 2016 Paralympics, in particular the survey interview versus the field-interview because it best corresponded with the research objectives. The interviewing method is considered a flexible data collection method to obtain in-depth knowledge

compared to surveys because what lies behind the respondents’ answers can be investigated (Gillham, 2005). The survey-interview has a clear beginning and end, the same questions are asked to all the respondents, the interviews are done with one respondent alone and the social context in which the interview is conducted is ignored. The interviews were semi-structured in order to make sure that the most fundamental questions were answered by all respondents while at the same time respondents were allowed to freely express their thoughts. In addition, respondents were allowed to touch on to the next question, however, when the interview went astray too much the researcher intervened. Moreover, open-ended questions were asked because it allowed the researcher to engage with the respondents naturally and fully in conversation (Daymon & Holloway, in Adeloye & Brown, 2017). The interviews were held in Dutch and recorded, however, in order for both supervisors to be able to consult the interview data, the interviews were transcribed in English. As a result, it was not possible to write down literally what the respondents said in the transcripts because sentences would not make sense without adjustments. Nonetheless, the researcher carefully translated the

(20)

19 interviews and made sure the meaning of what the respondents said did not get lost in the translation process.

The aim was to conduct ten interviews, conforming to the contemporary qualitative research guidance (Altinay & Paraskevas, Jones, Brown, & Holloway, in Adeloye & Brown, 2017). Nonetheless, due to limited time and resources and taking into consideration feasibility, it was decided to conduct six interviews. Small samples can provide valuable data because saturation with regard to few concepts can be achieved. The answers given by the respondents can produce repeated, similar answers producing ground for making theoretical inferences.

3.1.3 Sampling

Since the objective of the research was not to generalise results to a wider population for which probability sampling is mostly accurate, samples were selected using a non-probability technique (Neuman, 2014). Moreover, the non-probability technique best suited the research because it allowed for selecting respondents based on access and availability, which is highly relevant considering limited time and resources. More specifically, snowball sampling or also referred to as respondent-driven sampling was used (Neuman, 2014). One or a few students from the Hague University of Applied sciences who went to the Paralympic Games in 2016 were approached. Moreover, a message was post in a Facebook group of the Paralympic Games in which was asked for respondents for the research. Subsequently, the respondents that reached out were asked if other Dutch visitors of the 2016 Paralympic Games were known and whether these visitors could be brought into contact with the researcher. Multiple visitors of the 2016 Paralympics were interested in participating in the research. However, as the researcher preferred face-to-face interviews versus Skype interviews, the respondents selected were the ones living in The Hague or surrounding areas, which is the place of residency of the researcher. The conducted interviews were held in different locations based on the preference of the respondent; however, all interviews were conducted in quiet places without the presence of other people.

3.1.4 Method of Data Analysis

Data obtained from the interviews with visitors of the 2016 Paralympics were analysed

following five stages. First, the interviews were transcribed in English. Second, the interviews were read multiple times in order to become familiar with the obtained data. Third, each

(21)

20 interview was subject to a process of coding, implying that data was marked and labelled into discrete chunks so that the mass of data gathered became manageable (Jones, Brown & Holloway, in Adeloye & Brown, 2017). More specifically, labels were assigned to sentences or paragraphs that were connected to a specific themes (Miles & Huberman, in De Cuir-Gunby, Marshall & McCulloch, 2011). Coding was used as method of data analyses as it is argued that through applying codes connections can be made between concepts. Moreover, coding allows the researcher to examine to what extent obtained data supports or contradicts a certain theory relevant for current research (De Cuir-Gunby, Marshall & McCulloch, 2011). Both theory-driven and data-driven codes were developed. Whereas theory-driven codes emerged from theory and concepts, data driven codes emerged from raw interview data. Finally, based on the produced codes, a process of categorisation took place whereby codes were organised in conceptual themes. The ‘’Coding Manuel for Qualitative Researchers’’’ was used as a guidance (Saldaña, 2009) as well as De Cuir-Gunby, Marshall & McCulloch’s (2011) article on the development of a codebook and the knowledge obtained during method lab ‘’interviews’’ at Leiden University.

