The covenant concept as an organising principle in Luke–Acts

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NORTH-WEST UNIVERSITY

(POTCHEFSTROOM CAMPUS)

in co-operation with

Greenwich School of Theology UK

The covenant concept as an

organising principle in Luke-Acts

by

FRANK Z KOVÁCS, BSc, DipTh, MDiv, MTh

#13234935

For the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in New Testament at the Potchefstroom Campus of the North-West University

Promoter: Dr John W Gosling

Co-Promoter: Prof Dr Francois P Viljoen

Potchefstroom

May 2011

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ABSTRACT

Thematic interrelation is an underdeveloped field of inquiry in Lukan studies. The design and elegance of Lukan theology begs for guided investigation into a possible system of organisation that governs history and theology, that is, narrative and theme. Based on the Greimasian Actantial Model, morpho-syntactical structural-critical analysis of Luke and Acts reveals that the covenant concept in its operative aspect of service functions as an organising principle, structuring the narratives and facilitating thematic interrelation.

A survey of representative Lukan research consisting of five methodologically determined approaches shows a commonality regarding Lukan purpose. These all share the “plan of God” as a fundamental concept, thus intimating its plausibility as a common organisational principle in the text. This observation encourages further analysis of Lukan narrative and meta-narrative as relevant subject matter.

Investigation into the purpose and goals of Ancient Jewish and Ancient Greek literature suggests that the concepts of piety/holiness and justness combined with a notion of divine order and expectation demonstrates organisational capacity.

Under the terms and conditions of the Old Covenant three non-exclusive themes/concepts hold organisational functionality and ability to facilitate thematic interrelation: Exodus typology, the covenant concept and the eschaton idea. Exodus typology connects narrative with theme, developing Israel’s story. The covenant idea frames stories using parallelism and gives the meta-story progression. The eschaton idea presents the Day of YHWH as an organisational principle guiding the story of judgment to restoration. It is observed that the covenant concept is the most prevalent of these themes/ideas.

Assuming the conceptual unity of Luke and Acts and adopting a morpho-syntactical structuralist approach, it was observed that the covenant concept in its operative aspect of service occurred as Helper at ten places, determining the development and structure of the meta-narrative. According to the Greimasian Actantial Model, Israel failed to fulfil its covenant-based mandate to serve God and shine God’s light of mercy to the nations. Jesus, Israel’s new Helper, becomes the Subject and by his covenant-based

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ministry, characterised as the greatest service, resolves the problem that prevents Israel from carrying out its divine mandate and sets the stage for its fulfilment. In Jesus Israel is given new leaders, an ethical platform of discipleship and the Holy Spirit. The apostle Paul as the epitomised and exemplary witness and servant of Jesus fulfils what Israel could not. He is vindicated in righteousness and shares in the Isaianic ministry of Jesus, to bear witness to leaders and to shine God’s light to the nations. Paul is unhindered in this ministry. Additionally, in thematic-critical terms, the key placement of the covenant concept in its operative aspect of service at plot-defining junctures features its catalytic dynamic as a “template” concept advancing the re-conceptualising of themes and providing a platform for meaningful relation.

The evidence thus suggests that the covenant concept in its operative aspect structures the conjoined narratives of Luke and Acts. It also provides a basis for relation between the divine and humans in the context of the history of God’s salvation, linking history and theology, and makes possible a discernible means to thematic interrelation.

Key words:

Luke-Acts, covenant, service, Structural criticism, Greimasian Actantial Model, morpho-syntactic, organisational principle, thematic interrelation.

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The covenant concept as an organising principle in Luke-Acts

CHAPTER ONE:

INTRODUCTION

The common author of the two New Testament books known to us as the Gospel of Luke and the Acts of the Apostles uniquely derived the information contained therein from a variety of sources. Consequently, many significant contributions within Lukan studies have been made to the investigation of the theological themes governing his writings (Talbert, 1974; Squires, 1993; Marshall & Peterson, 1998; Bovon, 2006). The resultant diversity may well be due in part to the differences of approach and emphases by those who have undertaken such a study or simply the product of such varied theological perspectives and concerns. M. Heath identifies similar if not identical difficulties in recovering coherent unifying themes in Greek Poetics (1989: 8).

It cannot be denied, of course, that the results of previous research have provided equally credible and valid conclusions regarding the alleged purpose and central themes of Luke-Acts. What must be considered, however, is not so much whether any one is more worthy of our attention than the others, but if such identified themes co-exist functionally within Luke-Acts.

In my MTh dissertation, The Covenant in Luke-Acts, I demonstrated that the covenant concept was basic to Luke’s reasoned presentation of the salvific work of God, and was used also “to evoke a unilaterally defined sense of covenantal identity” amongst his readers (Kovács, 2006: 111). During the course of investigation, however, it was noted that certain occurrences of the covenant idea functioned differently when the context around the covenant concept was read integrally as part of the larger unified narrative of Luke-Acts. In other words, it was observed that the noted rationalising function, concentrated within discourses, was symptomatic of the covenant concept’s overarching organisational function, on the level of the narrative as a whole, facilitating narrative structure and providing an interpretive framework that allows the interrelation of thematic components. This overarching organisational function of the covenant idea became readily apparent when the covenant idea was discerned in terms of its operative aspect, that is, service to God, at strategic points of Luke’s Gospel and Acts as a narrative whole.

It would appear that a working understanding of an organised thematic interrelation within Luke-Acts also requires the assumption of a conceptual unity. Beverly Roberts

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Gaventa (1988: 149-157) not only indicates a need for investigation into thematic interrelation, but also emphasises the importance of this conceptual unity for a more complete understanding of the theology of the book of Acts. This component is not just fundamental to narrative criticism, but also for our purposes of ‘thematic criticism’, presented formally as a discipline by Bremond et al. (1995). As such, this necessitates the delineation of the Lukan narrative. Luke presents his work through the hermeneutical lens of pivotal Old Testament covenant events, thereby providing a narrative substructure that interweaves Israel’s ancient history with the contents of Luke’s gospel account and the book of Acts. Green (1996: 288) and Witherington (1998: 69) agree that Luke’s approach is hermeneutical, engaging the larger biblical framework. In this way, the ultimate question of Luke-Acts is addressed – the relation of history to theology (Barrett, 1961) – which is foundational to understanding event-based thematic interrelation.

Attempts at interrelating Lukan themes, whilst worthy of our consideration, have not fully exploited the wealth of Luke-Acts as a literary corpus. Each contribution has seemed to fall short in one way or another: the efforts of Tannehill (1986/1990), whilst substantial, are not explicitly focused on thematic interrelation but the dynamics of salvation narrative; Moessner’s findings (1989), whilst significant, do not extend to the whole Lukan corpus; Squires’ investigation (1993) is methodologically limiting; Marshall and Peterson (1998), whilst admirably categorising the Lukan themes under salvation, make no attempt to unearth a convincing overarching infrastructure; Bovon’s valuable appraisal and the items surveyed (2006) are subject to similar criticism. To date, there seems to have been no concerted effort to explore the interrelation of themes in Luke-Acts in a judicial manner or to determine the presence and character of a satisfactory organising design that does justice to the richness of the narrative. The studies that do take note of the existence of such an interrelation seem to do so only in passing. The central question of this work, therefore, is: “How may one determine the extent to which the concept of covenant functions as an organising principle in the design of Luke-Acts as a unified theological historical narrative?”