As it is stated that the development of a codebook is vital for analysing qualitative data, a codebook including categories, codes, sub-codes, descriptions and examples was established to help analyse obtained interview data. The development of the codebook was an iterative process as it was revised multiple times due to the fact that the researcher obtained clearer insights about relevant data (De Cuir-Gunby, Marshall & McCulloch, 2011). Subsequently, the codebook was used for documenting the interview results and structuring the analyses. The full interview transcripts were included in the appendix.

3.2 Operationalisation of Concepts

3.2.1. Operationalisation of Perception of Terrorism Threat

In order to measure perception of terrorism threat, the concept was operationalised in accordance with the conceptual definition of the study. Terrorism risk perception implies an individual’s perception of a possible terrorist threat or the risk regarding becoming a victim of terrorism (Taylor & Toohey, 2007; Cohen-Louck, 2016). The model ‘’The Perception of Threat of Terrorism’’ developed by Cohen-Louck (2016) was used as a measurement instrument. As stated in the theoretical framework, the model suggests that perception of

(22)

21 terrorism threat consists of three components: perception of control, perception of

vulnerability and perception of fear for terrorism. In order to measure perceptions of terrorism threat of visitors of the 2016 Paralympics, the components were operationalised as illustrated in Table 2. The measurement indicators were derived from earlier indicated study on

terrorism risk perceptions using interviews, therefore, the indicators guarantee face validity (Cohen-Louck, 2016). The first column demonstrates indicators of each component of perception of terrorism threat. The second column indicates how and from what source the data was derived.

Indicators of the concept ‘’Perception of terrorism threat’’

Sources

Indicators of perception of control: Control/lack of control over the threat – unavoidable/avoidable - it can happen everywhere/it cannot happen everywhere –

helplessness/powerful

Interviews: referred to a statement made by the visitor on the visitor’s feeling of control over the terrorism threat with regard to the 2016 Paralympics

Indicators of perception of vulnerability: potential victimisation - real danger/no real danger

Interviews: referred to a statement made by the visitor on the visitor’s feeling of potential victimisation of a terrorist attack or the visitor’s perception of the presence of a real terrorist threat with regard to the 2016

Paralympics Indicators of perception of fear for terrorism: feelings of

fear/no fear - feeling of loss of security/no loss of security – disquiet/quiet – stress/no stress

Interviews: referred to a statement made by the visitor on the visitor’s feeling of fear related to terrorism with regard to the 2016 Paralympics

Table 2 – Indicators of perceptions of terrorism threat (Cohen-Louck, 2016)

3.2.2. Operationalisation of Rational-objective Thinking

Despite the fact that many studies have provided important information on rational-objective thinking and emotional-intuitive thinking, no standard set of indicators could be used to measure both thinking-styles using interviews. However, based on Epstein’s CET theory (2014) and Epstein, Pacini, Denes-Raj, Heier & Russel’s (1996) REI scalein which attributes and characteristics of both styles are broadly described and indicated, both thinking-styles could be distilled into measureable indicators and could be applied to the 2016

Paralympic Games to test whether rational-objective can explain for terrorism risk perceptions.

As stated in the theoretical framework, the conceptual definition of rational-objective thinking in this study implies logic and probability to direct decision and opinion outcomes, while on the contrary emotional-subjective thinking implies intuition and appraisal of experiences

(23)

22 (Epstein, 2014). The indicators in Table 3 were used to measure whether respondents’

terrorism risk perceptions present during the 2016 Paralympics were developed rationally or emotionally and were derived from Epstein’s CEP (Epstein, 2014).