The questions that naturally arise from this problem are:

 What approaches have formed the basis for previous research on the organisation of concepts in Luke-Acts?

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 What principles of organisation of concepts can be identified from within Judaic and Hellenistic literature?

 What were the merits – or otherwise – of any principles of organisation that existed under the terms and conditions of the Old Covenant?

 What relationship exists between the covenant concept and the narrative structure, theological interrelation and organisation of Luke-Acts?

The aim of this thesis is to determine the extent to which the concept of covenant functions as an organising principle in the design of Luke-Acts as a unified theological historical narrative.

The objectives of this study must be seen in their relationship to the aim. I intend to approach the subject from the following angles:

i) To examine the different approaches to previous research on the organisation of concepts in Luke-Acts;

ii) To identify the principles of organisation of concepts in Judaic and Hellenistic literature;

iii) To evaluate the principles of organisation under the terms and conditions of the Old Covenant;

iv) To assess the relationship of the covenant concept to the narrative structure, theological interrelation and organisation as found in Luke-Acts.

The central theoretical argument of this study is that the covenant concept in Luke-Acts provides a means of correlation between history and theology, thus making possible the interrelation of the themes, concepts and subject matter in Luke-Acts and, thereby, assisting the development of the narrative as a whole.

This theological study will employ a careful analysis of the relevant scholarly literature available on the subject, an examination of the historiographically defined hermeneutics of appropriate Judaic and Hellenistic literature, an evaluation of the salient features of

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the concept of covenant within the Old Testament in accordance with widely acknowledged hermeneutical techniques (Henrichsen & Jackson, 1990), and an assessment of the Scriptures under consideration primarily in the light of recognised literary critical (Peterson, 1978), structural (Calloud, 1973; Patte, 1978; Hays, 2002), rhetorical (Mack, 1990), narrative (Tolmie, 1999) and intertextual methods (Litwak, 2005). The weaknesses of literary criticism have been noted as contributing significantly to the danger of historical, cultural and authorial decontextualisation (Poythress, 1978; Mcknight, 1987). The inherent unity of Luke’s gospel account and the Acts of the Apostles as a two-volume work is accepted in consideration of the issues as identified by Michael Bird (2007). Given that my Christian background is one that finds most sympathy within the broad framework of the Reformed tradition, I propose to give balanced recognition to sources of information that are not written exclusively by those of that persuasion in order – as far as is practicable – to arrive at conclusions that might otherwise be subject to allegations of unnecessary bias.

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CHAPTER

TWO:

RESEARCH

ON

THE

ORGANISATION OF CONCEPTS IN

LUKE-ACTS.

2.0 INTRODUCTION

This chapter will address the research question, “What approaches have formed the basis for previous research on the organisation of concepts in Luke-Acts?” by surveying representative scholarship on Luke’s Gospel and on Acts.

An organising principle may be defined as a quantifiable concept discernable on the level of the text, which facilitates the structuring of the narrative for the purpose of creating a meta-story matrix enabling thematic interrelation. D. Barley corroborates, “Organisation and organism ... imply a structure of diverse organs and component parts which are related in such a way as to function collectively in the service of an overriding purpose” (1967: 182). Organisation requires the relation of the parts in some way. This relation is accomplished, as proposed, by an organising concept. An organising concept accordingly appears to inform narrative structure. Gary A. Tuttle observes precisely just this dynamic in that the Sermon on the Mount contains “pervasive wisdom antithesis” which is the organisational principle of the sermon, that is, a key to its meaningful structure (1977: 214, 219).

In clear narratological terms an organising principle may be identified with the depersonified concept of the implied author or, as better suits this study, the overall textual arrangement of the narrative (Tolmie, 1999: 7). Structural-critical terminology redefines narratological “textual arrangement” by specifying that narrative structure itself serves as an organising principle (Greimas, 1971: 793), where structure is a system of logical narrative development of a hierarchy of narrative programmes (Patte & Patte, 1978: 24-25). This system of narrative development conforms to a culturally informed translinguistic sequence (Greimas, 1971: 793), which by implication as a template conveys the organising concept(s) or provides a medium for its extraction. The phrase “organising principle or concept” as referred to in this thesis encompasses this gamut of meaning. Precisely where the emphasis falls will be made clear in turn. Methodological necessity, as will be demonstrated, assigns priority to a

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structural-critical approach supported in turn by narratological considerations. In Chapter Five an eclectic methodology will reconcile apparent differences in approach if any.

Sifting the literature of Lukan studies for organising principles approaches a Sisyphean task. The sparsity of organisational terminology would appear to result from the lack of its being perceived as relevant to reasonable inquiry. There are, however, exceptions. An organisational principle if not explicitly discussed may be presented as part of the work’s purpose. If this is the case, the chief means of identifying an organising principle within the understanding of a scholar who makes no direct reference to it is to follow observations and conclusions regarding Lukan purpose(s), and specifically theme(s). Importantly, however, it must always be kept in mind that a theme is not a concept, as Claude Bremond correctly argues that they are two distinct notions (1993: 46-59). A concept is a “supposedly defined notion” (1993: 47), “the essence of a notion” (1993: 47) which when placed in varying situational contexts inaugurates a theme, an abstraction (1993: 47, 59). A theme varies (may abstract) concept whilst a concept unifies theme (1993: 47). Organisation may occur at a thematic level. This, however, should be understood as relational positioning, as Bremond makes clear (1993: 53). Themes are analysed in terms of similarity, dissimilarity and logical relation. This mode of structuring should not be confused with the organisational function of a concept. As it will be shown, an organisational concept by definition corrals other concepts, and as a result defines narrative structure and also serves as a link between themes conceptually. In surveying scholarship I will note where ‘organisation’ is seen to occur at a thematic level.