Indicators of the concept ‘’rational thinking’’ Sources

Conscious reasoning Interviews: referred to a statement made by the visitor

implying that the visitor’s terrorism risk perceptions present during the 2016 Paralympic Games were based on conscious reasoning

Affect-free Interviews: referred to a statement made by the visitor

implying that the visitor’s terrorism risk perceptions present during the 2016 Paralympic Games were not influenced by emotions

Analytic Interviews: referred to a statement made by visitor

implying that the visitor’s terrorism risk perceptions present during the 2016 Paralympic Games were carefully and deliberately developed

Effortful and demanding of cognitive resources Interviews: referred to a statement made by the visitor indicating that the visitor made an effort/demanded cognitive resources to develop terrorism risk perceptions present during the 2016 Paralympic Games

Table 3 – Indicators of rational-objective thinking (Epstein, 2014, p. 12)

Although Epstein’s REI was not fully relevant and applicable in this study as the study’s aim is not to research individuals’ characteristics, elements of the REI were used because this scale properly presents indicators of both thinking-styles. For instance, from the item‘’ I usually have clear, explainable reasons for my decisions’’, ‘’clear, explainable reasons’’ was used as an indicator for rational-objective thinking (Epstein, Pacini, Denes-Raj, Heier & Russel, 1996, p. 394). Besides earlier mentioned indicator, the remaining indicators the REI provided are similar to Epstein’s CEP and previously introduced. The remaining others include thinking carefully, no reliance on feelings and hard thinking.

As this study aimed to investigate whether rational-objective thinking can explain for

terrorism risk perceptions present during the 2016 Paralympics, it was acknowledged that it is of vital importance to be aware on indicators for emotional-subjective thinking. In a similar vein as the previous concept, indicators of emotional-subjective thinking were derived from Epstein’s CEP.

(24)

23

Table 4- Indicators of emotional-subjective thinking (Epstein, 2014, p. 12)

The REI does not present new indicators of emotional-subjective thinking, however, the REI confirms earlier demonstrated indicators including effortless (indicated as ‘’little thought’’) and pursuing what feels good (indicated as ‘’gut feeling’’).

3.3 Reliability and Validity

Both validity and reliability are central concerns in all measurements. The first suggest truthfulness while the latter implies dependability or consistency (Neuman, 2014). The following paragraph will assess the research design’s reliability and validity.

Measurement validity refers to the validity of the indicators used for certain definitions and purposes. The better the conceptual- and operational definition correspond, the higher the measurement validity. Although one cannot have absolute confidence in an indicator’s validity, some indicators are more valid than others (Neuman, 2014). It is considered that the indicators used for the key concepts of current study are satisfactory valid because the

indicators are retrieved from earlier scientific studies and combined and contextualised to the framework of current study. It can be stated that through measurement validity, the fact that the study measured what was intended to measure, the research’s internal validity is

enhanced.

Indicators of the concept ‘’emotional-subjective thinking’’

Sources

Automatic processing Interviews: referred to a statement made by the visitor

implying that the visitor did not consciously consider terrorism risk perceptions present during the 2016 Paralympic Games but that it was rather automatically developed

Pursues what feels good Interviews: referred to a statement made by the visitor

implying that the visitor’s terrorism risk perceptions present during the 2016 Paralympic Games were based on what feels good or what feels bad

Effortless Interviews: indicated that the visitor did not make an

effort/minimally demanded cognitive resources to develop terrorism risk perceptions present during the 2016 Paralympic Games

Associative connections Interviews: referred to a statement made by the visitor

which implies associative connections between terrorism and or other ideas/things influencing the visitor’s terrorism risk perception present during the 2016 Paralympic Games

(25)

24 Furthermore, internal validity refers to whether the researcher made an error internal to the design resulting in false conclusions (Neuman, 2014). Key to internal validity was the fact that interviews were used as data collection method suggesting a potential validity issue. The interviews were focused on obtaining a truthful idea on the respondents’ terrorism threat perceptions present during the 2016 Paralympics and how such perceptions developed. However, the answers given by the respondents could have been inaccurate due to the fact that concerning event took place two years before the interviews were conducted. As a result of flaws of memory and difficulty to recall the past, data obtained might have been different than the actual truth. Nonetheless, this issue was largely addressed through explicitly telling the respondents that enough time was going to be provided to recall the respondent’s thoughts and emotions. This approach turned out to be effective because as the interview went along it was experienced that the respondents could more and more recall relevant thoughts and emotions.