2.1 HISTORICO-THEOLOGICAL APPROACHES

The work of Conzelmann, Fitzmyer, Marshall and Maddox will be examined in this section for their understanding of the dynamics of organisation in both Luke and Acts. 2.1.1 H. Conzelmann

Conzelmann applies a theme of eschatology to redemption-history in order to organise his universally recognised tripartite system. The distinctiveness of Luke’s account is based on his fundamental separation of kêrygma and narrative contra Mark in which the kêrygma unfolds within the developing narrative (Conzelmann, 1960: 11). As a result, Luke is able to reflect on the kêrygma (Conzelmann, 1960: 14-15), “formulations of belief already determined” (1960: 11) before writing. This meditation is guided,

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proffers Conzelmann, by concern for the delay of the parousia (1960: 14). Such concern is the pebble dropped on smooth waters whose ripples reach the recesses of Lukan theology. “As far as the history of tradition is concerned, this means that Luke employs for his reconstruction of history the traditional material, which is stamped with the view that the last days have already arrived” (Conzelmann, 1960: 96). Eschatology, following Conzelmann’s reasoning, specifically the Lukan understanding of the “last days” as that beginning after the Ascension at Pentecost and being expanded from imminence into the future (Conzelmann, 1960: 95), functions in an organising capacity. A specific eschatological understanding accounts for observable structural features in the narrative. The “last days” as a manifestation of salvation differentiates itself by “the uniqueness of the events of that time” (1960: 14) as the last epoch in redemptive history (1960: 95). The implications of this differentiation are founded upon what Conzelmann discerns as Luke’s understanding of development or change in the story of salvation (1960: 98-131, 209-213, 215). There are certainly elements of continuity, yet “Luke does not wish to reform the present Church by the pattern of the Church of former times” (1960: 15). Similarly, “In order to be able to set out clearly in the person of Jesus a salvation which is timeless, his period must be distinguished from the present period” (1960: 14). Lukan eschatology, the “last days”, re-shapes according to Conzelmann the presentation of the Kingdom of God (1960: 113-119), the role of Satan (1960: 156-157), Christology (1960: 170-206), the church (1960: 209-213), pneumatology (1960: 136, 183, 213-215, 225-226), the Christian life (1960: 226-234) and other aspects (1960: 184). With this re-shaping a three-stage story of salvation emerges (1960: 16-17, 150).

Conzelmann argues that the Lukan redefinition of the “last days”, of parousia delay, in itself requires further explanation, “…and this is done by means of the idea of God’s plan which underlies the whole structure of Luke’s account” (1960: 131-132). For Conzelmann the idea of God’s plan undergirds Luke and Acts, as does also the Lukan eschatology (1960: 95). These two ideas combined seem to function together, educing organising principle effects. All events as observed by Conzelmann are results of God’s guidance according to plan (1960: 151-154). This plan is also responsible for the above theological re-shaping with the result of a tripartite redemptive process.

A redaction-critical approach ultimately yields a theological system, a system that Conzelmann sees is responsible for structuring. Conzelmann sees eschatology and the

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divine plan as foundational in the theological system of Luke. Whether they are actual organisational principles remains ambiguous, as Conzelmann does not directly address this question. His concern with parousia delay is seen as a theory with great difficulties (Marshall, 1971) particularly with the notion of crisis attached to it. One notable criticism is that the salvation-historical plan in Conzelmann’s study is not a Lukan “innovation” (Marshall, 1971: 86; Fitzmyer, 1970(1): 20). In essence this undermines Luke’s motivation for writing. Perhaps Conzelmann has misjudged the prevalence of eschatology’s influence. The plan of God, however, holds some promise as an organising principle in that as a concept it remains seated in narrative contexts, at strategic points, with the possibility of resolving into a theme, though only “fulfilment” as a theme seems probable.

In view of the present thesis Conzelmann has not adequately considered the dynamic of change in the story of redemption. Conzelmann reasonably asserts that it is prophecy, the divine plan, that “…creates the continuity” (1960: 150) between three epochs. The first epoch prophesies Christ, in the second Jesus prophesies concerning the Kingdom of God (1960: 150). The Lukan emphasis on the prophetic word as a unifying and structuring factor appears in the work of P. Schubert (1954), D. L. Bock (1987), B. J. Koet (1989), and P. Mallen (2008). Also the development and separation between the epochs is largely due to Luke’s Christology, setting Jesus at the centre of the salvation story (1960: 170). Yet, Conzelmann’s explanation of Lukan purpose does not fully account for this epochal arrangement, for the richness of narrative development and thereby an organising dynamic. Fitzmyer posits a similar criticism with regard to Conzelmann’s understanding of the richness of narrative development in Luke, questioning whether a sharp contrast between Mark’s unfolding kêrygma and Luke’s lack of it is at all justified (Fitzmyer, 1970[1]: 152). Conzelmann’s reasoning is dictated by his methodology and his particular emphasis on what he deems to have been issues in the church, and this appears to weaken his grasp of narrative dynamics.

2.1.2 J. A. Fitzmyer

Fitzmyer reveals his keystone proposition “…Luke is, indeed, playing the early Christian kerygma in a new key” (Fitzmyer, 1970[1]: 171). Herein resonates Fitzmyer’s work with that of Conzelmann. Unlike Conzelmann, however, Fitzmyer sees that Luke’s “historical perspective” (1970[]): 175), his “sense of salvation-history” (1970[1]: 178) shapes the eschatological form of the kêrygma (1970[1]: 175). This is the Lukan

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fulfilment of salvation necessarily according to God’s plan (1970[1]: 179-181). Luke has come to terms with the delay of the parousia yet to a degree still holds to an early eschaton; he has shifted emphasis from the future to the present in that Christians are to follow Jesus not out of regard for an immanent return but out of a desire for everyday faithful discipleship (Fitzmyer, 1970[1]: 234-235). The Holy Spirit is given to the people of God not just as a substitute for an early coming of the Kingdom but as a substitute for Christ, God’s presence for discipleship and witness. The Holy Spirit is in fact the one through whom is realized the entire course of God’s salvation-history even in the Church (Fitzmyer, 1970[1]: 227-231). Interestingly, for Fitzmyer, the successful application of the programme of salvation utilises the principle of reconstitution, applied to the leadership and to Israel (1970[1]: 188, 191).

Fitzmyer garners two chief themes appearing in an organising capacity. The first is the theme of fulfilment, events strung together according to divine plan (Fitzmyer, 1970[1]: 179-181, 186); the second is reconstitution, redefining participation in Israel on multiple levels (1970[1]: 187-188, 191). These two ideas are employed in logical relation on the thematic level; however, the high frequency of their use is misleading because it suggests that they are concepts when in fact they are generated themes. Falling short of a clear organisation principle, they embellish [embellish what?] on the broad level of theology and Fitzmyer’s system is ultimately confined to Conzelmann’s tripartite division of salvation-history.

2.1.3 I. H. Marshall

For Marshall the idea of salvation, as distinct from salvation-history, is the key to understanding the theology of Luke (1971: 92) such that “…the contents of Luke and Acts can be arranged around this central, guiding motif” (1971: 93). In another article, Marshall (1999: 340-357) seems to particularise this governing idea of salvation. He states that in Luke’s Gospel and in Acts the themes of “Jesus as Proclaimer and Proclaimed” (1999: 347-349), “the sending of the apostles and witnesses” (1999: 349-351), “kingdom and Messiah” (1999: 351-353), “discipleship and response to the Gospel” (1999: 353-354) and “salvation offered” universally (1999: 355-356) are all necessary to a correct understanding of a unified Lukan theology (1999: 357).