In addition, internal validity is affected by the method of data analyses. It should be noted that while analysing interviews, it is inevitable that the researcher makes interpretive constructions of what the respondents have said (Gillham, 2005). Although careful attention was paid to reflecting on interview transcripts and specifying evidence for made inferences, it is

acknowledged that not merely the interviewees constructed themselves but also the researcher made subjective constructions (Gillham, 2005).

Besides, with regard to external validity, it should be taking into account that the sample of the current study does not create a representative sample of the population. Due to limited time and resources, a non-probability sampling technique was used which makes it

improbable to generalise the research findings beyond this specific study (Neuman, 2014). On the other hand, the aim of this research was to test Denovan’s et al (2017) theory regarding the fact the rational-objective thinking best predicts terrorism risk perceptions, for which the above mentioned sample is appropriate. The sample allowed for testing the earlier mentioned theory by applying it to a specific case and by using a specific sample.

Finally, reliability implies the fact that the interview results would have produced the same outcome than would another data collection method be used or if the data is obtained in another period of time. Due to limited time and resources, the researcher was not able to perform triangulation, which is assumed to produce rich and comprehensive data (Neuman, 2014). On the other hand, it is considered that the study’s reliability was enhanced because of saturation with regard to few concepts, implying that no new relevant data is found even if

(26)

25 interviewing more people (Galvin, 2015). The interviews produced repeated, similar answers to questions and identical codes producing ground for making theoretical inferences.

(27)

26

Chapter 4 Analyses

4.1 Interviewee characteristics

In this section the characteristics of the interviewees will be briefly described in order to be informed on the interviewees’ backgrounds. All of this information was obtained through the interviews during which the respondents introduced themselves or through earlier

e-mail/WhatsApp correspondence before the meeting.

Four interviewees are female, two are male and the interviewees are between 23 and 28 years old. All interviewees currently live in The Hague or surrounding areas and either participated in the bachelor programme Sport Management or Physical Education at The Hague

University of Applied Sciences in The Hague. Five interviewees graduated in recent years, one of them quitted in the final year and is currently following an education at the Police Academy in The Hague. Four graduates currently have a job related to their education, ranging from personal trainer at a local fitness club to project employee for the

Koningsspelen. In addition, all interviewees joined a study trip to the 2016 Paralympics organised by The Hague University of Applied Sciences. Half of the interviewees were applicants for study trip while the other half were organisers of the trip and subsequently supervisors during the trip.

4.1.1. Interviewees’ Motivation to Join the Study Trip

The interviewees mentioned various reasons for joining the study trip to the 2016

Paralympics. All respondents mentioned that they would have also joined the trip if it would have been to the Olympic Games. Féline mentioned having a particular interest for disabled people because the respondent earlier did an internship during which she worked with this particular audience. Jack stated that he expected the Paralympics to be more spectacular because disabled top sport stars are less seen. Another motivation to join the study trip to the 2016 Paralympics was the fact that the Games were held in another country. One interviewee mentioned that her primary motivation to join the trip was the fact that she has never been so far away from home before. In addition, an interviewee stated that joining a study trip with as

(28)

27 destination Brazil is a chance that should be taken. Moreover, Janine mentioned that her motivation to join the study trip was the fact that it would be her last study related activity and that it would be a symbolic end to her study life. Finally, one interviewee mentioned the fact that joining a study trip is a learning experience.

4.2 General Security Concerns

4.2.1 Outside of the Stadium

Four interviewees mentioned not feeling safe outside of the Olympic platform, in particular with regard to robberies. One of them mentioned:

‘’ Eh.. Unsafe. Yes.. Unsafe.. On a scale of one to ten.. In particular when I just arrived, an eight... I was very tense because before I left for Brazil people came to me and said ‘’What! Are you going to Brazil? There are many robberies and shootings..’’ [Féline]

The respondent stated that she got worried due to concerns raised by people in her

environment. Three other respondents also mentioned robberies as the main security concern. Janine mentioned that she could strongly remember that she was alert on people approaching her to steal something. The reason why she was scared was the fact that she knew that the occurrence of robberies in Brazil is significantly high. With regard to what the respondent’s major security concerns were, Danique responded: ‘’Eh.. That people would get robbed.. with weapons.. That people want something from you.. Would harm you.. ‘’. It was stated that she was among other things concerned with robberies because of the traveling advice warning for robberies. In a similar vein, Luca stated:

‘’We contacted advisory agencies and that was the issue talked about.. We also spoke to someone who just went to the football event and once again it was purely about security in relation to robberies and stuff.. Eh.. We also had information sessions from that friend of mine.. It was also about what you do with your mobile phone, where you put your money, whether you have to carry a fake wallet with you.. It was focused on such issues..’’

[Luca]

In contrast to earlier indicated interviewees, Roelie mentioned that she was not in particular concerned about robberies because she can get robbed everywhere:

(29)

28 ‘’Or robberies.. I did not think about it.. You just know you have to watch your bag but besides that I did not consider it.. Not specifically at least.. It can also happen here and I always pay attention to it..’’

[Roelie]

In addition, Jack mentioned to not worry about robberies for the same reason as Roelie:‘’ We were just warned to be alert for pickpockets but whether you walk here or there, you always have to pay attention to your stuff. I did not feel scared or something. Not at all.’’

Three respondents stated that the fact that travelling in a group made a difference for their sense of security. It is discussed that that being in a group and having around supervisors contributed to feeling safe. It is stated:

‘’ Everything was arranged for us.. You did not have to worry about anything.. Moreover, if you had questions, you just went to one of those four or five people within the organisation and you got an answer. That really made a difference’’ [Janine]

Besides Janine, two other respondents also mentioned that being in a group made the respondents feel more safe, in particular with regard to safety when walking the streets in Brazil. It is discussed: ‘’We walked the streets but just not alone.. Eh.. I think it made a huge difference, being in a group of thirty people versus being alone..’’. Moreover, it is stated:‘’ I think when you are alone you are more vulnerable of being approached or something’’. The overall respondents did not mention group dynamics as a factor influencing security feelings. None of the interviewees mentioned the Zika virus as a security concern despite an outbreak during that time in Brazil. Féline mentioned having protected herself and that a mosquito bite did not worry her. Roelie mentioned to not have thought about the issue but remembered that the study trip committee spoke about the issue because one of the supervisors was pregnant for which the Zika virus could have been harmful. Danique as well remembers that the study trip committee talked about Zika due to the pregnancy of one of the supervisors who

eventually did not join to trip for that reason. Danique suggests that a possible factor contributing to her relaxing attitude towards the Zika virus was her age: ‘’.. I think it might also be the age.. We were not thinking about children yet.. Maybe when we did it would be different.. Maybe I would not have gone..’’. Luca suggests that the media might have influenced his lack of concern with regard to the Zika virus. It is stated that news coverage regarding the Zika virus was high at first – few months prior to the 2016 Paralympics - but

(30)

29 low few weeks before leaving. Moreover, it is stated that the media at first portrayed the Zika virus as a threat to a person’s safety while later on it was portrayed as a virus a person would want to avoid but would not have significant consequences.