It may be inferred that Marshall’s cogent view of the salvation motif appears to function organisationally in that it connects the above five main themes of the Gospel and Acts.

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It seems, however, that the motif of salvation may in fact be a metatheme, as it is synoptically dominant. Marshall’s observations tend towards theological formulation as thematic dialogue leads to theological categorisation; organisational principles within the narrative structure seem not to be of chief concern.

2.1.4 R. Maddox

Maddox’s study brings into focus distinctive features of Lukan purpose. All inquiry is directed by this goal, which appears to exclude any awareness of an organising principle within the narrative. Redaction reflects the theological orientation of Luke to address reassuringly ecclesiastical issues based on the Jew-Gentile question. Broadly, Luke shows his readers how the Jewish leaders have excluded themselves from the Kingdom of God and how Christians are rooted in the origins of the Gospel [or gospel?] (Maddox, 1982: 185). In Maddox’s rendering, “…ecclesiology is a leading concern of Luke’s…” (1982: 185) such that eschatology is subsidiary, being salvation fulfilled in the gift of the Holy Spirit (1982: 182-183, 186). Maddox’s work stands under the vault of this thesis.

Yet some observations concerning the “total shape of Luke’s work” (1982: 9) are engaging:

The character of Christian life in the church cannot be understood apart from its foundation in the incarnation, mission, death, resurrection and ascension of Jesus. Conversely, the story of Jesus cannot properly be appreciated without following it through to its outcome in the church. Hence, the basic scope and shape of the work show a major concern to explore and explain the nature of the church (1982: 10).

Maddox reiterates this in his conclusion (1982: 181, 187). Organisation or arrangement seems the implied operative in the preceding quotation. It would appear then, the force of Jesus’ life provides the rudimentary framework upon which hangs the development of the narrative, the story of Luke and Acts. Can the events of Jesus’ life be conceptualized? Certainly; however, Maddox is not exercised by it.

A theology of purpose is utilised by Maddox “organisationally” on the level of themes. By this he circumnavigates elements in the dynamics of narrative both on a syntactical and semiotic level. Theme-based theological formulations are the context of inter-relation, rather than organisation, for Maddox.

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It seems that the scholars surveyed in this section would identify the plan of God concept as and organisational principle accountable for the sequence of events in the Gospel and Acts.

2.2 SOCIO-RHETORICAL/ LITERARY APPROACHES

In this section the work of Esler, Green and Witherington III will be examined to measure the efficacy of their approach in identifying organisational principles.

2.2.1 P. F. Esler

Based on the assumption that a dialectical relation exists between religion and society, Esler’s contribution Community and Gospel in Luke-Acts (1987) was precedential in that it filled a lacuna in scholarship, illuminating the influences, political and social, bearing upon the redactor’s purpose and activity. The evidence according to Esler supports not an apologetic agenda but a sociological process of legitimisation (1987: 16, 205-219). Luke’s redaction is, though not exclusively, “…in response to social and political pressures experienced by his community” (Esler, 1987: 2). The evangelist, “…decided to compose a work which would re-interpret existing traditions, ... concerning Jesus and the history of the early congregations in such a way as to reassure his fellow-Christians by answering the various objections made to their beliefs and practices” (Esler, 1987: 221). Luke achieves his purpose, Esler submits, by applying the concepts of table-fellowship (1987: 105-109), faithfulness to the law (1987: 128-130), relation to the Temple (1987: 135-163), attitude to the poor and rich (1987: 197-200), and ancestral tradition (1987: 215-219) to the process of legitimisation. Legitimisation via these programmes bears semblance to an organising principle, yet it is a rhetorical technique rather that a text-based concept. Legitimisation may function in the service of themes, concepts and typology, as observed in Esler’s work. It cannot be said that Esler is not concerned with such organisational terminology. However, his concept world is sociologically defined and he is concerned ultimately with the portrayal of Luke’s redaction.

2.2.2 J. B. Green

Joel B. Green’s study The Death of Jesus: Tradition and Interpretation in the Passion Narrative reveals a valuable observation: “…with respect to the interpretation of Jesus’ death in the passion account there is one overarching, organising theme—namely, the centrality of Jesus’ death in God’s redemptive plan” (1988: 314-315). Eleven themes

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constitute sub-categories congealing under this one organising theme (1988: 315-320). It should be reiterated that a theme is not the equivalent of a concept as they are two distinct notions (Bremond, 1993: 46-59). Whether Green is aware of this distinction or not and the implication of it is unclear. For Green a theme carries organisational force. This should, for the sake of this thesis, be rearticulated as relational arrangement. Circular reasoning weakens Green’s perceived system of organisation, as it is difficult to see the theme as the cause of organisation, for it is ultimately the result of organisational activity.

Green’s conclusions are echoed in his theological commentary on Luke. For Green it is straightforward: the redemptive purpose of God is “an important witness for the fundamental theological and narratological unity of Luke’s two volumes, Luke and Acts” (Green, 2001: 47).

2.2.3 B. Witherington III

Witherington credits J.T. Squires with the observation that events throughout Luke’s two volumes are necessitated by God’s plan (1998: 73). Witherington elaborates, “God’s real plan of spreading the good news about Jesus … is the overall schema …” (1998: 74) expressing Lukan purpose. Furthermore, “the theme of God’s overarching plan of salvation and the breaking in of the kingdom through the ministry of Jesus and his followers” ties together, according to Witherington, the emphases of Jesus’ life, death, resurrection, sending of the Spirit, accessibility of the Gospel, future judgment and resurrection (1998: 100). In addition to this, it is by the Holy Spirit that the universalised gospel-plan is made possible and the Holy Spirit is the key to the “interlocking of themes” (1998: 21, 71, 293, 301, 512). Ultimately, Witherington sees a social premise as the goal of the universalised gospel of God’s plan, which is God’s intent to make one people out of the ethnic diversity (1998: 439, 459, 486).

Witherington states that Luke, as editor of his source material, is concerned with salvation history and his present, but is also interested in the “universal and inclusive potential of the gospel” (1998: 111). Primarily for this reason is Witherington indebted to Squires for the understanding that the fundamental “plan of God” undergirds narrative events (1998: 122). In his concluding comments Witherington asserts that the universal message of the coming of the kingdom and Jesus is the same story repeated

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“over and over again” in Acts (1998: 816). It is God’s plan already announced in Luke 3:6 (1998: 803).