4.2.2 Inside of the Stadium – During the Paralympics

All interviewees mentioned they felt safe during the Paralympic Games inside of the stadium. Statements include: ‘’ I did not feel unsafe.. Also not during the event’’ and ‘’During the Games themselves, I did not feel unsafe.. Not on the platform were the Games were held..’’.

Five respondents mentioned either something related to visible taken security measures or the assumption that large events are well secured. Four statements suggested that it made the respondents feel more safe. For example, Janine stated: ‘’I really think because you assume the security is well arranged, you feel more safe’’ and Roelie mentioned: ‘’ You also assume that when you go to such a large event, it is well secured’’. Four interviewees mentioned a positive effect of security measures on their security feelings; two interviewees mentioned an alternative effect. It is stated that the fact that the army is visible made the respondents aware on the fact that they are somewhere where security is necessary causing a strange feeling.

4.3.3 Role Social Environment

Four interviewees mentioned they had talked with someone from their social environment about going to the 2016 Paralympics in Brazil. Two respondents did not talk about the topic for it is unknown whether the two respondents did. With regard who was talked to, the four respondents either mentioned their parents or other family members. None of the interviewees explicitly mentioned a considerable influence on their decision to join the study trip or

whether it influenced the respondents’ security concerns. Two respondents mentioned to be made aware on security concerns.

4.3.4 Summary of the Results

Summing up the findings, four respondents mentioned having been concerned about robberies outside of the Olympic platform in Brazil. Two respondents stated not having worried about robberies because it was mentioned that a person can get robbed everywhere. Three

(31)

30 being alone or with a small group of friends. None of the interviewees mentioned having worried about the Zika virus despite an outbreak during that time in Brazil. Within the

Olympic stadium, all of the respondents stated that they felt safe. Five respondents mentioned security measures as a factor influencing their security feelings. Finally, four respondents talked with their family about their decision to go to the 2016 Paralympics but none of the respondents indicated that their family had a considerable influence on relevant decision.

4.3 Terrorism Threat Perceptions

4.3.1 Perception of Vulnerability

The interviewees indicated they either did not or slightly felt vulnerable of becoming a victim of terrorism during the 2016 Paralympics. For instance, Jack answered when asked about whether he felt vulnerable: ‘’ Eh.. I was not scared because I did not feel a threat.. ‘’. It is mentioned that if terrorists would have wanted to execute an attack, terrorists would have done something during the Olympics versus the Paralympics due to the fact that the Olympics is a larger event making it a better terrorist target. Another interviewee mentioned the same:

‘’..we were involved with the Paralympic Games and not with the Olympic Games.. I felt like, if something will happen, it will happen during the Olympics and not during the Paralympics because, seriously, there is more public attention.. More public reach.. The Paralympics are actually just some castoff if I could call it like that.. But it is true..’’

[Danique]

When asked whether Roelie perceived terrorism as a security threat it was stated: ‘’ Eh.. Terrorism.. No, not at all’’. In a similar vein, Janine and Luca mentioned to not consciously feel at risk of becoming a victim of terrorism; however, Janine explained that the idea might have been in the background of her head among others because she realised that the 2016 Paralympics could have been a terrorist target: ‘’ You know it can happen.. Especially during large events, such as the Paralympics’’. In addition. Danique mentioned :‘’Well.. Honestly.. During the opening.. If they are smart, they do something at such an occasion’’, indicating that she felt some sense of vulnerability during the opening ceremony as the interviewee considers such a ceremony a potential terrorist target. However, when asked if she could elaborate on this feeling, it was suggested that she perceives the chance that something would

(32)

31 have happened as minimal. Two other interviewees also indicated to feel some sense of vulnerability during the opening ceremony. For example, Féline mentioned: ‘’There were many Brazilian visitors present in the stadium and they all started to yell very loud.. At that moment I thought, there could be a mad person and if he has a gun, we have a problem’’.