Witherington designates God’s salvific plan as a theme with an organisational ability. The plan of God, recognises Witherington, is articulated in the text as hê boulê tou theou (the plan of God) and as dei (necessary), and gives definitive expression to an idea occurring in varied situations. Hence it is a concept not a thematic abstraction. This concept can be then abstracted to the theme of fulfilment in salvation. The theme of fulfilment may be what Witherington has in mind when referring to God’s saving plan. It seems Witherington has not seen the need to carefully distinguish between the two and has followed instead scholastic usage. Bremond notes this kind of confusion (1993: 47-48). Witherington also notes that the breaking in of the Kingdom through events combined with the plan of God also carries organisational merit. Thematic interrelation is, however, achieved by the activity of the Holy Spirit. Witherington sees organisation in these three.

Witherington, highlighting rhetorical features and patterns in Acts, indicating his particular affinity to Tannehill, deduces his organising principles as the plan of God, kingdom establishment and Holy Spirit function. His analysis does not advance beyond the sociological and theological implications of these. There is no attempt to show how these principles contribute to narrative structure or thematic interrelation. Witherington’s approach is sound in itself; however, in view of the present thesis it is weakened by an absence of a demonstrated understanding of motif, theme formation and the effect of defining concepts in the narrative.

Again, primarily the plan or purpose of God figures strongly as an organising concept for the scholars surveyed in this section.

2.3 APOLOGETIC APPROACH

Although other works that hold to an apologetic approach do exist, I consider that the results of Squires’ work are optimal for this survey.

2.3.1 J. T. Squires

Squires offers a valuable contribution to the study of theme and function in The Plan of God in Luke-Acts (1993). The plan of God fills a central role in Luke-Acts, as Squires

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observes, because it is related to pivotal events and it also “provides a means of relating various strands in the story which have to do with the divine guidance of history” (1993: 186). In short, “the plan of God” is a “theme which structures the work” (Squires, 1993: 186) and allows the cohesive integration and presentation of Luke’s narrative (1993: 186). Squires concludes that the central role of “the plan of God” gives structure to Luke’s narrative by interweaving particular themes (1993: 186, 188-189).

Squires’ results are without question valuable; however, they raise unresolved narratological questions. Unlike R. Rendtorff (1989), Squires does not suggest that thematic relation is due to concept-centred structural phenomena. The structure for Squires seems to be interpretive, a logical linking. Structure then depends on a degree of subjectivity. It is up to the reader to make the interpretive linking based on textual clues. Squires would contend that this is an authorial intention. As in the analysis of Witherington’s representative contribution, it is observed that theme has elided with concept in the meanings of fulfilment and/or providence. Squires’ observations need to be developed and sharpened if their full implications are to contribute to our understanding of Lukan theology.

2.4 LITERARY-NARRATIVE APPROACHES

Literary-narrative approaches are rich in representative material; however, only the work of Minear, Tannehill, Talbert, Moessner and McComiskey will be analyzed. 2.4.1 P.S. Minear

Paul Minear’s lectures given between 1973 and 1974 (published in 1976) constitute what C.H. Talbert deems a shift in the methodological approach to Lukan studies (Talbert, 1986: 336-338)—from individual pericopes to larger thought units. For Minear the “coherence of his [Lukan] thought world as a whole” (1976: 7) was important to understanding the details. Minear’s comments, the culmination of 40 years of work, are indeed relevant.

In Luke’s two works it is not just the prophetic figure, Minear contends, but more so the Moses archetype, specifically the rejected prophet type, that integrates themes. Minear’s observation seems to bear the mark of an organising principle (1976: 109, 111). D.P. Moessner has highlighted Minear’s presentation of the prophet’s suffering as integrative (1986: 223). The images of Israel’s memories, hopes of deliverance, the teaching of

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Jesus, the portrayal of Jesus as prophet, servant, revealer, ruler, judge, Son of God, deliverer and covenant-maker intersect within Moses typology (Minear, 1976: 108-110). Jesus’ suffering, rejection, ‘exodus’, exaltation, and power to heal, attend and gather God’s people all reflect a grounding in Moses typology (1976: 111). According to Minear, the transfiguration story, the calling and sending of the disciples and the seventy, and the Pentecost event share a Moses archetypal backdrop (110-111, 114). Minear goes as far as to echo C.F. Evans who is quoted as asserting that the Lukan arrangement follows a Deuteronomic sequence (1976: 111).

A “type” is defined by G. Prince as “a static character whose attributes are very few and who constitutes a paradigm case of a given quality, attitude, or role” (2003: 103). Minear’s observations certainly meet this general criterion. It should be remembered that a type is essentially a character-based abstraction, a kind of theme, created and recognised in an event sequence, without which it is a limited contributor to narrative structure. Minear’s investigation does not include the typifying of event sequence. He observes that a type may integrate but he does not re-conceptualize to explain the rationale behind it. For Minear the parallelism of type creates thematic relation. Minear’s insight into the Lukan use of Moses typology is significant in that it re-addresses the Lukan notion of the prophetic office in relation to Jesus’ ministry. The design of Minear’s work does not, however, address narrative structure apart from referencing C.F. Evans as above. Minear’s observations are expanded in Moessner’s major contribution (1989).

2.4.2 R.C. Tannehill

Tannehill views the narrator and implied author as functionally the same (1986[1]: 7). He believes this does not impede the extraction of values and beliefs from the narrative (1986: 7). He also recognises two levels in the narrative: the plot and story (1986: 18). Tannehill argues that it is God’s purpose of universal inclusive salvation which unifies and motivates the narrative of Jesus and that of his followers (1986: 40; 1990: 7, 354-357). Tannehill seems to imbue God’s purpose with the function of an organising principle. He arrives at this based on his understanding that Luke is writing a longer narrative composed of many smaller events which share a common unilateral direction, the fulfilment of “God’s saving purpose of inclusive salvation” (1986: 12). The structure of the narrative is comprised chiefly of parallelisms and repetitions linked

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together by the process of progressive enrichment; the substance of these parallels and repetitions comprises key disclosures that are based on the Lukan reframing of OT promises, patterns and type-scenes (1986: 4). God’s saving purpose organises the progressive linking of parallelisms and repetitions.

Observations based on the Magnificat in the section on the Angelic and Prophetic Disclosure in the Birth Narrative, lead Tannehill to remark, “It is finally the plan or purpose of God which gives shape and meaning to the story of Jesus and his witnesses” (1986: 29). The Magnificat characterises God, yet it is His purpose that forms the continuing story (1986: 29). Simeon announces God’s chief saving purpose, which “unites the narrative and constitutes its central meaning” (1986: 40, 43). Tannehill states that this shows it is “the comprehensive saving purpose of God that stands behind the events of both Luke and Acts… These passages explicitly indicate the purpose that stretches from the beginning of Luke to the end of Acts, holding the narrative together in spite of the departure of major characters” (1990: 7). Purpose, then, according to Tannehill, appears to act cohesively, exhibiting principled organisation.

The purpose or plan of God’s salvation in the preaching and healing ministry of Jesus, announced in Nazareth and to be echoed by his witnesses, is centralised by the repetition and/or paralleling of word-motifs and/or sentences (Tannehill, 1986: 94, 203-204, 212-213, 216; Tannehill, 1990: 59-77, 79, 84, 100), by summary statements (1986: 64, 77, 81, 125, 153, 231), themes (1986: 83, 109-110, 137, 139, 152, 159-160, 211, 218-219, 222, 231; Tannehill, 1990: 87, 94-95), by fulfilment terminology (1986: 87, 89, 91, 139, 207, 221, 224), pattern of prophetic experience (1986: 96), type-scenes (1986: 104-109, 170), quest stories (1986: 111-127) and opposition (1986: 146-158, 164, 166, 227). This is not an exhaustive catalogue but an illustration of the emphasis that the organisational dynamics of God’s purpose of salvation receives in Tannehill’s thought.

Tannehill’s analysis relates perspicuously how the purpose or plan of God in salvation undergirds the plot through promise-fulfilment terminology and steers God’s mission, the story (1986: 2; 1990: 343). The plan of God is indeed a text-based concept linking events. Yet is this the dominant vehicle for organisation? Reconceptualising the salvation theme according to Lukan evidence may yield a composite result. Tannehill has not explored other options.

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2.4.3 C.H. Talbert

The Gospel, Talbert states, “is a biography written to provide certainty … by telling the story using numerous legitimation techniques” (2002: 4). The governing influence of legitimation, not just as a technique but also as an organising principle, is reflected in the evangelist’s aim, according to Talbert, to “say who Jesus was and is” (2002: 2). The influence of legitimising extends over the dominant theme of promise-fulfilment (2002: 269).

In the Gospel’s first major section (1:5-4:15, Jesus’ pre-ministry story) the effect of legitimation is to develop anticipation of the “future career of Jesus” (Talbert, 2002: 17). For example, “The baptism, the genealogy, and the temptation are linked formally by the repetition of expression ‘Son of God’” (Talbert, 2002: 47). This not only anticipates Lukan exaltation Christology but reveals Jesus as the “first of a new humanity” (2002: 50) who may also gain victory in spiritual conflict. Legitimating Jesus in this way creates in Jesus a “prototype” that connects him to and is developed in the story of Israel and later of the church (2002: 19-20, 35). The apostles, disciples and early church are indirectly legitimated therefore as Jesus’ true followers. Illustrating this connective Luke 9:7-50 contains questions with exposition about Jesus’ identity and developing ministry but also reveals that he is the “one who calls his disciples to participation in the same developmental process” (2002: 107, 109). Talbert states, “The Spirit-anointed Jesus in Galilee functions as a prototype of the behaviour that characterises the Spirit-empowered disciples in Acts” (2002: 55). Jesus’ career is “prototypical for his followers” (2002: 220). In Acts, comments Talbert, the relation to Jesus is underscored as the speeches focus on the Gospel’s account of Jesus’ death and resurrection, as Jesus is the model for Christians’ emulation demonstrated particularly in the trials of Paul (2002: 220, 239-245). It is apparent, states Talbert, the correspondences “constitute the primary architectonic pattern in Luke-Acts” (2002: 218). Thus the Lukan use of foreshadowing creates a prototype of Jesus and His career as seen through the Gospel (2002: 19-20, 53, 81, 82, 90, 101, 122, 194, 223). Reading Talbert, prototype and foreshadowing appear to be primary devices by which legitimation occurs and thus satisfies the purpose of Luke. Legitimation functions toward organising content. Without the legitimation of Jesus, according to Talbert’s presentation, detection of the organisation of the content and structure of the material in and between the two volumes would be elusive.

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In Talbert’s analysis of the Acts of the Apostles the legitimating concept is dependent on the pattern of fulfilment of the prophetically-revealed divine plan (1997: 229-230). The pattern of prophecy-fulfilment consistently controls the narrative development (Talbert, 1997: 168). The plan of God stands behind the Lukan double work as a common backdrop (Talbert, 1997: 30). Hence, God controls the Gospel’s spread (Talbert, 1997: 181, 230-231). The significance of how Acts would be perceived by auditors hearing the Gospel followed by Acts provides the rationale for Talbert’s approach (1997: 3, 13-17).

Comparative analysis, claims Talbert, yields support for the similarity of the Lukan writings- Acts as perceived by auditor- with philosophical school and succession stories in ancient literature (1997: 4-10, 13). Succession for Talbert finds narrative expression in promise-fulfilment language. The promises, prophecies and typology of Scripture and of the legitimated Jesus are fulfilled in the apostolic twelve, Stephen, Paul and the church (Talbert, 1997: 26-27, 34-37, 40-44, 47, 81, 91, 103, 144). The Pentecost event consisting of the reception of the Holy Spirit, as Peter explains, is a fulfilment of Joel’s and Jesus’ promises and OT typology (1997: 26-27, 40-43, 50). Evangelisation ‘to the ends of the earth’ is a fulfilment of OT and Jesus’ prophecies (1997: 26-27, 87, 103). Both Jesus’ Nazareth sermon, Luke 4, and Peter’s Pentecost sermon, Acts 2, function as frontispieces for each book respectively (1997: 47), demonstrating a promise-fulfilment based coherence. The martyrdom of Stephen finds meaning in the model (typology) of Jesus’ death (1997: 81). Jesus as interpreter and his interpretation are paralleled typologically in Acts (1997: 90-91). The three Petrine narratives in Acts 9:32-11:18 “echo” (1997: 103) the typology of events in Jesus’ ministry and in the Elijah-Elisha cycles (1997: 103). Jesus’ journey to Jerusalem and acceptance of sufferings interpret Paul’s journey to Rome and his sufferings (1997: 181). In Acts 21-28 Paul is fulfilling the prophecy of Jesus that he would have to suffer for Jesus’ sake (Talbert, 1997: 193). Legitimation, as Talbert’s analysis reveals, though less pronounced in Acts, ultimately advances the truth of Christianity (1997: 16) and the mission to the Gentiles (1997: 104, 180).

For Talbert it seems the function of the concept of legitimation (regarding the identity of Jesus, his true followers and the early church) and of the pattern of promise-fulfilment work as organising principles. This understanding appears to be corroborated by the

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extensive structural linking in and between the two volumes supporting these purposive concepts (Talbert, 1974: 172-173). In Talbert’s words, “We find in Luke-Acts an architectural pattern of correspondences between the career of Jesus and the life of the apostolic church. … the Evangelist definitely wanted to portray the deeds and teachings of Jesus as the pattern for the acts and instructions of the apostolic church” (1997: 98). Invaluable as Talbert’s contribution is, he does not delve into the specifics of the link between God’s plan and promise-fulfilment and thereby legitimation. Events merely fulfil typology, prophecy or foreshadowed reality. This is not new to Lukan scholarship for since the advent of literary criticism, particularly the work of P.S. Minear (1976), the dominance of the promise-fulfilment theme is a well-established tenet (Moessner, 1986: 223). Talbert correctly infers that promise-fulfilment controls the plot/story; however, this does not add to our understanding of thematic organisation. Similar criticism falls to him as to Tannehill. The extensive comparative critical information is useful but does not substitute for the articulation of an organising principle.