4.4.1.1 The Influence of the Event’s Geographical Location

Five interviewees made a statement on the geographical location of the event while aiming to explain their perception of vulnerability. Four respondents stated it influenced their sense of vulnerability. It was stated that they felt less at risk of becoming a victim of terrorism

compared to the Netherlands. Féline said:‘’ I felt I was going away from all the attacks.. ‘’. It was mentioned that terrorism was linked with Europe and ideas related to mafia, drugs and weapons with South-America. Féline mentioned to feel more at risk of becoming a victim of terrorism when the 2016 Paralympics would have been held in Europe:

‘’ It was so close .. For instance, in France.. I saw the attacks on the news and I remember thinking that it was so close.. London as well.. Nice.. Paris.. Eh…

Zaventem... An airport I have been myself once… It was just really close.. You just think.. Wow…For instance, in Germany, in a large stadium, what you suggested, it is so close and I feel that it is more accessible to them or something… It is easier for them to get there than in South-America…I feel they do not have any business in South America’’

[Féline]

Danique also referred to the event’s geographical location as a factor influencing her perception of vulnerability. The trip to the 2016 Paralympics is compared to a study trip to Istanbul and it is stated that Turkey lies within in Europe and is linked to religion which is, according to the interviewee, linked to terrorism. She indicated that she expected to not to feel safe on a study trip to Istanbul and decided to not go. With regard to the study trip to the 2016 Paralympics she felt differently due to among other things the fact that the Games were not held in Europe. In addition, Luca mentioned that he thinks to have felt less vulnerable of becoming a victim of terrorism during the 2016 Paralympics in Brazil compared to Europe because it is stated that terrorist attacks appear ‘’here’’ (referring to Europe), not ‘’there’’ (referring to either Brazil or South-America). Besides, Janine mentioned a geographical matter but more to compare her perception of vulnerability during the 2016 Paralympics with

(33)

32 her perception of vulnerability in the Netherlands. Janine mentioned to not have felt

vulnerable during the 2016 Paralympics besides from the opening ceremony, however, it is stated that she felt vulnerable sometimes in the Netherlands:

‘’ …I had these feelings a few times when I was in the Netherlands, for instance, when I sat in the metro and a guy behaved strangely.. At such moments a really thought, oh my god, I hope he does not have a bag with explosions.. However, during the

Paralympics, no, not really. I have never thought, oh, I should not be here or something.. I am not feeling ok…’’

[Janine]

Roelie also mentioned a geographical matter, she stated that she would have felt differently would the Paralympics be held in Paris. It is mentioned that terrorist attacks have appeared more often in Paris giving her the idea that it could happen there again.

4.3.1.2. The Influence of the Media

The theme touched on by all six respondents included the role of the media of which five respondents stated that their perception of vulnerability was influenced by it. Féline indicated that her perceptions of terrorism threat during the 2016 Paralympics were relatively low based on her association between terrorism and Europe. Subsequently, it was asked where Féline’s associations derived from and it was answered that it is thought that her associations derived from all that is seen on television or read in the newspaper. Féline mentioned the role of the images she sees: ‘’...on the television I see damaged buildings, explosions, shootings and men with beards. All of that I do not associate with Brazil or the Paralympics’’. Moreover, the respondent clearly stated that she associates terrorism with religion because of among other things the media:

‘’ ..the ideas were already there. It was framed through the news, the newspapers, Facebook.. I have a certain image in my head, even if it is not accurate, I can only link one religion to terrorism.. I am not a racist, but this is what the news does’’.

[Féline]

Janine as well mentioned that stories from the news influenced her terrorism threat perceptions present during the 2016 Paralympics. Janine associates Brazil with violent robberies versus terrorism as a consequence of stories she heard either from the news or from

Terrorism risk perceptions, thinking styles and the 2016 Paralympics

Abstract

Table of Contents

Chapter 1

Introduction

Chapter 2

Theoretical framework

Chapter 3

Research Design & Methodology

Chapter 4

Analyses