2.4.4 D.P. Moessner

‘Moses/Exodus’ typology is for Moessner an organising principle originating in the Central Section, Luke 9:51-19:44 (1989: 60, 285). He writes, “Luke sets forth a fourfold exodus typology of the prophetic calling of Jesus which conforms closely to that of Moses in Deuteronomy… This typology in fact becomes the organizing principle for the form and content of the whole of the Central Section” (1989: 60). This fourfold typology, argues Moessner, extends to all of Luke-Acts (1989: 306). The four parts are discussed as follows. 1. As Moses was called to be mediator of God’s words Jesus is called to mediate God’s voice (Moessner, 1989: 60-61). 2. Just as the stubborn people do not listen to Moses but indulge in idolatry so also the people on the plain are reluctant to listen to God’s voice in Jesus on the mount in Luke 9 (1989: 61-66). 3. It is disclosed to Moses at Sinai and during the Exodus that his calling is one of suffering unto death; it is revealed on the mount that Jesus will journey to death in suffering, as in Moses’ case, because of the people’s “intransigent” sin (1989: 66-68). 4. As through Moses and his death God delivers only the renewed children of the mountain, so also do those receive the covenant blessings of Abraham who submit to Jesus, the one who suffers and dies (1989: 60, 68-69). Authorial intent validates the fourfold typology, Moessner contends, by the positive evaluation of four criteria adopted from O.H. Steck (Moessner, 1989: 83-207).

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The Mount of Transfiguration, with events preceding and following, parallels the Sinai event and is the context of this revelation. Luke 9:1-50 announces, “that the story of the Prophet like Moses of Deuteronomy is about to unfold in a New Exodus journey to the promised salvation” (1989: 69). Jesus, then, is the journeying Prophet like Moses travelling to Jerusalem, the central location for the culmination of his ministry. Jesus is, however, also a journeying guest (1989: 132-133). Moessner states that “the Deuteronomistic dynamics … tended to converge at meal settings with the Pharisees” (1989: 132). This feature serves as criterion, illuminating the “rejection of Jesus” motif and strengthening the “Prophet like Moses” typology. Resistance to Jesus, developing from Luke 7:18-35, is forcefully illustrated at 11:37-54, where Jesus as guest of a Pharisee is not received (1989: 92-114, 132). Jesus pronounces woes upon the religious leaders, “this generation”, acting in character with the persecutors of the prophets (1989: 145-146). Moreover, Luke 12:54-13:9 includes the crowds with the Pharisees in the number of those rejecting the journeying guest Prophet like Moses (1989:132). This swelling tension, with an increase in opposition and rejection as Jesus moves closer to Jerusalem, rather than a journey itinerary, gives the Central Section its shape (Moessner, 1989: 292). The shape of the central section begins and ends with journey episodes bookending the eschatological halakah, instruction and exhortation to obedience (1989: 127-128, 131). According to Moessner, the Stephen-Philip connection to the Seventy(-two) in Luke’s Gospel forms a literary bridge to Acts and is important to the plot (317-318, 315-322). The story of the Seventy(-two) continues the journey-guest story introducing the role of emissaries of the word of peace through whom the eschatological salvation is present, that is the dynamic presence of God in Jesus, that is to be received (1989: 135-136, 139). “The task of the Seventy(-two) is therefore not to evangelize in as wide an area as possible but to ensure rather that Jesus (and his entourage) find households along his way to receive him” (1989: 139). The story continues in Acts, according to Moessner, as 1:1-5, 8 vouchsafes (1989: 296). A six-phase journeying scheme attests that the journeying people of God emulate Jesus the Deuteronomistic/Exodus prophet proclaiming also the Kingdom of God (1989: 296). In this, Stephen’s speech is a “watershed” connecting with Luke 9:1-50; in taking up the language of resistance it brings together the entire story and foreshadows what follows; Jesus’ reception at the mountain and in Jerusalem is echoed in Stephen’s reception and heralds the rejection of Paul (Moessner, 1989: 304-305). Thus the fourfold pattern of

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Jesus the Prophet like Moses extends throughout Luke’s Gospel and Acts, providing organisation for the narrative.

It seems that Moessner is justified in classifying Deuteronomic/Exodus typology as an organising principle in Luke-Acts. It appears to account rigidly for plot development, bringing a distinct marriage of form and content to the Central Section by relating typologically the ministry of Jesus to a particular OT story. This dovetailing of form and content loses precision when the same typology colours the story of the nascent church as the continuation of the ministry of Jesus. The parallelisation weakens in the face of the developing salvation story. This said, the chief weakness of plot-based typology is its synchronic force, which encourages dominant (and thus limiting) parallelistic comparison. As a result the diachronic mode of relation falls to the side in Moessner’s treatment of the Lukan New Covenant and the covenants. Similar concern may be expressed concerning New Exodus and Restoration parallelism (Pao, 2000; Fuller, 2006).

2.4.5 D.S. McComiskey

McComiskey’s invaluable investigation into the Gospel of Luke’s narrative structure bears out I.H. Marshall’s proposal that “salvation” is its theological “thrust” (2004: 318-319). This is essentially theological purpose. Separate from this, according to McComiskey, an organising principle operates. He finds that the Gospel contains four narrative cycles; each cycle begins with reference to Jerusalem and ends with the themes of Jesus’ death and resurrection (2004: 324). He observes that Luke’s compositional arrangement of four cycles, sequentially matching narrative content, culminates in the Jerusalem ministry and provides an organising principle for the central section (2004: 322). It would seem this applies to the Gospel as a whole based on McComiskey’s comment that Luke’s compositional methodology “reflects a desire to portray his [Jesus’] entire ministry against the backdrop of the passion” (2004: 324). The Jerusalem ministry then, the theme of Jesus’ death and resurrection would seem to function for McComiskey as an organising principle.

This analysis of the Gospel is profound yet incomplete. If Jerusalem and Jesus’ death is the end in itself, that is, the focus to which the narrative progresses, as the structure of cycles evidences, then the contribution of the infancy narrative to this goal does not seem to fit tightly with the overall scheme. If there exists such a thorough system of

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cycles in Luke’s Gospel, should not the infancy narrative also share in the same level of design significance? This is perhaps beyond the scope of McComiskey’s study of Luke’s Gospel only.

The plan of God, promise-fulfilment, legitimation, Moses typology and the death of Jesus all appear to function organisationally in the direct and implied assessment of the scholars surveyed in this section.

2.5 SOCIO-CRITICAL APPROACHES

The scholars surveyed in this section represent liberation theology (Baker and Nardoni) and feminist studies (Seim).

2.5.1 C.J. Baker

Baker seeks to integrate successfully the covenant concept with Liberation Theology (1991: 3, 6, 308-310). Reading the covenant concept in the context of a fulfilled and fulfilling promissory covenant(s), argues Baker, enriches Liberation Theology (1991: 3, 313-314). The mode of Baker’s emphasis does not appear to subject the organising phenomenon of the covenant idea to his analysis but only as its relation to a theological system.

Baker clearly states that the Exodus paradigm is the primary model for Liberation Theology (1991: 4). By emphasising the concept of covenant, represented canonically as covenants linked by promise-fulfilment, Baker provides a sense of historical progression and a meta-historical context for the inner-biblical Exodus paradigm of God’s liberating grace for a community working for liberation. This is illustrated in Baker’s chapter on Luke and Acts. Baker shows in a number of points the direct connection between the new exodus and the new covenant (1991: 230-232, 235-238, 244).

Baker’s analysis is dominated by an agenda for harmonising biblical themes. As such it operates on the platform of systematisation. Apart from the sense of history and meta-history provided by the covenant concept, its structuring dynamic in literary terms does not seem to appear specifically within Baker’s theological purview.

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2.5.2 E. Nardoni

In the chapter devoted to justice in Luke’s Gospel and in Acts, Nardoni deftly indicates that the Lukan interpretation of Isaiah as quoted by Jesus in Nazareth (4:18-19) reveals a midrash of compassion and salvation. Nardoni refers to this as character or orientation (2004: 244). The Nazareth sermon presents the “liberating character of the kingdom” and the “liberating action of the gospel” (2004: 245). Nardoni does not probe into the rudimentary basis of justice reinterpreted in the New Testament.

2.5.3 T.K. Seim

Seim states that a recurring theory accounting for the doublets in Luke-Acts, following Morgenthaler (1949), suggests that the doublets serve as Gospel-confirming witnesses in the manner of “Israelite-Jewish regulations about witnesses … as the formal expression in the composition of the reliability of the tradition and the message” (Seim, 1994: 12) This observation Seim corrects. She has found that this double witness principle does not satisfactorily explain the man-woman parallels in Luke’s double work (1994: 23). The literary device of witnessing does figure positively in Luke-Acts though not in the case of male-female doublets (1994: 23, 24). Seim argues that instead of dual attestation, the male-female parallelisation “indicates that it is a gender-determined completeness or complementarity that is to be confirmed” (1994: 24). Structure therefore is determined by gender specification patterns (Seim, 1994: 19), which function organisationally (1994: 250).

To this end, it is fundamental for Seim that the Lukan social system is not individually based but “collectively focused” (1994: 250). Males and females find their identity within the community. It is the community, Seim observes, that has “inherent gender-dividing organisational patterns” (1994: 250). Yet, the community of Jesus’ followers is united not only by complimentary paralleling, but also by contrasting corrections (Seim, 1994: 250-260). The gender-determined parallelism fosters the illumination of such themes and motifs (Seim, 1994: 251-259) as service (1994: 57-96), proclamation (164-184), worship locality (118-147) and ascetics (185-248) contributing to the clarity of Lukan theology.

Seim’s analysis is profound. She identifies the conceptual basis of a structural phenomenon, gender specific participation in the community and similar events, and sees the derivative thematic and theological expressions. Gender-determined patterns or

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gender-division suggests the function of an organising principle, according to Seim’s evaluation of her findings, however, this is limited in purview. It is limited to community-based expressions without transverse connection to salvation-historical concerns. This highlights the perception that in Luke and Acts the organising principle is a non-singular idea. Organising concepts appear to function collaboratively.

2.6 SUMMARY

Examining Lukan literature for a principle of organisation that may not be expressly intended as a constitutive component runs the danger of introducing foreign ideas. This is not to say that such a principle does not exist. The identification of said principle must consider a thought system in its entirety and maintain its integrity.

Scholarship understands the distinction between semantic categories. Idea, concept, motif, leitmotif, theme and purpose are semantically distinct. Comparatively they are more or less distinguished, but a grasp of their functional interrelation remains somewhat elusive.

An organising principle is a text-based narrative dynamic. Hence it is no surprise that scholarship steered primarily by redaction critical methodology struggles to account for narratological features. This is the observed case with the historico-theological approaches. Lukan redaction is an important indicator of purpose and system, and this is a strength of the historico-theological approach. It is noted, however, that its representative exponents do not delve into the richness of narrative phenomena. Any organisational principles are necessarily restricted to the redactional plane of theological dialogue. The representative consensus identifies the plan of God concept as accountable for the sequence of events in the Gospel and Acts. It can be said that the plan of God is afforded organisational ability. Upon this basic platform is placed a varied combination of notions. Conzelmann’s identification of the plan of God is taken up by Fitzmyer and yoked with the theme of reconstitution. Marshall and Maddox, recognising the plan of God in terms of promise and fulfilment, see it portrayed in the efficacious events of Jesus’ life and his followers, providing the basis for a thematic framework.

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As can be expected, a socio-rhetorical or literary approach reveals rhetorical devices among which legitimation figures dominantly in the formulation of themes. Green argues for thematic arrangement centred, however, in Jesus’ death fundamentally supported by the plan of God. The plan of God concept for Witherington comes to the fore, to which is combined the “interlocking” activity of the Holy Spirit as well as the theme of Kingdom advancement.

Squires’ apologetic approach unfurls the text-based concept of the plan of God using comparative analysis. He recognises the concept’s narrative structuring function in that it links divinely guided events in the story. What this structure looks like and its implications are not explored. Squires is sensitive to the relation of concept and plot development hence his observations indicate an organisational principle in the plan of God concept.

Those approaching Luke’s Gospel and Acts from a literary-narrative point of view are united by a common starting point: the integrity of the text rests on the unity of the plot. Both Tannehill and Talbert see the significance of God’s plan and promise-fulfilment revealed in correspondences between the Gospel and Acts. These two act, in the eyes of these two scholars, as an organisational principle. Talbert also gives the rhetorical device of legitimation organisational currency. Rather than taking the purpose/plan of God concept as backdrop, Minear and Moessner seek background for the Gospel and Acts in typology. Minear re-assesses the rejected prophet type, the Moses type, in the Gospel and Acts and observes its integrative function. Moessner couches Minear’s observations in Moses/Exodus typology, arguing that it operates as an organising principle. Type functions on the abstract level, arranging themes on the basis of parallelism. Typology is always limited by parallelistic range. Thus, the narrative’s plot or structure may not be addressed as a whole. Type may organise to some extent but it is limited in applicability. McComiskey argues that salvation is the theological thrust of the Gospel, yet the theme of Jesus’ death and resurrection provides structure to the narrative. It is suspected that McComiskey has exchanged theme for concept. Jesus’ death and resurrection is not an abstracted notion but occurs within varying situational contexts and as such qualifies as a concept, one which exhibits organisational ability within the limits of Luke’s Gospel.